1.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
Peugeot
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For the article about the bicycle manufacturer, see Cycles Peugeot. Peugeot is a French car manufacturer, part of Groupe PSA, the family business that preceded the current Peugeot company was founded in 1810, and manufactured coffee mills and bicycles. On 20 November 1858, Émile Peugeot applied for the lion trademark, due to family discord, Armand Peugeot in 1896 founded the Société des Automobiles Peugeot. The Peugeot company and family are originally from Sochaux, France, Peugeot retains a large manufacturing plant and Peugeot museum there. In February 2014, the agreed to a recapitalisation plan, in which Dongfeng Motors. Peugeot has received international awards for its vehicles, including five European Car of the Year awards. In 2013 and 2014, Peugeot ranked the second lowest for average CO2 emissions among generalist brands in Europe, the Renault car maker group being ranked first, with 114. 9g CO2/km. Peugeot is known as a very reliable brand, citing how its 1950s and 1960s models are running in Africa and Cuba in the 2010s. Peugeot has been involved in sport for more than a century. In 2015, Peugeot returned to the Dakar Rally after its four victories in the 1980s, the Peugeot family of Valentigney, Montbéliard, Franche-Comté, France, began in the manufacturing business in the 19th century. In 1842, they added production of coffee, pepper, the companys entry into the vehicle market was by means of crinoline dresses, which used steel rods, leading to umbrella frames, saw blades, chisels, wire wheels, and bicycles. Armand Peugeot introduced his Le Grand Bi penny-farthing in 1882, along with a range of other bicycles, the car company and bike company parted ways in 1926 but Peugeot bicycles continued to be built until very recently. Armand Peugeot became interested in the early on and, after meeting with Gottlieb Daimler. The first Peugeot automobile, a three-wheeled, steam-powered car designed by Léon Serpollet, was produced in 1889, steam power was heavy and bulky and required lengthy warmup times. In 1890, after meeting Daimler and Émile Levassor, steam was abandoned in favour of a car with a petrol-fuelled internal combustion engine built by Panhard under Daimler licence. The car was more sophisticated than many of its contemporaries, with a three-point suspension, an example was sold to the young Alberto Santos-Dumont, who exported it to Brazil. More cars followed,29 being built in 1892,40 in 1894,72 in 1895,156 in 1898 and these early models were given type numbers. Peugeot became the first manufacturer to fit rubber tyres to a petrol-powered car, Peugeot was an early pioneer in motor racing, with Albert Lemaître winning the worlds first motor race, the Paris–Rouen, in a 3 hp Peugeot
3.
Mulhouse
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Mulhouse is a city and commune in eastern France, close to the Swiss and German borders. Mulhouse is the commune of the 33 making up the communauté dagglomération Mulhouse Alsace Agglomération. Mulhouse is famous for its museums, especially the Cité de l’Automobile, an industrial town nicknamed the French Manchester, Mulhouse is also the main seat of the Upper Alsace University, where the secretariat of the European Physical Society can be found. Mulhouse is the city of an arrondissement of the Haut-Rhin département. Legends mention the origin of the town in 58 BC, and it was part of the southern Alsatian county of Sundgau in the Holy Roman Empire. From 1354–1515 Mulhouse was part of the Décapole, an association of ten Free Imperial Cities in Alsace, the city joined the Swiss Confederation as an associate in 1515 and was therefore not annexed by France in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 like the rest of the Sundgau. Starting in the middle of the century, the Koechlin family pioneered cotton cloth manufacturing. André Koechlin built machinery and started making railroad equipment in 1842, the firm in 1839 already employed 1,800 people. After the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War Mulhouse was annexed to the German Empire as part of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The city was occupied by French troops on 8 August 1914 at the start of World War I. The citizens of Alsace who unwisely celebrated the appearance of the French army, were left to face German reprisals, after World War I ended in 1918, French troops entered Alsace. Germany ceded the region to France under the Treaty of Versailles, after the Battle of France in 1940, it was occupied by German forces until returned to French control at the end of the war in May 1945. The towns development was stimulated first by the expansion of the industry and tanning. Mulhouse was for a time called the French Manchester. In consequence, the town has enduring links with Louisiana, from which it imported cotton, the towns history also explains why its centre is relatively small. Two rivers run through Mulhouse, the Doller and the Ill, Mulhouse is approximately 100 kilometres away from Strasbourg and Zürich, it is 350 km away from Milan and about 340 km from Frankfurt. It is close enough to Basel, Switzerland and Freiburg, Germany to share the EuroAirPort international airport with two cities. Medieval Mulhouse consists essentially of a lower and an upper town, the lower town was formerly the inner city district of merchants and craftsmen
4.
