1.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
2.
Petroleum reservoir
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A petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a subsurface pool of hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock formations. Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as conventional and unconventional reservoirs, in case of conventional reservoirs, the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, such as crude oil or natural gas, are trapped by overlying rock formations with lower permeability. While in unconventional reservoirs the rocks have high porosity and low permeability which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped in place, reservoirs are found using hydrocarbon exploration methods. Crude oil found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earths crust from the remains of once-living things, crude oil is properly known as petroleum, and is used as fossil fuel. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of plant and animal into oil. When theyre buried with the sediment and reach an adequate temperature. This transformation, this change, changes them into the liquid hydrocarbons that move and migrate, will become our oil and gas reservoir. Timing is also an important consideration, it is suggested that the Ohio River Valley could have had as much oil as the Middle East at one time, but that it escaped due to a lack of traps. The North Sea, on the hand, endured millions of years of sea level changes that successfully resulted in the formation of more than 150 oilfields. Although the process is generally the same, various environmental factors lead to the creation of a variety of reservoirs. Reservoirs exist anywhere from the surface to 30,000 ft below the surface and are a variety of shapes, sizes and ages. A trap forms when the forces driving the upward migration of hydrocarbons through a permeable rock cannot overcome the capillary forces of a sealing medium. The timing of trap formation relative to that of petroleum generation and migration is crucial to ensuring a reservoir can form, the trapping mechanisms for many petroleum reservoirs have characteristics from several categories and can be known as a combination trap. Structural traps are formed as a result of changes in the structure of the due to processes such as folding and faulting, leading to the formation of domes, anticlines. Examples of this kind of trap are a trap, a fault trap. They are more delineated and more prospective than their stratigraphic counterparts. Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in the thickness, texture, examples of this type of trap are an unconformity trap, a lens trap and a reef trap. Hydrodynamic traps are a far less common type of trap and they are caused by the differences in water pressure, that are associated with water flow, creating a tilt of the hydrocarbon-water contact
3.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
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Reservoir engineering
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Of particular interest to reservoir engineers is generating accurate reserves estimates for use in financial reporting to the SEC and other regulatory bodies. Other job responsibilities include numerical reservoir modeling, production forecasting, well testing, well drilling and workover planning, economic modeling, Reservoir engineers often specialize in two areas, Surveillance engineering, i. e. monitoring of existing fields and optimization of production and injection rates. Surveillance engineers typically use analytical and empirical techniques to perform their work, including decline curve analysis, material balance modeling, simulation modeling, i. e. the conduct of reservoir simulation studies to determine optimal development plans for oil and gas reservoirs. Also, reservoir engineers perform and integrate well tests into their data for reservoirs in geothermal drilling, enhanced oil recovery Flow Zone Unit Fluid dynamics Geothermal energy Petroleum Petroleum engineering Petroleum geology Reservoir simulation Seismic to simulation Craft, B. C. & Hawkins, M. Revised by Terry, R. E.1990 Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Second Edition,1978, Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering Frick, Thomas C.1962 Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol II. Slider, H. C.1976 Practical Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Methods, charles R. Smith, G. W. Tracy, R. 1999 Applied Reservoir Engineering Society of Petroleum Engineers
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Earth science
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Earth science or geoscience is a widely embraced term for the fields of science related to the planet Earth. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, there are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The Earth sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the structure of the Earths interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geography, chronology, physics, chemistry, biology, Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earths crust and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earths core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere, geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earths crust that is subject to soil formation processes, major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology. Ecology covers the interactions between the biota, with their natural environment and this field of study differentiates the study of the Earth, from the study of other planets in the Solar System, the Earth being the only planet teeming with life. Hydrology is a study revolved around the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the cycle on the earth. Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology. Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth, atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth between the surface and the exosphere. Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics, plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earths crust. Beneath the Earths crust lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes
6.
Lithology
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It may be either a detailed description of these characteristics or be a summary of the gross physical character of a rock. It is the basis of subdividing rock sequences into individual lithostratigraphic units for the purposes of mapping, in certain applications, such as site investigations, lithology is described using a standard terminology such as in the European geotechnical standard Eurocode 7. The naming of a lithology is based on the rock type, the three major rock types are sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic. Sedimentary rocks are classified by whether they are siliciclastic or carbonate. Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are then subcategorized based on their size distribution and the relative proportions of quartz, feldspar. Carbonate rocks are classified with the Dunham or Folk classification schemes according to the constituents of the carbonate rock, the name of an igneous rock requires information on crystal size and mineralogy. This classification can often be performed with a QAPF diagram, metamorphic rock naming can be based on texture, protolith, metamorphic facies, and/or the locations in which they are found. Naming based on texture and a pelite protolith can be used to slate and phyllite. Texture-based names are schist and gneiss and these textures, from slate to gneiss, define a continually-increasing extent of metamorphism. Metamorphic facies are defined by the fields in which particular minerals form. In igneous and metamorphic rocks, grain size is a measure of the sizes of the crystals in the rock. In igneous rock, this is used to determine the rate at which the material cooled, large crystals typically indicate intrusive igneous rock, as metamorphic reactions progress, the grains in metamorphic rocks can often be broken down into smaller grains. In clastic sedimentary rocks, grain size is the diameter of the grains and/or clasts that constitute the rock and these are used to determine which rock naming system to use. In the case of sandstones and conglomerates, which cover a range of grain sizes. Examples are pebble conglomerate and fine quartz arenite, in rocks in which mineral grains are large enough to be identified using a hand lens, the visible mineralogy is included as part of the description. The mineralogical composition of a rock is one of the ways in which it is classified. In general, igneous rocks can be categorized by increasing silica content as ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, or felsic, the fabric of a rock describes the spatial and geometric configuration of all the elements that make it up. In sedimentary rocks the main fabric is normally bedding and the scale
7.
