1.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
2.
Trumpington Street
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Trumpington Street is a major historic street in central Cambridge, England. At the north end it continues as Kings Parade where Kings College is located, to the south it continues as Trumpington Road, an arterial route out of Cambridge, at the junction with Lensfield Road. The University of Cambridge colleges St Catharines College, Corpus Christi College, Pembroke College, Pembroke College also fronts onto the adjoining Pembroke Street. Further south is Fitzwilliam Museum, the museum of the University. At the southern end is the site of the Cambridge University Engineering Department. The Church of St Mary the Less, Cambridge is next to Peterhouse on the corner of Trumpington Street, the first church here was called St Peter-without-Trumpington Gate. The Emmanuel United Reformed Church, built to a design of James Cubitt in 1875, is located on Trumpington Street. The original church was in Downing Place, at the northern end on the corner of Corpus Christi College facing Kings Parade is the Corpus Clock, a new tourist attraction installed in 2008. In 1361, at Spittle End, the hospital of St Anthony. Addenbrookes Hospital was founded in 1766 on Trumpington Street, but it has relocated to larger premises further out of the city. The Judge Business School is now on the site of the hospital. Until the 19th century, Trumpington Street was at the edge of development to the south of Cambridge, the Trumpington Street branch of Hobsons Conduit still functions as sluices along each side of the street. At this point, it is known as the Pem and Pot, the Cambridge City Councils Drainage Engineer controls flow through the sluices and generally lets water flow in the open conduits in the street between the months of April and September. Feeds run into Peterhouse and Pembroke College, a run also used to feed into the basement of the old Addenbrookes Hospital, now the Judge Business School
3.
Hugh de Balsham
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Hugh de Balsham was a medieval English bishop. He was a Benedictine monk at Ely, and appears first as sub-prior of the chapter there. On the death of William of Kilkenny in 1256 the monks elected him Bishop of Ely, to the annoyance of King Henry III of England and Boniface of Savoy, Boniface declared the election invalid, and attempted to install Adam Marsh into the see. The election was confirmed by Pope Alexander IV in 1257, Balsham was consecrated on 14 October 1257 by the pope. Balsham also promised that he would visit Rome every three years, but he was released from this promise in 1278, Balsham legislated against the sale of the sacraments. He was present at the Parliament held at London in June 1264 that set up the government of Simon de Montfort, the bishop issued statues for his diocese, and worked to improve the administration of the diocese. He promoted the cult of Ethelreda, the saint of Ely. Gifts to the monks of the chapter as well as to churches in his diocese contributed to his reputation as a good bishop. Balsham played an important role in the history of Cambridge University. He left 200 pounds to the college in his will, Balsham died on 16 June 1286 at the manor of Dodington on the Isle of Ely. He was buried in Ely Cathedral on 24 June 1286, a brass in the church at Balsham, Cambridgeshire, supposedly depicts the bishop. An unidentified tomb slab now in Ely Cathedral has sometimes identified as his. The Disputed Election of Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely
4.
Bishop of Ely
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The Bishop of Ely is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Ely in the Province of Canterbury. The current bishop is Stephen Conway, who signs +Stephen Elien, the diocesan bishops now reside in Bishops House, Ely, the former cathedral deanery. Conway became Bishop of Ely in 2010, translated from the Diocese of Salisbury where he was Bishop suffragan of Ramsbury, the roots of the Diocese of Ely are ancient and the area of Ely was part of the patrimony of Saint Etheldreda. Prior to the elevation of Ely Cathedral as the seat of the diocese, it existed as first as a convent of religious sisters and it was led by first by an abbess and later by an abbot. The convent was founded in the city in 673, after St Etheldredas death in 679 she was buried outside the church. Her remains were later translated inside, the foundress being commemorated as a great Anglican saint, the monastery, and much of the city of Ely, were destroyed in the Danish invasions that began in 869 or 870. A new Benedictine monastery was built and endowed on the site by Saint Athelwold, Bishop of Winchester, in 970, in a wave of monastic refoundations which also included Peterborough, in the Domesday Book in 1086, the Bishop of Ely is referenced as a landholder of Foxehola. This became a cathedral in 1109, after a new Diocese of Ely was created out of land taken from the Diocese of Lincoln, from that time the line of bishops begins. This district was assigned in 649 to saint Æthelthryth, daughter of Anna, king of the East Angles, after her second marriage to Ecgfrith of Northumbria, she became a nun, and in 673 returned to Ely and founded a monastery on the site of the present cathedral. As endowment she gave it her entire principality of the isle, Æthelthryth died in 679 and her shrine became a place of pilgrimage. Probably under their rule there was a community of monks as well as a convent of nuns, for more than a century the monastery flourished, and about the year 1105 Abbot Richard suggested the creation of the See of Ely, to relieve the enormous Diocese of Lincoln. The monastery church became one of the conventual cathedrals. Of this building the transepts and two bays of the nave already existed, and in 1170 the nave as it stands to-day was finished, as the bishops succeeded to the principality of St Etheldreda they enjoyed palatine power and great resources. The Bishops of Ely frequently held high office in the State, the Bishops of Ely spent much of their wealth on their cathedral, with the result that Ely can show examples of Gothic architecture of many periods. They also had a London residence called Ely Place, hugh de Balsham founded Peterhouse, the first college at the University of Cambridge, while John Alcock was the founder of Jesus College. Goodrich was a reformer and during his episcopate the monastery was dissolved, the last bishop in communion with the see of Rome was Thomas Thirlby. Since the Reformation, notable bishops have included Lancelot Andrewes, Matthew Wren, Peter Gunning, greenway, D. E. Porter, S. Roy, I. eds. Horn, J. M. Bishops of Ely, volume 7, Ely, Norwich, Westminster and Worcester Dioceses
5.
Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
6.
Merton College, Oxford
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Merton College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The important feature of Walters foundation was that this college was to be self-governing, the hall and the chapel and the rest of the front quad were complete before the end of the 13th century. Notable alumni and academics past and present include four Nobel Laureates and writer J. R. R. Tolkien who was Merton Professor of English Language, Merton is one of the wealthiest colleges in Oxford and had a financial endowment of £212.8 million as of July 2014. Merton has a reputation for academic success, having regularly ranked first in the Norrington Table in recent years. Merton College was founded in 1264 by Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor and it has a claim to be the oldest college in Oxford, although this claim is disputed between Merton College, Balliol College and University College. The substance of Mertons claim is that it was the first college to be provided with statutes, Mertons statutes date back to 1264, whereas neither Balliol nor University College had statutes until the 1280s. Merton was also the first college to be conceived as a community working to achieve academic ends, Merton has an unbroken line of wardens dating back to 1264. Of these, many had great influences over the development of the college, Henry Savile was one notable leader whose vision led the college to flourish in the early 17th century. St Alban Hall was an independent academic hall owned by the convent of Littlemore until it was purchased by Merton College in 1548 following the dissolution of the convent and it continued as a separate institution until it was finally annexed by the college in 1881. During the English Civil War, Merton was the only Oxford college to side with Parliament, the reason for this was Mertons annoyance with the interference of their Visitor William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This included the Kings French wife, Queen Henrietta Maria, who was housed in or near what is now the Queens Room, the room above the arch between Front and Fellows Quads. Differences were quickly settled after the war, however, and a portrait of Charles I hangs near the Queens Room as a reminder of the role it played in his court. The college was consolidated on this site by 1274, when Walter made his final revisions to the college statutes, the initial acquisition included the parish church of St John and three houses to the east of the church which now form the north range of Front Quad. Walter also obtained permission from the king to extend from these properties south to the old city wall to form a square site. The college continued to other properties as they became available on both sides of Merton Street. At one time, the college owned all the land from the site that is now Christ Church to the eastern corner of the city. The land to the east eventually became the current Fellows garden, by the late 1280s the old church of St John the Baptist had fallen into a ruinous condition, and the college accounts show that work on a new church began in about 1290. The present choir, with its enormous east window, was complete by 1294, the window is an important example of how the strict geometrical conventions of the Early English Period of architecture were beginning to be relaxed at the end of the 13th century
7.