Aulnay-sous-Bois
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Aulnay-sous-Bois is a French commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the Île-de-France region in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 13.9 km from the Kilometre zero, the inhabitants of the commune are known as Aulnaysiens or Aulnaysiennes. The commune has been awarded four flowers by the National Council of Towns, Aulnay-sous-Bois is located in the Paris area and is 19 km north-east of Notre-Dame Cathedral,1 km east of Le Bourget Airport, and 5 km south-west of Charles de Gaulle Airport. The commune stretches over a length of 6.5 km from north to south, the town is surrounded by the A3 autoroute in the west which joins the A1 autoroute in the north. Route nationale 2 passes through the heart of the commune from west to east with the N370 coming from the south-east along the border to join the N2. The D44 passes through from north-west to south-east and the D115 from Bobigny in the south-west passes through the centre, the Ourcq Canal passes through the south-eastern end, adjacent to Livry-Gargan. It includes La Roseraie, Maximilien Robespierre, Le Vieux Pays, Tour Eiffel, the south, across the railway line, is wealthier and residential in nature. It consists of districts and is bordered by the Canal de lOurcq. It includes Chanteloup, Central Station, Pont de lUnion, when the construction of Clos Saint-Lazare at Stains ended, urbanization of the northern districts of Aulnay-sous-Bois began. The idea was to create an area of factories and it was on this basis that the area of Rose des Vents was built in 1969 in the northern part of Aulnay-sous-Bois. This Great Housing Estate was built on agricultural land. Its mission was to shelter for workers and managers for a new Citroën plant to be located a few hundred metres away. Beyond the Rose des Vents, which is known as the City of 3000. 24,000 people, or 30% of the population of Aulnay-sous-Bois, are housed on 4% of the territory, the station has a park and ride with a parking fee. Two branches are planned, the first to Clichy-sous-Bois and Montfermeil on the Gargan heights, the second towards Garonor through Rose-des-Vents and its platforms will be at a depth of 15 metres. In addition, it is planned to create a circular line to connect different parts of the city to avoid reloading for trips between all economic areas of the city and its public facilities. There is a rank at Aulnay-sous-Bois station. Aulnay-sous-Bois is located 5 km from Charles de Gaulle Airport, the airport can be reached by or by the A1 and A3 autoroutes
5.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
6.
La Marsa
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El Marsa is a coastal town in far north eastern Tunisia near the capital Tunis. The population is estimated as 92,987, as of 2014, the old summer capital of pre-colonial Tunisia, it is today a popular vacation spot for many wealthy Tunisians. It is connected to Tunis by the TGM railway, gammarth is adjacent to El Marsa further up the coast. Ancient Carthage was a Semitic civilization centered on the Phoenician city-state of Carthage, located in North Africa on the Gulf of Tunis, outside what is now Tunis and it was founded in 814 BC. At the height of the prominence, its political influence extended over most of the western Mediterranean. They also had to deal with the volatile Berbers, the inhabitants of the entire area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed, nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies fell into Roman hands from then on. Abdalliya Palace is one of the most lavish creations Hafsid dynasty sultans, built in the early sixteenth century by one of their last sovereign, Abu Abdallah Mohamed, this palace stands on the ancient port site of El Marsa. This place of remembrance and history is one of the few monuments Hafsid Tunisia, al ABDELLYA is the oldest evidence of Muslim architecture Palatine remained in good state of conservation of the Maghreb. Tunis-Goulette-Marsa is a 19 km 1,435 mm standard gauge rail line linking the capital Tunis with El Marsa via La Goulette. The TGM was the first railway in Tunisia and inaugurated in 1872, since 1905 it has been known as the TGM. It is part of the system of the Tunis area. Transtu was founded in 2003 by joining the Société du métro léger de Tunis, AS Marsa Avenir Sportif de El Marsa is a football club from El Marsa in Tunisia. Founded in 1939, the plays in green and yellow colours. Their ground is Stade Abdelaziz Chtioui, which has a capacity of 6,000, when the club was founded its name was Club Musulman. Stade Abdelaziz Chtioui Stade Abdelaziz Chtioui is a stadium in El Marsa. It is currently used by football team Avenir Sportif de El Marsa commonly called the AS Marsa, view of El Marsa Lexicorient La Goulette - Carthage - El Marsa
7.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
8.