Porosity
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Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0 and 100%. Strictly speaking, some measure the accessible void, the total amount of void space accessible from the surface. There are many ways to test porosity in a substance or part, the term porosity is used in multiple fields including pharmaceutics, ceramics, metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, earth sciences, soil mechanics and engineering. Void fraction usually varies from location to location in the flow channel and it fluctuates with time and its value is usually time averaged. In separated flow, it is related to flow rates of the gas and the liquid phase. It is defined by the ratio, ϕ = V V V T where VV is the volume of void-space and VT is the total or bulk volume of material, both the mathematical symbols ϕ and n are used to denote porosity. Porosity is a fraction between 0 and 1, typically ranging from less than 0.01 for solid granite to more than 0.5 for peat and it may also be represented in percent terms by multiplying the fraction by 100. The porosity of a rock, or sedimentary layer, is an important consideration when attempting to evaluate the potential volume of water or hydrocarbons it may contain. Sedimentary porosity is a function of many factors, including but not limited to, rate of burial, depth of burial, the nature of the connate fluids. The principal complication is that there is not a direct proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity but rather an inferred proportionality, there is a clear proportionality between pore throat radii and hydraulic conductivity. Also, there tends to be a proportionality between pore throat radii and pore volume, if the proportionality between pore throat radii and porosity exists then a proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity may exist. Well sorted materials have higher porosity than similarly sized poorly sorted materials, for tables of common porosity values for earth materials, see the further reading section in the Hydrogeology article. Consolidated rocks potentially have more complex dual porosities, as compared with alluvial sediment and this can be split into connected and unconnected porosity. Connected porosity is more easily measured through the volume of gas or liquid that can flow into the rock, porosity is the ratio of pore volume to its total volume. Porosity is controlled by, rock type, pore distribution, cementation, diagenetic history, porosity is not controlled by grain size, as the volume of between-grain space is related only to the method of grain packing. Rocks normally decrease in porosity with age and depth of burial, tertiary age Gulf Coast sandstones are in general more porous than Cambrian age sandstones. There are exceptions to this rule, usually because of the depth of burial and thermal history, porosity of surface soil typically decreases as particle size increases. This is due to soil formation in finer textured surface soils when subject to soil biological processes
8.
Water content
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Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil, rock, ceramics, crops, or wood. Water content is used in a range of scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio. It can be given on a volumetric or mass basis, gravimetric water content is expressed by mass as follows, u = m w m where m w is the mass of water and m is the mass of the substance. Values of Sw can range from 0 to 1, in reality, Sw never reaches 0 or 1 - these are idealizations for engineering use. Water content can be measured using a known volume of the material. In wood drying, this is an important concept, other methods that determine water content of a sample include chemical titrations, determining mass loss on heating, or after freeze drying. In the food industry the Dean-Stark method is commonly used. There are several methods available that can approximate in situ soil water content. Geophysical sensors are used to monitor soil moisture continuously in agricultural. Satellite microwave remote sensing is used to estimate soil moisture based on the large contrast between the properties of wet and dry soil. The microwave radiation is not sensitive to atmospheric variables, and can penetrate through clouds, also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a certain extent, the vegetation canopy and retrieve information from ground surface. The data from remote sensing satellite such as, WindSat, AMSR-E, RADARSAT, ERS-1-2. Moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores, at low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. At higher relative humidities, liquid water becomes more and more important, in wood-based materials, however, almost all water is adsorbed at humidities below 98% RH. The method used to water content may affect whether water present in this form is accounted for. For a better indication of free and bound water, the activity of a material should be considered. Water molecules may also be present in materials closely associated with molecules, as water of crystallization. In soil science, hydrology and agricultural sciences, water content has an important role for groundwater recharge, agriculture, many recent scientific research efforts have aimed toward a predictive-understanding of water content over space and time.1 in gravel and 0.3 in peat