St Hilda's College, Oxford
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St Hildas College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The college is named after the Anglo-Saxon Saint, Hilda of Whitby and was founded in 1893 as a hall for women, the college now has almost equal numbers of men and women at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. The current Principal is Sir Gordon Duff, who took up the post in 2014, as of 31 July 2015, the college had an endowment of £45.5 million and total assets of £62.4 million. Founded in 1893, St Hildas College was originally an Oxford Hall for women and it was founded by Dorothea Beale as a womens college, a status it retained until 2008. After a vote on 7 June 2006 by the Governing Body, men and women can be admitted as fellows and this vote was pushed through with a narrow margin and followed previous unsuccessful votes which were protested by students because of the high-handed manner in which they were held. The change was met with dismay from former alumnae and current students. In October 2007 a supplemental charter was granted and in 2008 male students were admitted to St Hildas for the first time, the College now has almost equal numbers of men and women at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. In August 2015, the interim Norrington Table showed that 98.2 per cent of St Hildas finalist undergraduates obtained at least a 2. i in their degree, St Hildas was the first womens college in Oxford and Cambridge to create a womens VIII in 1911. It was St Hildas student H. G. Wanklyn who formed OUWBC and coxed in the inaugural Womens Boat Race of 1927, in 1969, the St Hildas Eight made Oxford history when they became the first ever female crew to row in the Summer Eights. St Hildas students were the subject of the Channel 4 documentary series College Girls, broadcast in 2002. The college is located at the end of the High Street, Oxford, over Magdalen Bridge, in Cowley Place. In addition, the Jacqueline Du Pré Music Building is a venue named after the famous cellist who was an honorary fellow of the college. The college also owns a number of properties on Iffley Road and it is the most conveniently situated Oxford college for the Iffley Road Sports Complex, a focus for Oxford University Sport. The college grounds stretch along the banks of the River Cherwell, with many college rooms overlooking the river, the college has its own fleet of punts, which students of the college may hire for free in summer months. Unfortunately, this location has at times led to problems with flooding in Milham Ford building, the Jacqueline Du Pré Music Building is a part of St Hildas College. Named after British cellist Jacqueline Du Pré, a fellow of the College. Built in 1995 by van Heyningen and Haward Architects, it houses the Steinway-equipped Edward Boyle Auditorium, in 2000 the architects designed a new, enlarged foyer space, a lean-to glass structure along the front elevation to the existing music building. In addition to frequent recitals presented by the St Hildas Music Society, musicians who have performed in the JdP in recent years include Steven Isserlis, the Jerusalem Quartet, the Chilingirian Quartet and the Belcea Quartet
8.
Bridget Kendall
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Bridget Kendall MBE is an English journalist who was the BBCs Diplomatic correspondent working for the corporations radio and television networks. In July 2016, she became the first female Master of Peterhouse, the title Master is used rather than Mistress or any other term which denotes female gender. Kendall was born in 1956 in Abingdon, Oxfordshire, a daughter of statistician David George Kendall and she has two brothers and three sisters. Her postgraduate Soviet studies took her from St Antonys College, Oxford, to Harvard University, Kendall joined the BBC in 1983 as a radio production trainee for BBC World Service. She was the BBCs Moscow correspondent from 1989 to 1995, and she sent reports of the coup in August 1991 and covered Boris Yeltsins rise to power. Kendall was the BBCs Washington correspondent from 1994, becoming the Corporations diplomatic correspondent in November 1998, Kendall speaks fluent Russian and has interviewed world leaders including Vladimir Putin live from the Kremlin as part of an internet webcast in March 2001. Later in 2001 she interviewed King Abdullah of Jordan for the BBC and she was the host of the talk show The Forum on BBC World Service radio. On 1 February 2016, Kendall was elected as the first female Master of Peterhouse and she took up her new post at the college in July, and will continue to broadcast for the BBC as an external contributor. Kendall married freelance television journalist Nick Worrall in the early 1990s and she is the partner of BBC editor Amanda Farnsworth. Kendall received the James Cameron Award for journalism in 1992 for reports on events in the former Soviet Union, later that year, she won a Bronze Sony Radio Award for Reporter of the Year and was made an MBE in the 1994 New Years Honours list
9.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
10.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
11.
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
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This is a list of the colleges within the University of Cambridge. They also provide funding, accommodation, or both, for some of the research posts in the University. They are self-governed charities in their own right, with their own endowments, until the mid-19th century, both Cambridge and Oxford comprised a group of colleges with a small central university administration, rather than universities in the common sense. The University of Cambridge has 31 colleges, founded between the 13th and 20th centuries, the oldest college is Peterhouse, founded in 1284, and the newest is Robinson, founded in 1977. Homerton, which was first founded in the century as a dissenting academy. All 16 of the old colleges and 7 of the 15 new ones admit both male and female students as undergraduates and postgraduates, without any age restrictions. No colleges are all-male, although most originally were, darwin, founded in 1964, was the first mixed college, while in 1972 Churchill, Clare and Kings colleges were the first previously all-male colleges to admit women. The last all-male college to become mixed was Magdalene, in 1988, in 1973 Hughes Hall became the first all-female college to admit men, and Girton admitted men in 1976. Lucy Cavendish also places restrictions on the admission of staff members, the same is true of Newnham, but not Murray Edwards. Key, U–undergraduates, P–postgraduates, Abb-Official abbreviation used in the Reporter, there are also several theological colleges in Cambridge that are affiliated with the university through the Cambridge Theological Federation. Most colleges are led by a Master, even when the Master is female, Girton College has always had a Mistress, even though male candidates have been able to run for the office since 1976. These include, Ayerst Hostel, founded in the 1880s, renamed as St Edmunds House in 1896, buckingham College, founded in 1428 as a Benedictine hall, refounded as Magdalene in 1542. Bull College, a college for US GIs returning from World War II, existing in Michaelmas 1945. Cavendish College, founded in 1873, an attempt to allow students to sit the Tripos examinations. Clare Hall was the name of Clare College between 1338 and 1856, Clare College founded a new college named Clare Hall in 1966. Gonville Hall, founded in 1348, and re-founded in 1557 as Gonville, gods House, founded in 1437, and re-founded in 1505 as Christs College. Kings Hall, founded in 1317, and combined with Michaelhouse to form Trinity College in 1546, Michaelhouse, founded in 1324, and combined with Kings Hall to form Trinity College in 1546. List of Oxbridge sister colleges List of fictional Cambridge colleges Colleges of the University of Oxford Colleges of Durham University Colleges of the University of York
12.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
13.