City car
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A city car is a small car designed to be used primarily in urban areas and conurbations. The term is used along with terms for small cars including subcompact in North America. The Euro NCAP calls all small cars superminis, the European Commission refers to A-segment. In Japan, the kei car is a type of small car. The original concept for the city car came about as a result of the market for entry level vehicles in the 1920s and 1930s. The great depression caused the market for large, luxurious vehicles to collapse, as a result, manufactures had no choice but to build small, cheap vehicles that people could afford, similar to early 20th century runabouts. However, these vehicles were not specifically branded as vehicles to use in cities or congested areas and they were purely for use as peoples cars, cars designed to be cheap, sell a large number of units, and put people who had not owned cars on wheels. A number of small, cheap cars were sold before the war, including the 1920s Austin 7, 1930s Fiat 500 Topolino. However, these early microcars werent true city cars, most were designed, built, with the exception of a few examples, these were also not designed for specific use in cities. As the European economy improved, Fiat launched the new 500 in 1957 and in 1959, BMC would introduce its well-known city car, there were other new projects from 1969 through 1972. While many of these cars can be considered city cars today, exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the 1957 Fiat 500 and 126. They were in the region of 3.0 metres in length, in the 1970s the Citroën LNA and related three-door Peugeot 104 offered compact city sized cars of around 3.3 m, and the Fiat Panda followed in 1980. In Japan, regulations defining kei cars were established on 8 July 1949, production of compliant vehicles started around 1955–1958 by Daihatsu, Mitsubishi, Subaru, and Suzuki. In the late 1980s, superminis had physically grown so much that many buyers wanted even smaller four-seat cars, combined with an original exterior and interior design, it quickly became a best-seller, although it was not officially imported to right-hand drive markets including the United Kingdom. However, the Fiat Cinquecento, launched towards the end of 1991, was made for right-hand drive markets, in 1996, the Ford Ka was presented with its radical New Edge design. Its egg-shaped body did not leave much room in the rear seats and it was especially popular with British buyers. During the second half of the 1990s, South Korean brands Daewoo and Hyundai introduced their city car entries, both for the Asian and European markets. The Hyundai Atos, launched in 1997, was 3,500 millimetres long and 1,600 millimetres high and its boxy shape provoked mixed reactions
9.
A-segment
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The A-segment is a car classification defined by the European Commission as the first segment in the European market car classification. It is a significant niche in Europe with 10. 4% market share in 2015, in recent years, the segment opened to premium cars with success, like the Mini and the Fiat 500. Vauxhall/Opel entered the segment with a model, the Adam. Vauxhall/Opel have had a presence in the A-segment since the launch of its Agila in 2000, the New York Times described the segment in 2012, saying today’s small cars actually span three main segments in the global vehicle market. A-segment cars are dominated by European models Mini and Fiat 500
10.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
11.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
12.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
13.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
14.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
15.
Petrol engine
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A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression, the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed, and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock. The first petrol engine was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, with both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T. D, higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios, Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines, examples, Bedford OB bus Bedford M series lorry GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab locomotive Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see, Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle Wankel engine Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened out – are common in airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus, less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit, the most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts or horsepower. This is the mechanical power output of the engine in a usable
16.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
17.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
18.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
19.