Tompkins Table
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The Tompkins Table is an annual ranking that lists the Colleges of the University of Cambridge in order of their undergraduate students performances in that years examinations. It was created in 1981 by Peter Tompkins, then an undergraduate mathematics student at Trinity College. In 2016, it was published by Varsity, the student newspaper of the University of Cambridge and it is not an official University of Cambridge table. Initially, it only included final year exams but since 1997 has covered all exams for which grades are allocated. The scores in each subject are then weighted to a common average, the result is expressed as a percentage of the total number of points available. The differences between the highest places on the table are very slight. In the last six years Trinity College lays claim to consistently having the best results, Trinity topped the table in 2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2011 and 2009, the rankings are not officially endorsed by the University. Since Darwin College and Clare Hall admit only students, they do not feature in this undergraduate ranking. Some of the colleges, including St. Most of the fall within a 10% range of one another therefore the table should be taken lightly with regards to determining the academic standing of the colleges. Baxter tables rank colleges undergraduate students by their year and subject separately and are delivered in July or August. However, the rankings of Colleges in the Baxter Tables are sometimes referred to by Colleges in publicly available literature, however, with such small sample sizes, the amount of meaningful information which can be extracted from these tables is questionable. The corresponding ranking for Oxford colleges is the Norrington Table, Norrington Table Tompkins Table 2015 Tompkins Table 2014 Tompkins Table 2013 Tompkins Tables 2000–2007 Tompkins Table 1999 Tompkins Tables 1997,1998
14.
Nobel prize winners
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They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank, each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money, which is decided by the Nobel Foundation, yearly. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and an award that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, the recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, in 2008, the laureates were awarded a prize amount of 10,000,000 SEK. The awards are presented in Stockholm in a ceremony on December 10. In years in which the Nobel Prize is not awarded due to events or a lack of nominations. The Nobel Prize was not awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to the outbreak of World War II, between 1901 and 2015, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 573 times to 900 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 870 individuals and 23 organizations, four Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept the Nobel Prize. Six laureates have received more than one prize, of the six, UNHCR has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice. Also the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Bardeen twice, two laureates have been awarded twice but not in the same field, Marie Curie and Linus Pauling. Among the 870 Nobel laureates,48 have been women, the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie and she was also the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, the second award being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, given in 1911. A In 1938 and 1939, the government of Germany did not allow three German Nobel nominees to accept their Nobel Prizes. The three were Richard Kuhn, Nobel laureate in Chemistry in 1938, Adolf Butenandt, Nobel laureate in Chemistry in 1939 and they were later awarded the Nobel Prize diploma and medal, but not the money. B In 1948, the Nobel Prize in Peace was not awarded, the Nobel Foundations website suggests that it would have been awarded to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, however, due to his assassination earlier that year, it was left unassigned in his honor. C In 1958, Russian-born Boris Pasternak, under pressure from the government of the Soviet Union, was forced to decline the Nobel Prize in Literature. D In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre refused to accept the Nobel Prize in Literature, E In 1973, Lê Ðức Thọ declined the Nobel Peace Prize. His reason was that he felt he did not deserve it because although he helped negotiate the Paris Peace Accords, F In 2010, Liu Xiaobo was unable to receive the Nobel Peace Prize as he was sentenced to 11 years of imprisonment by the Chinese authorities
15.
John Kendrew
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He was born in Oxford, son of Wilford George Kendrew, reader in climatology in the University of Oxford, and Evelyn May Graham Sandburg, art historian. After prep school at the Dragon School in Oxford, he was educated at Clifton College in Bristol and he attended Trinity College, Cambridge in 1936, as a Major Scholar, graduating in chemistry in 1939. He spent the months of World War II doing research on reaction kinetics. In 1940 he became engaged in research at the Royal Air Force headquarters. During the war years, he became interested in biochemical problems. In 1945 he approached Max Perutz in the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, joseph Barcroft, a respiratory physiologist, suggested he might make a comparative protein crystallographic study of adult and fetal sheep hemoglobin, and he started that work. In 1954 he became a Reader at the Davy-Faraday Laboratory of the Royal Institution in London, Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for chemistry with Max Perutz for determining the first atomic structures of proteins using X-ray crystallography. Their work was done at what is now the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, Kendrew determined the structure of the protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle cells. In 1947 the MRC agreed to make a unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems. His initial source of raw material was horse heart, but the crystals thus obtained were too small for X-ray analysis. Kendrew realized that the tissue of diving mammals could offer a better prospect. Whale myoglobin did give large crystals with clean X-ray diffraction patterns, an electron density map at 6 angstrom resolution was obtained by 1957, and by 1959 an atomic model could be built at 2 angstrom resolution. In 1963 Kendrew became one of the founders of the European Molecular Biology Organization, as well and he became Fellow of the American Society of Biological Chemists in 1967 and honorary member of the International Academy of Science. In 1974 he succeeded in persuading governments to establish the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg and became its first director. From 1974 to 1979 he was a Trustee of the British Museum, and from 1974 to 1988 he was successively Secretary General, Vice-President, and President of the International Council of Scientific Unions. After his retirement from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Kendrew became President of St Johns College at Oxford University, kendrews entry in Whos Who lists ten other important national and international committees on which he served as either member or chairman. The Kendrew Quadrangle at St Johns College in Oxford, officially opened on 16 October 2010, is named after him and his scientific biography is currently being written by Paul Wasserman. *John Finch, A Nobel Fellow On Every Floor, Medical Research Council 2008,381 pp, ISBN 978-1-84046-940-0, Nobel website biography The New York Times obituary of Kendrew
16.
Aaron Klug
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Klug was born in Želva to Jewish parents Lazar, a cattleman, and Bella Klug with whom he moved to South Africa at the age of two. He was educated at Durban High School, following his PhD, Klug moved to Birkbeck College in the University of London in late 1953, and started working with Rosalind Franklin in John Bernals lab. This experience aroused a lifelong interest in the study of viruses, in 1962 he moved to the newly built Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. In 1962 Klug was offered a teaching Fellowship at Peterhouse, Cambridge and he went on teaching after his Nobel Prize because he found the courses interesting and was later made an Honorary Fellow at the College. He is a member of the Advisory Council for the Campaign for Science and he is also a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute. Klug was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1981, between 1986 and 1996 he was director of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, and was knighted by Elizabeth II in 1988. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1969 and he was appointed Order of Merit in 1995 – as is customary for Presidents of the Royal Society. His certificate of election to the Royal Society reads, In 2005 he was awarded South Africas Order of Mapungubwe for exceptional achievements in medical science, Klug married Liebe Bobrow in 1948. Though Klug had faced discrimination in South Africa, he remained religious and according to Sydney Brenner, he has become more religious in his older age
17.
Archer Martin
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Archer John Porter Martin, FRS was an English chemist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography with Richard Synge. Martin was educated at Bedford School, and the University of Cambridge, working first in the Physical Chemistry Laboratory, he moved to the Dunn Nutritional Laboratory, and in 1938 moved to Wool Industries Research Institution in Leeds. He was head of the division of Boots Pure Drug Company from 1946 to 1948. There, he was appointed head of the chemistry division of the National Institute for Medical Research in 1952. He specialised in biochemistry, in aspects of vitamins E and B2. He developed partition chromatography whilst working on the separation of amino acids, amongst many honours, he received his Nobel Prize in 1952. He published far fewer papers than the typical Nobel winners—only 70 in all—but his ninth paper won the Nobel, the University of Houston dropped him from its chemistry faculty in 1979 because he was not publishing enough. In 1943 he married Judith Bagenal, and together they had two sons and three daughters, in the last years of his life he suffered from Alzheimers disease. Martin was mentioned in the television series The Simpsons in the episode titled Flaming Moes. Character Martin Prince made reference to Martin while doing a presentation on the gas chromatograph
18.
Max Perutz
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He went on to win the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971 and the Copley Medal in 1979. At Cambridge he founded and chaired The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Perutzs contributions to molecular biology in Cambridge are documented in The History of the University of Cambridge, Volume 4 published by the Cambridge University Press in 1992. Perutz was born in Vienna, the son of Adele Dely and Hugo Perutz and his parents were Jewish by ancestry, but had baptised Perutz in the Catholic religion. Although Perutz rejected religion and was an atheist in his later years and his parents hoped that he would become a lawyer, but he became interested in chemistry while at school. Overcoming his parents objections he enrolled as an undergraduate at the University of Vienna. However he had visited J. D. Bernal, who was looking for a student to assist him with studies into X-ray crystallography. Perutz was dismayed as he knew nothing about the subject, marks countered by saying that he would soon learn. Bernal accepted him as a student in his crystallography research group at the Cavendish Laboratory. His father had deposited £500 with his London agent to support him, Bernal encouraged him to use the X-ray diffraction method to study the structure of proteins. As protein crystals were difficult to obtain he used horse haemoglobin crystals, Haemoglobin was a subject which was to occupy him for most of his professional career. He completed his Ph. D. under William Lawrence Bragg, rejected by Kings and St Johns colleges he applied to and became a member of Peterhouse, on the basis that it served the best food. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of Peterhouse in 1962 and he took a keen interest in the Junior Members, and was a regular and popular speaker at the Kelvin Club, the Colleges scientific society. When Hitler took over Austria in 1938 Perutzs parents managed to escape to Switzerland, as a result, Perutz lost their financial support. His resulting article for the Proceedings of the Royal Society made him known as an expert on glaciers, the application was accepted in January 1939 and with the money Perutz was able to bring his parents from Switzerland in March 1939 to England. On the outbreak of World War II Perutz was rounded up along with persons of German or Austrian background. After being interned for several months he returned to Cambridge and his knowledge on the subject of ice then lead to him in 1942 being recruited for Project Habakkuk. This was a project to build an ice platform in mid-Atlantic. To that end he investigated the recently invented mixture of ice and he carried out early experiments on pykrete in a secret location underneath Smithfield Meat Market in the City of London
19.
Michael Levitt
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Michael Levitt, FRS is an American-British-Israeli biophysicist and a professor of structural biology at Stanford University, a position he has held since 1987. Levitt received the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, together with Martin Karplus and Arieh Warshel, michael Levitt was born in Pretoria, South Africa, to a Jewish family from Plungė, Lithuania, his father was Lithuanian and his mother is of Czech descent. He attended Sunnyside Primary School and then Pretoria Boys High School between 1960 and 1962, the family moved to England when he was 15. Levitt spent 1963 studying applied mathematics at the University of Pretoria and he attended Kings College London, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics in 1967. In 1967, he visited Israel for the first time, together with his Israeli wife, Rina, a multimedia artist, he left to study at Cambridge, where his three children were born. In 1979, he returned to Israel and conducted research at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot and he served in the Israeli Defense Forces for six weeks in 1985. In 1986, he began teaching at Stanford, and since then has split his time between Israel and California and they were using computer modelling to understand the behaviour of biological molecules. He went on to gain a fellowship at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. From 1980 to 1987, he was Professor of Chemical Physics at Weizmann Institute of Science, thereafter, he has served as Professor of Structural biology, at Stanford University, California. He has also worked on simplified representations of structure for analyzing folding and packing and developing scoring systems for large-scale sequence-structure comparisons. He has mentored many scientists, including Mark Gerstein and Ram Samudrala. Cyrus Chothia was one of his colleagues, Levitt has served on the Scientific Advisory Boards of the following companies, Oplon Ltd, Cocrystal Discovery, StemRad, Ltd, and Cengent Therapeutics, Inc. He received the DeLano Award for Computational Biosciences in 2014 and he was elected an ISCB Fellow by the International Society for Computational Biology in 2015. Levitt holds American, British and Israeli citizenship, Levitt spends time every year in Israel, where his wife and children live. List of Israeli Nobel laureates List of Jewish Nobel laureates
20.
Little St Mary's, Cambridge
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Little St Marys or St Mary the Less is an Anglican parish church in Cambridge, England, on Trumpington Street between Emmanuel United Reformed Church and Peterhouse. The church Is in the Diocese of Ely and follows the Anglo-Catholic or high-church tradition of the Church of England, in addition to its main Sunday worship, the church has a strong tradition of daily morning and evening prayer, regular weekday Communion and the keeping of church festivals. The church has a particular ministry helping men and women to explore possible vocations to the priesthood, little St Marys has active overseas mission links, provides support to local mental health projects, and participates in Hope Cambridges Churches Homeless Project. At present, the vicar is The Rev. Dr Robert Mackley, there has been a place of worship on the current site since around the twelfth century. The earliest known records of the state that the first church here. After that date it was given to the Hospital of St John the Evangelist, in the 1280s, the Bishop of Ely lodged some scholars in the Hospital but to his dismay found soon that the sick and the students could not live in harmony together. The students were moved in 1284 to the site of what is now Peterhouse, by the 1340s the church was in such a bad state that the fellows of Peterhouse decided to rebuild it. In 1352, the new building had the purpose of College Chapel. At this time, it was rededicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, in 1632 Peterhouse built a separate Chapel and St Mary the Less reverted to being a Parish Church. Richard Crashaw, the poet, was a priest there from 1638 to 1643. A few years after his departure, many of the Churchs ornaments, Abraham Baker and his three wives, Ann, Elizabeth Cropley and Margaret Tillet, and nine of his thirteen children are buried at the church. He was Churchwarden in 1677 when he purchased the parish register book and his eldest son Abraham, who was educated at Peterhouse, married Margaret Pycroft, daughter of Rev. Samuel Pycroft, and replaced him as rector of Ditchingham, Norfolk in 1718. The damage to the sedilia and the entrance to the Lady Chapel has never been repaired, in 1741 the church was refitted with wooden panelling, box pews, choir gallery, and the present pulpit. From 1856–7 Sir George Gilbert Scott restored the church and removed the 18th-century panelling, further restoration work was carried out in 1876 and 1891, but by 1880 the church was much as it is now. The south, or Lady Chapel, was added in 1931 and designed by Thomas Lyon, the Parish Centre at the west end of the church was built in 1892 and enlarged in 1990 and again in 2011
21.