Peugeot 205
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The Peugeot 205 is a supermini car produced by the French manufacturer Peugeot from 1983 to 1998. It was declared car of the decade by CAR Magazine in 1990 and it also won What Car. s Car of the Year for 1984. The styling of the 205 is often thought to be a Pininfarina design, however Gerard Welter claims it as an in-house design and it is often credited as the car which turned Peugeots fortunes around. Before the 205, Peugeot was considered the most conservative of Frances big three car manufacturers, producing large saloons such as the 504 and 505. Early 205s used the X engine from the older Peugeot 104, although these were replaced with the newer XU and TU-series engines. Engines ranged from 954 cc to 1905 cc engine displacement, in carburettor or fuel injected petrol and this is fully independent using torsion bars and trailing arms. It is very compact and was designed to minimise suspension intrusion into the boot, giving a wide flat loadspace, while providing excellent ride and it was launched on 24 February 1983, with British sales beginning in August that year. The diesel models employed the XUD PSA Diesel inline-four engine, lifted from the Citroën BX which was introduced in September 1982.6 and Automatic, the XUD7 Diesel Engines were world-beating and so petrol-like that many buyers were won over by petrol car performance combined with diesel economy. The 205 GRD, for instance, was as fast yet smoother than the 205 GR, due to the engine developing peak torque at lower rpm. There were also various versions intended for use, such as the two-seater XA-series. There was also the 205 Multi, a special version on XA or XE-basis built by independent coachbuilders like Gruau. Gruau called their XA-based two-seater version the VU, while the five-seat XE-based version was called the VP, Durisotti began building the 205 Multi in 1986, it was called the 205 Multi New Look. The 205 was an instant hit, and the parameters that it set were echoed in every Peugeot model that was to follow. The exterior styling was never facelifted or significantly altered in its 15-year production run, at the beginning of 1993, Peugeot launched the 306, which officially replaced the 309, the arrival of this car also diminished the 205s role in the Peugeot range. The engines were updated, with the new TU engines introduced in 1988. In 1991, the 205 dTurbo was launched with a powerful, after several years of gradually declining sales, the Peugeot 205 was discontinued in the United Kingdom in 1996. The Peugeot 205 was still offered in the Sacré Numéro and Génération models until the end of the production in 1998, most of the later European versions were only sold in France. Due to the pressure from the market, with buyers wanting a Peugeot supermini in the mould of the 205 again, the company built a direct replacement in the 206
20.
Peugeot 104
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The Peugeot 104 is a supermini motor car designed by Paolo Martin and produced by the French car manufacturer Peugeot between 1972 and 1988. It was the first model produced at the companys Mulhouse plant and it was also the first new Peugeot introduced since 1955 not to be available with a diesel option. On its launch in 1972, the Peugeot 104 was offered as a compact four-door fastback, although it had a short, sloping rear end that suggested a hatchback, there was originally a separate boot/trunk, as on a conventional saloon. This transmission-in-sump arrangement was similar to that pioneered by the British Motor Corporation in the Mini and it gave good levels of economy and refinement as well as having an impressive chassis which made ride and handling excellent. The engine was mounted leaning backwards, at a 72 degree angle, a three-door coupé was launched on a shortened chassis, with the same 954 cc engine as the saloon. Headlights were larger and rectangular in shape, rather than square, originally sold as the 104 Coupé, shorter wheelbase models later received names beginning with a Z. Equipment levels which begin with a G or an S were used for the longer four/five-door variants, a facelift in July 1976 saw the four-door saloon replaced with a five-door hatchback. Peugeot had been afraid that a five-door 104 would steal sales from the old-fashioned 204 Break, rear light clusters were modified slightly with indicators that wrapped around to the sides of the car, and a 1. 1-litre engine was also made available. The coupé was made available in two versions, the ZL and also the more powerful ZS with 66 PS, a modified camshaft on the 954 cc engines also retarded the valve timing in order to favour fuel economy at the price of a slight power reduction. The revised models only appeared in right-hand drive form at the end of the year,1977 proved to be the most successful year for the 104, with 190,000 being built. The coupé gained a commercial variant with only two seats, the ZA, and all coupé variants were given larger rear light clusters with integral reversing lights. Higher specification five-door models gained the larger headlights and grille introduced for the coupé, the more powerful engine from the ZS was briefly available in the five-door hatchback Sundgau special edition, of which 1,200 examples were built in March and April 1978. For 1979 the ZL Coupé was upgraded to a 57 PS version of the 1,124 cc engine, the 1980 facelift was minor, with model designations changing in line with other vehicles in the Peugeot line-up. However, a 1. 2-litre engine was now also offered and this facelift incorporated smaller headlights, a new grille and rear light clusters that included reversing lights. The amount of chrome trim was reduced and generally replaced by black plastic, at the end of summer, the ZS coupé variant was given an 80 PS1,360 cc engine to improve its performance. The existing 72 PS version remained on sale at a price until the 1984 model year was introduced. The power gain was achieved by using two carburetors rather than one double-barrel unit, in 1983, the number of models offered was reduced to make way for the new 205 and exports to most foreign markets gradually came to an end. It remained on sale in France until the end of production in 1988, the sporting ZS remained on sale until late 1985, for the 1986 model year only the 50 PS1,124 cc engine remained
21.
Peugeot 107
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The Peugeot 107 is a city car produced by French automaker Peugeot and launched in June 2005. All three are built at the new facilities of the Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile Czech joint-venture in the city of Kolín and it is a four-seater available as a three- or five-door hatchback. The 107 replaces the 106, which ceased production in July 2003 after 12 years, the rear view of the Peugeot 107 shows the tail light clusters it shares with the Citroën C1, but not with the Toyota Aygo. Under certain circumstances, the pedal can stick in a depressed position. In February 2009, the Peugeot 107 received a facelift to conform with the new looks given to the Citroën C1, the only aesthetic changes made were to the front bumper, interior and wheel trims. The bumper now sports what some refer to as Peugeots large mouth look, the placement of the numberplate has been moved from the black strip in the middle of the grille to underneath the grille itself and two side vents have been added to give the car an updated look. The interior now has more choices of fabrics for the seats, in early 2012, the 107 received a further facelift. It now features a new bonnet and front bumper/grill with integrated daytime running lights, the interior saw the introduction of a leather steering wheel and a new gearknob on higher level trims. (Class laggards were the Chevrolet Matiz and the two-seater Smart The 107 was replaced by the Peugeot 108 which was launched in July 2014
22.
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
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The Mitsubishi i-MiEV is a five-door hatchback electric car produced by Mitsubishi Motors, and is the electric version of the Mitsubishi i. Rebadged variants of the i-MiEV are also sold in Europe by PSA Peugeot Citroën as the Peugeot iOn, the i-MiEV is the worlds first modern highway-capable mass production electric car. The i-MiEV was launched for customers in Japan in July 2009. International sales to Asia, Australia and Europe started in 2010, with markers in 2011 including Central. Fleet and retail deliveries in the U. S. The American-only version, called i, is larger than the Japanese version and has additional features. According to the manufacturer, the i-MiEV all-electric range is 160 kilometres on the Japanese test cycle, the range for the 2012 model year American version is 62 miles on the United States Environmental Protection Agencys cycle. As of June 2016, about 37,600 i-MiEV family passenger cars have been sold worldwide since 2009. As of early March 2015, and accounting for all variants of the i-MiEV, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, based on the Mitsubishi i kei car, was first exhibited at the 22nd International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exposition in Yokohama. Mitsubishi eschews the in-wheel motors in favour of a more conventional array of batteries, motor and inverter to replace the rear midship engine and fuel tank of the conventional car. Mitsubishi Motors provided three companies with vehicles in 2006 and 2007 in order to conduct joint research to evaluate how fast-charge infrastructure may be developed for EVs. Fleet testing by five companies was conducted in 2007. The car had a range of 130 kilometres for the 16 kW•h lithium-ion battery pack and 160 kilometres for the 20 kW•h pack, top speed was 130 kilometres per hour. Plans were announced in 2008 to sell the i-MiEV in European markets as the Peugeot iOn, Mitsubishi began supplying the electric cars to PSA Peugeot Citroën since 2010, and PSA has a contractual commitment to buy 100,000 i-MiEVs over a period that remained confidential. The production version of the 2009 i-MiEV has a permanent magnet synchronous motor mounted on the rear axle with a power output of 47 kW. The motor is cooled, there is a conventional automobile radiator in the front of the car with an electric fan. The coolant level is monitored via a tank under the rear load platform on the hand side of the vehicle. The vehicle uses a reduction gear transmission driving the rear wheels and has a 16 kWh lithium-ion battery pack
23.