Letters patent
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Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, in the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent granting exclusive rights in an invention. e, the opposite of letters patent are letters close, which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide, letters patent are so named from the Latin verb pateo, to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originators seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read. Thus letters patent do not equate to a letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree. Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and an exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his written orders. They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect an order by Parliament. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch, in their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect. According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of copies of English royal letters patent. In 1634, during the Thirty Years War, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became convinced that his general Albrecht von Wallenstein was plotting treason, on 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent removing him from his command. Finally an open patent, charging Wallenstein with high treason, was signed on 18 February, in the patent, Ferdinand II ordered to have Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. On the basis of patent, several of Wallensteins officers assassinated him and were rewarded by the Emperor. The form of patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office Order 1992. Part III of the schedule lays down nine pro forma texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics. In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the powers of the head of state
22.
Burgh, Suffolk
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Burgh is a village and civil parish in the Suffolk Coastal district of Suffolk, England, about 3.5 miles north-west of Woodbridge. St Botolphs church stands near the site of a Roman villa that stretches towards Clopton churchyard, the church building dates from the 14th century and is a Grade II* listed building. In the north wall is a painting by Anna Zinkeisen in memory of her husband Col. Guy Heseltine of c.1967 showing birds of the Bible. The population of Burgh is about 200, measured at 182 at the 2011 census, because of its small size, there is no parish council, and no parish rate is levied. Instead, there is a meeting to which all villagers are invited. This meeting occurs two or three times a year, during these meetings, residents are welcome to discuss the issues, problems, concerns and affairs of the village. Several artists and craftsmen live and work in the village, the neighbouring village of Grundisburgh and the towns of Woodbridge and Ipswich provide shops and all business and commercial services. Media related to Burgh, Suffolk at Wikimedia Commons
23.
St John's College, Cambridge
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, in constitutional terms, the college is a charitable corporation established by a charter dated 9 April 1511. The aims of the college, as specified by its Statutes, are the promotion of education, religion, learning, the colleges alumni include the winners of ten Nobel Prizes, seven prime ministers and twelve archbishops of various countries, at least two princes, and three Saints. HRH Prince William was affiliated with St Johns while undertaking a course in 2014. St Johns College is also known for its choir, its members success in a wide variety of inter-collegiate sporting competitions. In 2011 the college celebrated its quincentenary, an event marked by a visit of HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The college was founded on the site of the 13th-century Hospital of St John in Cambridge at the suggestion of Saint John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and chaplain to Lady Margaret Beaufort. However, Lady Margaret died without having mentioned the foundation of St Johns in her will, and it was largely the work of Fisher that ensured that the college was founded. He had to obtain the approval of King Henry VIII of England, the Pope through the intermediary Polydore Vergil, the college received its charter on 9 April 1511. In November 1512 the Court of Chancery allowed Lady Margarets executors to pay for the foundation of the college from her estates, when Lady Margarets executors took over they found most of the old Hospital buildings beyond repair, but repaired and incorporated the Chapel into the new college. A kitchen and hall were added, and a gate tower was constructed for the College Treasury. The doors were to be closed each day at dusk, sealing the monastic community from the outside world. Over the course of the five hundred years, the college expanded westwards towards the River Cam, and now has eleven courts. The first three courts are arranged in enfilade, St Johns College first admitted women in October 1981, when K. M. Wheeler was admitted to the fellowship, along with nine female graduate students. The first women undergraduates arrived a year later, St Johns distinctive Great Gate follows the standard contemporary pattern employed previously at Christs College and Queens College. The gatehouse is crenelated and adorned with the arms of the foundress Lady Margaret Beaufort, above these are displayed her ensigns, the Red Rose of Lancaster and Portcullis. The college arms are flanked by curious creatures known as yales, mythical beasts with elephants tails, antelopes bodies, goats heads, and swivelling horns. Above them is a tabernacle containing a figure of St John the Evangelist
24.
Edward III of England
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Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
25.
Fen Ditton
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Fen Ditton is a village on the northeast edge of Cambridge in Cambridgeshire, England. The parish covers an area of 5.99 square kilometres Fen Ditton lies on the east bank of the River Cam, on the road from Cambridge to Clayhithe, the nearest railway station is Cambridge, however, Waterbeach station is just north of the village. The site has been occupied since at least neolithic times, the name was later changed to its present name to distinguish it from Wood Ditton. The villages history is connected to its position on the River Cam. A large wharf at the end of the High Street allowed goods to be delivered for the annual Stourbridge Fair between the 12th and 14th centuries, but trade declined in later centuries. The wharf was still in use in 1845, but the opening of the London-Cambridge railway line removed its commercial purpose, more recently the river has been used primarily for leisure purposes. A papermill was opened in the parish in around 1550, only the second recorded in England, standing on Coldhams Brook at the junction of modern-day Ditton Walk and Newmarket Road it had fallen out of use by the early 19th century, it is now occupied by offices. The first road in the village passed between the river and the church, linking Fen Ditton to Horningsea from at least the start of the 15th century, by the 17th century it had been moved to the east of the church. Neither route to Horningsea is still in evidence, but its route south towards Cambridge is now marked by Ditton Walk and the Wadloes footpath. In the 18th century, a new road was added on the ground to link the Newmarket Road to Fen Ditton and Horningsea. The railway line from Cambridge to Fordham which opened in 1884, the area known as Fen Ditton Fields was part of the parish until it was transferred to Cambridge in 1938. With the expansion of Cambridge, housing was built on the fields in the first half of the 20th century, the area is now bounded by the former railway line, Coldhams Common, and Cambridge Airport. Pye Telecommunications, pioneers of the use of radios in taxis, the church of St Mary The Virgin was built in the twelfth century. Made from Barnack stone and rubble with clunch and limestone dressings, it consists of a chancel, nave, north and south aisles, a south porch, some original twelfth century masonry survives, and the tower dates from the thirteenth century. Fen Ditton is often associated with The Bumps, the rowing races held on the river alongside the village. This association can be seen in the weather vane, which takes the form of a rowing eight. During the 1940s and 50s a ferry would operate across the river to The Plough public house during May Week until it sank in 1961, there are three public houses in Fen Ditton. The villages store and post office closed in 2005, Fen Ditton is home to both a cricket and a football team
26.
Cherry Hinton
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Cherry Hinton is a suburban area of the city of Cambridge, in Cambridgeshire, England. It is around 4 miles southeast of Cambridge city centre, the rectangular parish of Cherry Hinton occupies the western corner of Flendish hundred on the south-eastern outskirts of the city of Cambridge. There are some pictures and a description of the church at the Cambridgeshire Churches website. Cherry Hinton has an entry in the Domesday Book, Hintone, the War Ditches are the remains of an Iron Age hill fort where a massacre took place, now mostly lost to quarrying. The village itself is fairly compact, outside the residential area the land is open farmland, with relatively few trees. Substantial housing estate developments, both local authority and private have taken place in the village over the last 50 years, housing is typically suburban with 2,200 people per square kilometre, 40% of housing being semi-detached and 60% being owner-occupied. In 2001 the population of the village was made up of 1,600 people under 16,4,950 aged 16 to 59, in common with changes in the post-war years most of the residents in employment work outside the village, in Cambridge and elsewhere. There are small industrial units scattered throughout the area, together with a thriving high-street with a selection of shops, marshall Aerospace, the aircraft maintenance company and owners of Cambridge Airport, to the North, has been a major employer in recent decades. In 2001 the economically active population was estimated at 4,186, the village has three business areas, an industrial estate at the end of Coldhams Lane at the northern end of the High Street, and the Peterhouse Business park on the South-Eastern edge. The former site includes companies such as Inca Digital, Semitool, Storage King, the Peterhouse park includes the head office of the world-famous ARM processor designer, labs for the Human Nutrition Research Centre, and the head office of Cambridge Water. Cherry Hinton High Street has a traffic calming system consisting of a series of chicanes, traffic islands. The hope is that drivers seeking a route will use Yarrow Road instead. There is a railway through the village but no extant station, the nearest open stations are Cambridge itself, Shelford. From Cambridge there are services to Kings Cross, Liverpool Street, Kings Lynn, Norwich, Ipswich. Up to the 1960s there was also a station at the far end of Fulbourn Village, three non-road paths can be used to avoid traffic for part of these journeys. Daws Lane is a track leading from Sidney Farm Road to Snakey Path at a bridge over Cherry Hinton Brook. The path meanders West beside the brook until it reaches the road called Burnside, raised about 3 above water level the path is frequently used by cyclists and walkers. On the far, North, side of the brook, the chalk pits are visible for most of their length
27.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
28.
Andrew Perne
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Andrew Perne, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University and dean of Ely, was the son of John Perne of East Bilney, Norfolk. Perne was educated at St Johns College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1539, BD in 1547 and he was elected fellow of St Johns in 1540, but moved to Queens later that year. He was successively bursar and dean of Queens, culminating in becoming vice-president in 1551, scurrilous Puritans said he had once been the homosexual lover of John Whitgift, later Archbishop of Canterbury, with whom he went to live in old age at Lambeth Palace. But he owes his notoriety to his versatility, and, like the Vicar of Bray, he was always faithful to the national religion. Soon after Marys accession, however, he perceived the error of his ways and was made Master of Peterhouse in 1553 and Dean of Ely in 1557. In Elizabeths reign he subscribed the Thirty-nine Articles, denounced the pope and tried to convert Abbot Feckenham to Protestantism, and in 1584 Whitgift in vain recommended him for a bishopric. He was selected as the type of Anglican prelate by the authors of the Martin Marprelate tracts and other Puritans, who nicknamed him Old Andrew Turncoat, Andrew Ambo, Old Father Palinode. Cambridge wits, it was said, translated perno by I turn, I rat, I change often, historian Alice Hogge recounts an episode in which a close friend asked Perne to tell her honestly and simply which was the holy religion that see her safe to heaven. Perne replied that, if she wished, she could live in the religion which the Queen, die in faith and communion with the Catholic Church, that is, if you want to save your soul. As Hogge notes wryly, he never had the chance to follow his own advice, dying suddenly on the way back to his room after dining – and in the headquarters of that faith, Lambeth Palace itself. On his death, he bequeathed the part of his library to Peterhouse. Attribution, This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Pollard
29.
Mary I of England
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Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
30.
St Peter's Church, Cambridge
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The Church of St Peter is a redundant Church of England church in Cambridge, in the Parish of the Ascension of the Diocese of Ely, located on Castle Street between Honey Hill and Kettles Yard. The church is now in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust, the church has been known as St Peter by the Castle or Beyond the Bridge. The present structure is the remnant of one that went back to the 12th century, with a nave, chancel, south aisle, under the Tudor monarchy, the advowson came to the Crown, and Elizabeth I granted it to the See of Ely. In 1650 the town found that the parish had neither parsonage nor vicarage. It has been annexed to the vicarage of St Giles for several hundred years, St Peters is now a single-cell church with a west tower and an octagonal 14th-century spire with dormers. Construction is of rubble with pebble for the tower and ashlar for the spire. The church was rebuilt on a scale in 1781, although there are several surviving medieval details. It has a 13th-century south doorway, and a 12th-century font, decorated with mermen at the angles
31.
Martin Bucer
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Martin Bucer was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order, but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his vows to be annulled. He then began to work for the Reformation, with the support of Franz von Sickingen, Bucers efforts to reform the church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church, and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg. There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell, Wolfgang Capito and he acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli, who differed on the doctrine of the eucharist. Later, Bucer sought agreement on common articles of such as the Tetrapolitan Confession. Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation, through a series of conferences organised by Charles V, he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome. He did not achieve this, as political events led to the Schmalkaldic War, in 1548, Bucer was persuaded, under duress, to sign the Augsburg Interim, which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship. However, he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim, in 1549, Bucer was exiled to England, where, under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer, he was able to influence the second revision of the Book of Common Prayer. He died in Cambridge, England, at the age of 59, although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination, many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own. He is remembered as a pioneer of ecumenism. In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Empire was a state in name only. The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor. The division of power between the emperor and the states made the Reformation in Germany possible, as individual states defended reformers within their territories. In the Electorate of Saxony, Martin Luther was supported by the elector Frederick III, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse—whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine—also supported the Reformation, and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer. The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects, at the same time, he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy. The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the developments within the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It was in an imperial city, Strasbourg, that Martin Bucer began his work
32.
John Foxe
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Widely owned and read by English Puritans, the book helped mould British popular opinion about the Catholic Church for several centuries. Foxe was born in Boston, in Lincolnshire, England, of a prominent family and seems to have been an unusually studious. In about 1534, when he was sixteen, he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where he was the pupil of John Hawarden. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School, where he may either have been improving his Latin or acting as a junior instructor and he became a probationer fellow in July 1538 and a full fellow the following July. Foxe took his bachelors degree on 17 July 1537, his masters degree in July 1543, by the time he was twenty-five, he had read the Latin and Greek fathers, the schoolmen, the canon law, and had acquired no mean skill in the Hebrew language. Foxe resigned from his college in 1545 after becoming a Protestant, Foxe may have been forced from the college in a general purge of its Protestant members although college records state that he resigned of his own accord and ex honesta causa. Foxes change of opinion may have temporarily broken his relationship with his stepfather. Foxe personally witnessed the burning of William Cowbridge in September 1538, after being forced to abandon what might have been a promising academic career, Foxe experienced a period of dire need. Hugh Latimer invited Foxe to live with him, but Foxe eventually became a tutor in the household of Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, before leaving the Lucys, Foxe married Agnes Randall on 3 February 1547. Foxes prospects, and those of the Protestant cause generally, improved after the accession of Edward VI in January 1547, in the middle of or at the end of 1547, Foxe moved to London and probably lived in Stepney. There, he completed three translations of Protestant sermons published by the stout Protestant Hugh Singleton, Foxe lived in the duchesss London household at Mountjoy House and later at Reigate Castle, and the duchesss patronage facilitated Foxes entry into the ranks of Englands Protestant elite. During his stay at Reigate, Foxe helped suppress a cult that had arisen around the shrine of the Virgin Mary at Ouldsworth and he also worked unsuccessfully to prevent the two burnings for religion that occurred during the reign of Edward VI. On the accession of Mary I in July 1553, Foxe lost his tutorship when the childrens grandfather, Foxe walked warily as befitted one who had published Protestant books in his own name. As the political climate worsened, Foxe believed himself personally threatened by Bishop Stephen Gardiner, just ahead of officers sent to arrest him, he sailed with his pregnant wife from Ipswich to Nieuwpoort. He then traveled to Antwerp, Rotterdam, Frankfurt and Strasbourg, in Strasbourg Foxe published a Latin history of the Christian persecutions, the draft of which he had brought from England and which became the first shadowy draft of his Acts and Monuments. In the autumn of 1554, Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he served as a preacher for the English church ministering to refugees in the city, there, he was unwillingly drawn into a bitter theological controversy. One faction favored the church polity and liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer while the other advocated Reformed models promoted by John Calvins Genevan church, the latter group, led by John Knox, was supported by Foxe, the former was led by Richard Cox. Eventually, Knox. who seems to have acted with more magnanimity, was expelled, although Foxe clearly favored Knox, he was irenic by temperament and expressed his disgust at the violence of the warring factions
33.