European Economic Community
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The European Economic Community was a regional organisation which aimed to bring about economic integration among its member states. It was created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, upon the formation of the European Union in 1993, the EEC was incorporated and renamed as the European Community. In 2009 the ECs institutions were absorbed into the EUs wider framework and it gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty. In 1993, a single market was achieved, known as the internal market, which allowed for the free movement of goods, capital, services. In 1994, the market was formalised by the EEA agreement. This agreement also extended the market to include most of the member states of the European Free Trade Association. Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and this was also when the three European Communities, including the EC, were collectively made to constitute the first of the three pillars of the European Union, which the treaty also founded. The EEC was also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking countries and sometimes referred to as the European Community even before it was renamed as such in 1993. In 1951, the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the European Coal and this was an international community based on supranationalism and international law, designed to help the economy of Europe and prevent future war by integrating its members. In the aim of creating a federal Europe two further communities were proposed, a European Defence Community and a European Political Community. While the treaty for the latter was being drawn up by the Common Assembly, the ECSC parliamentary chamber, after the Messina Conference in 1955, Paul Henri Spaak was given the task to prepare a report on the idea of a customs union. The so-called Spaak Report of the Spaak Committee formed the cornerstone of the negotiations at Val Duchesse castle in 1956. Together with the Ohlin Report the Spaak Report would provide the basis for the Treaty of Rome, in 1956, Paul Henri Spaak led the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse castle, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, the resulting communities were the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. These were markedly less supranational than the communities, due to protests from some countries that their sovereignty was being infringed. The first formal meeting of the Hallstein Commission, was held on 16 January 1958 at the Chateau de Val-Duchesse, the EEC was to create a customs union while Euratom would promote co-operation in the nuclear power sphere. The EEC rapidly became the most important of these and expanded its activities, one of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment of common price levels for agricultural products. In 1968, internal tariffs were removed on certain products, another crisis was triggered in regard to proposals for the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, which came into force in 1962
24.
European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
25.
Peugeot 306
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The Peugeot 306 is a small family car built by the French car manufacturer Peugeot from 1993 to 2002. Peugeot gave the 306 many updates and aesthetic changes to keep up with the competition, cabriolet and estate versions continued until 2002. Versions were built in Argentina by Sevel from 1996 to 2002, the 306 was developed between 1990 and 1992 for a launch at the beginning of 1993. It was a replacement for the Peugeot 309, concept versions of the 306 were first seen around the end of 1990, although the motoring press initially reported that it was going to replace the smaller 205. Mechanically, the 306 is virtually identical to the Citroën ZX, the 306, with its attractive Peugeot 205 derived Pininfarina styling, was a more successful car than its twin. The Citroën Berlingo and Peugeot Partner were also built on the same platform, the chassis used by the 306 and ZX was also used in the ZXs replacement, the Citroën Xsara. The first car being the Peugeot 104 based Citroën Visa and Citroën LNA, the policy continues today throughout the Peugeot and Citroën ranges. The entry level Peugeot 108, Citroën C1 and Toyota Aygo though are all based on the same Toyota design, the 306 was released in March 1993 as a 3- and 5-door hatchback, with saloon and cabriolet models being introduced a year later. The Phase 1 model was known as the N3 in Australia, a bewildering array of different model types were offered during the life of the Phase 1 model, including Genoa, XSS, XT, XRdt and XLd. Later were added various models, such as the S16, XSi and GTI-6. All variants of the 306, with the exception of the GTI-6, the initial petrol engines used were proven four-cylinder units, which had gained a solid reputation in Peugeot models such as the 205,309 and 405. At first, all models were powered by derivatives of the TU series 8-valve engine. The 1.1 was dropped quickly, but the 1.4 and particularly the 1.6 variants sold well, three larger-capacity units were available, but restricted to automatic and performance models. These engines were developments of the larger XU series units which had used in the 205 GTi 1.9. A1.8 litre version powered cars with manual and automatic transmission, while two versions of the 2.0 litre engine in 8- and 16-valve guises powered the XSi. In Australia, the engines available were the 1.8 and 2. 0L engines. Peugeot had an excellent reputation for its engines, and the 306 was originally offered with the XUD series diesel engine in both normally aspirated and turbocharged forms. This engine was initially a 1769cc unit, but its capacity was enlarged to 1905cc
26.