Foxe's Book of Martyrs
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The Actes and Monuments, popularly known as Foxes Book of Martyrs, is a work of Protestant history and martyrology by John Foxe, first published in English in 1563 by John Day. It includes an account of the sufferings of Protestants under the Catholic Church. The book was influential in those countries and helped shape lasting popular notions of Catholicism there. The book went through four editions in Foxes lifetime and a number of editions and abridgements. The book was produced and illustrated with over sixty distinctive woodcut impressions and was to time the largest publishing project ever undertaken in England. Their product was a single book, a bit over a foot long. Foxes own title for the first edition, is Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Days, the page count went from approximately 1,800 pages in 1563 to over 2,300 folio pages. The number of woodcuts increased from 60 to 150, as Foxe wrote about his own living contemporaries, the illustrations could not be borrowed from existing texts, as was commonly practiced. Foxes title for the edition is quite different from the first edition where he claimed his material as these latter days of peril. touching on matters of the Church. In 1570, Foxes book is an Ecclesiastical History containing the acts and monuments of thynges passed in every kynges tyme in this realm and it describes persecutions, horrrible troubles, the suffering of martyrs, and other such thinges incident. In England and Scotland, and all other forreine nations, the second volume of the 1570 edition has its own title page and, again, an altered subject. Again leaving the reference, to church, uncertain, the title concludes in this realm of England and Scotland as partly also to all other forrine nations apparteynyng. Actes and Monuments for almost all its existence has popularly been called the Book of Martyrs, the linking of titles is an expected norm for introducing John Foxes sixteenth century work. William Haller observed that Edmund Grindal called it a book of martyrs, and it may have contained Grindals book of English martyrs, but it was not John Foxes. Dismayed by the misconception, Foxe tried to correct the error in the second edition. That his appeal was ineffective in his own time is not surprising, continuing this practice in academic analyses is being questioned, particularly in light of Foxes explicit denial. I wrote no such booke bearying the title Booke of Martyrs, I wrote a booke called the Acts and Monumentes. Wherin many other matters be contayned beside the martyrs of Christ, the final book treated the reign of Queen Mary and the Marian Persecutions
34.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
35.
Spanish Match
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The Spanish Match was a proposed marriage between Prince Charles, the son of King James I of Great Britain, and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, the daughter of Philip III of Spain. Negotiations took place over the period 1614 to 1623, and during this time became closely related to aspects of British foreign and religious policy, the wedding never took place despite the signing of a marriage contract by King James, criticism instead led to the dissolution of Parliament. A Spanish marriage for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, Charless elder brother who had died in 1612, had proposed by his mother Anne of Denmark. After his death she supported the idea of a Spanish marriage for her daughter Elizabeth, for her second son Charles, there were candidate marriages mooted from Savoie and Tuscany, as well as Spain and France. At the beginning of 1618 James I and VI was in a diplomatic position. His efforts against wars in Europe had been effective. Success in reducing the factor in international relations then deteriorated for James, in parallel with the failure of the Spanish Match. There was in fact no chance that Pope Paul V would have issued the dispensation for the Infanta to marry a Protestant. This fact was known to the Spanish king, but apparently Gondomar was kept in ignorance of the correspondence, Paul V died early in 1621, and his successor Pope Gregory XV was thought amenable to the idea of the match. James sent George Gage to Rome to lobby, putting the case on behalf of English Catholics, the matter was passed to a small group of cardinals, who emphasised that improved treatment for English Catholics was a prerequisite. By the 1620s, events on the continent had stirred up anti-Catholic feeling to a new pitch, James reluctantly summoned parliament as the only means to raise the funds necessary to assist his daughter Elizabeth and Frederick, who had been ousted from Prague by Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620. The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance military operations in aid of Frederick. When James heard of the petition, he is said to have cried, urged on by Buckingham and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar, James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament. Outside the political process, feelings that were both anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic ran high, pamphleteering attacks aimed at the Spanish Match through the court, deploying defamation, forgery and partisan distortion. Smears in the form of fabricated personal details about figures associated with the Spanish Party were published, thomas Scott is particularly noted for his part in this campaign, from 1619. In 1620, and again in 1621, James issued decrees against writing or speaking on state affairs, john Everard preached against the match in February 1621, at St Martin-in-the-Fields, and spent about half a year in the Gatehouse Prison. Thomas Middletons 1624 play A Game at Chess allegorized the events surrounding the Spanish Match and it was particularly harsh on Gondomar, represented by the Black Knight. Plays were in any case censored, and Henry Herbert as Master of the Revels passed it for performance and it has been suggested that Herbert connived at the unheard-of dramatic liberties taken in portraying members of the royal family, in a court now dominated by the anti-Spanish party
36.
William Laud
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William Laud was an English archbishop and academic. He was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633, during the rule of Charles I. Arrested in 1640, he was executed in 1645, in matters of church polity, Laud was autocratic. They were precursors to later High Church views, in theology, Laud was accused of being an Arminian and opponent of Calvinism, as well as covertly favouring Roman Catholic doctrines. On all three grounds, he was regarded by Puritan clerics and laymen as a formidable and dangerous opponent, Laud favoured scholars, and was a major collector of manuscripts. He pursued ecumenical contacts with the Greek Orthodox Church, the pun give great praise to the Lord, and little Laud to the devil is a warning to King Charles attributed to Archibald Armstrong, the official court jester. Laud was known to be touchy about his diminutive stature and he was educated at Reading School, and went in 1589 to St Johns College, Oxford, matriculating on 17 October. In 1593 he became a fellow of the college and he graduated B. A. in 1594, M. A. in 1598, and D. D. in 1608. As an undergraduate Laud had for his tutor John Buckeridge, who became president of St Johns in 1605, Laud was ordained deacon on 4 January 1601, and priest on 5 April in the same year. On 4 May 1603 he was one of the proctors for the year, when Buckeridge left St Johns in 1611, Laud succeeded him as President, but only after a hard patronage struggle reaching high court circles. The rival candidate, John Rawlinson, was chaplain to Lord Ellesmere, Laud was chaplain to Richard Neile, who was Clerk of the Closet. Eventually King James brushed aside irregularities in the election, settling matters in Lauds favour, Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616. At Gloucester Cathedral he began ceremonial innovations with the communion table, by local custom, the table stood in the middle of the choir, as was then usual in a parish church, rather than at the east end as was typical of cathedrals. Laud believed he had the blessing to renovate and improve the run-down building. Neile attempted, but could not obtain, Lauds appointment as Dean of Westminster, but at the end of 1621, and despite the kings view of Laud as a troublemaker, Laud received the relatively lowly see as the Bishop of St Davids. Laud became a confidant of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham at the end of the reign, the Buckingham household employed John Percy, a Jesuit, as chaplain, and the king wished to counter well-founded rumours that Percy was making Catholic converts there. In a three-day series of debates with Percy in 1622, Laud was introduced to argue the Protestant case on the final day. He then displaced John Preston as religious adviser to the Duke, historians believe Laud had homosexual leanings, which he nevertheless seems to have managed discreetly
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Arminianism in the Church of England
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Arminianism in the Church of England was a theological strand or tendency within the clergy of the Church of England particularly evident in the second quarter of the 17th century. The Synod of Dort of 1619 in effect destroyed the base of Dutch Arminianism. Puritanism being a term without definite meaning outside its historical meaning, the Church of Englands embrace of the Elizabethan Settlement allowed for a large-scale acceptance of Calvinist views. Such intense debates as occurred on theological points were localised, in contrast to the tension over church polity. A theological controversy on his teaching at Cambridge was brought to a head by William Barret, the intervention by John Whitgift led to the delineation of the Church of Englands reception of Calvinist purely theological teaching in the 1595 Lambeth Articles. The Articles followed recommendations of William Whitaker, and did not advance views on ritual or discipline, a dissident voice was Richard Thomson. But anti-Calvinism was closed down as far as discussion in print was concerned, Thomson was refused permission to print his Diatriba de amissione et intercisione gratiae, et justificationis later in the 1590s. The third of the Thirty-Nine Articles affirmed the Harrowing of Hell, after a hostile reception at Pauls Cross, Bilson was set to work by the queen on his lengthy Survey of Christs Sufferings to argue the point. Adam Hill had brought the point to prominence in The Defence of the Article, John Rainolds at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 wished to make the Lambeth Articles interpretative of the Thirty-Nine Articles, but was headed off, and the point remained unresolved. Under James I, opposition to Arminianism became official policy, during the period 1603 to 1625 Arminianism took shape as a Dutch religious party, became involved by successive appeals to secular authority in high politics, and was crushed. In the same period English Arminianism existed almost unavowed on paper, and since anti-Calvinist literature was censored, had no clear form until 1624, certain churchmen are now labelled by historians as proto-Arminian. These include prominent bishops of the period around 1600, Lancelot Andrewes, Thomas Dove, theodore K. Rabb describes Edwin Sandys, a lay politician, as proto-Arminian. George Abbot suspected William Laud at a stage of his career of anti-Calvinism. Laud, however, had supporters in the group who would later emerge as the recognisable Durham House faction. The election of Laud was eventually allowed to stand by the king, some other heads of houses showed close acquaintance with the Dutch Arminian literature, Jerome Beale, Samuel Brooke, Matthew Wren. Opponents of Conrad Vorstius, successor to Arminius, led by Sibrandus Lubbertus, King James issued a pamphlet against Vorstius in 1612, he also recruited Richard Sheldon and William Warmington to write against him. Abbot had anti-Arminian works written, by Sebastian Benefield and Robert Abbot, his brother, his reception in 1613 of Hugo Grotius, the Elizabethan debate was at this time revisited, in the context of the overt religious conflicts and battle lines in the Netherlands. In 1613 Antonius Thysius published Scripta Anglicana, a collection of documents from the Cambridge disputes of the 1590s around Peter Baro
38.
John Cosin
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John Cosin was an English churchman. He was born at Norwich, and was educated at Norwich School and at Caius College, Cambridge, on taking orders he was appointed secretary to John Overall, Bishop of Lichfield, and then domestic chaplain to Richard Neile, Bishop of Durham. In December 1624 he was made a prebendary of Durham, in 1630 he received his degree of Doctor of Divinity. In 1628 Cosin took part in the prosecution of a brother prebendary, Peter Smart, for a sermon against high church practices, on 8 February 1635 Cosin was appointed master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, and in 1640 he became Vice-Chancellor of the University. In October of this year he was promoted to the deanery of Peterborough, a few days before his installation the Long Parliament had met, and among the complainants who hastened to appeal to it for redress was the ex-prebendary, Smart. His petition against the new dean was considered, and early in 1641 Cosin was sequestered from his benefices, articles of impeachment were presented against him two months later, but he was dismissed on bail. For sending the university plate to the king, he was deprived of the mastership of Peterhouse and he went to France, preached at Paris, and served as chaplain to some members of the household of the exiled royal family. He was elected to that See on 5 November, which election was confirmed on 22 November, he was consecrated a bishop on 2 December. Cosin was responsible for a style of church woodwork unique to County Durham, the font cover in Durham Cathedral is a splendid example of this, as are the displays in the churches at Sedgefield and elsewhere. The Cosin woodwork at Brancepeth has sadly been destroyed by fire and he administered his diocese successfully for eleven years, and used a large share of his revenues to promote the interests of the Church, of schools and of charitable institutions. He died in London in 1672 and he had married Frances, the daughter of Marmaduke Blakiston on 15 August 1626 at St Margarets, Durham. Though a classical high churchman and an enforcer of outward conformity, Cosin was uncompromisingly hostile to Roman Catholicism. He differed from the majority of his colleagues in his attitude towards Sunday observance and in favouring, in the case of adultery. Among his writings are a Historia Transubstantiationis Papalis, Notes and Collections on the Book of Common Prayer, 1594–1623, John Cosin Esq. article name needed. Project Canterbury, The Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology
39.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
40.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
41.
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
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Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, KG, KB, FRS was an important commander of Parliamentary forces in the First English Civil War, and for a time Oliver Cromwells superior. Montagu accompanied Prince Charles during his 1623 trip to Habsburg Spain in pursuit of the Spanish Match and he was Member of Parliament for Huntingdonshire in the Happy Parliament of 1623–24, the Useless Parliament of 1625, and the Parliament of 1625–26. At the time of Charles Is coronation in February 1626, he was made a Knight of the Bath to reward him for his service to Charles in Spain. His first wife, who was related to the Duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne Rich, daughter of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before Parliament in the autumn of 1644 and in April the following year, anticipating the Self-denying Ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He opposed the trial of the king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth but after the Restoration, in 1667 he was made a General, and he died on 5 May 1671. Manchester was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1661, men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married, leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Robert, 3rd Earl of Manchester. One of his daughters Lady Anne Montagu married her second cousin Robert Rich, 5th Earl of Warwick and he is inaccurately depicted sitting in the House of Commons in Cromwells presence although he had been a member of the Lords since 1626. Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, Oxford,1839 Lord Clarendon, Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, Lord High Chancellor of England and Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Oxford,1827 SR Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, london, 1886–1891 The Quarrel between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, documents collected by J. Bruce, with a historical preface completed by D. M. Masson. London,1875 Sir Philip Warwick, Memoires of the Reigne of King Charles I and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
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