Peugeot 309
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The Peugeot 309 was a small family car manufactured between 1985 and 1993 in England, Spain and France by PSA Peugeot Citroën. It was originally intended to be badged as a Talbot and, as development progressed, to be called the Talbot Arizona. It was the replacement for the Talbot Horizon, which had started life as a Chrysler in Britain and a Simca in France, and was also being built in several guises for the American market. In 1985, the PSA Group decided to discontinue the Talbot brand, with the last Talbot passenger vehicle to be launched being the Samba of 1981, the Talbot brand was phased out completely when Talbot Express production stopped in 1994. The 309 had been conceived as Projet C28 as a replacement for the Talbot Horizon, styling was the responsibility of the former Chrysler-Rootes design studios in Coventry, whilst much of the engineering was done at the Simca site at Poissy in France. The 309 was not intended to replace Peugeots own 305 model and it was also the first Peugeot-badged hatchback of this size. With the Talbot brand being phased out on cars, the 309 would succeed the Talbot Horizon. The larger Alpine hatchback and Solara saloons were also axed in 1986, the 309s design was presaged by the 1982 Peugeot VERA Plus, which were aerodynamic studies developed by Peugeot at the time. The VERA Plus claimed a Cw of only 0.22, many of the aerodynamic features from the VERA studies found their way into later production Peugeots. The 309s slightly awkward styling was due to the decision to re-use the door shells from the 205, the 309 was also supposed to be differentiated from Peugeot as a Talbot, and was designed in-house. Other Peugeot cars were designed by the famed Italian design house Pininfarina, some markets also used the 1442 cc and 1592 cc Poissy engine, as seen previously in the Simca 1307 and Solara as well as the Horizon, instead of the 1580 cc OHC. Largely due to its partially British origins, the 309 became a choice in the United Kingdom. The 309s successor, the 306, was built at Ryton, as was the 206. The summer of 1989 saw the introduction of the Phase 2 Peugeot 309 and it revised the design of the rear, lowering the boot lip, changing the rear lights to a more smoked style and making slight alterations to the front radiator grille. Also, an interior was required to address severe criticisms leveled at the Phase 1s, Talbot designed multi-piece dashboard which was prone to developing squeaks. The GTi models received a colour coded one piece rear spoiler as opposed to the Phase 1s outdated rubber spoiler which, by then, retrospectively, the BE3 gearboxes are slightly less prone to failure than their earlier counterparts. This was also when Peugeot gradually phased in their all-new belt-driven TU-series overhead camshaft engines, in 1,124 cc and 1,360 cc forms, eventually replacing the trusty Simca units during 1992. The GTi-16 model, featuring the XU9J4 engine from the 405 Mi-16, was introduced at this time, however
27.
Peugeot 206
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It was officially launched in September 1998 in hatchback form, which was followed by a coupé cabriolet in September 2000, a station wagon in September 2001, and a sedan version in September 2005. This version was launched in Europe in February 2009, only in hatchback form. Peugeot 206 is best selling Peugeot all of time with approximate 8.358.217 cars sold, until 2016, used Peugeot 206 is still in the top 10 of UKs used car sales comparing to the others new models of other brands. During the early 1990s, Peugeot decided not to replace the Peugeot 205. Unfortunately for Peugeot, this strategy did not work, a new supermini was required, and the 206 was launched in 1998 as a somewhat belated replacement for the 205. Peugeot hired the world-famous Italian designer Pinifarina to make it the most beautiful against its competitors, with no larger in-house rival from Citroën to base its new supermini on, Peugeot developed an all-new front drive platform for the 206. It was built in France until 18 December 2012, and in the United Kingdom until 12 December 2006, the end of British production coincided with the closure of the Ryton plant which Peugeot had taken over when buying Chryslers European division in 1979. From April 2010, the Peugeot 206 was no longer listed on Peugeots current UK model range, LHD production finished in June 2010. Its eventual successor, the Peugeot 207, was launched in 2006, as of 2010, the twelve-year-old 206 was Peugeots best-selling car of all time. The 206 was originally launched as a hatchback with 1. 1L,1. 4L, and 1. 6L petrol engines and a 1. 9L diesel engine, a HDi version with common rail coming later. In 1999 a 2. 0L GTi capable of 210 km/h and it did 0–100 km/h in 7.4 seconds and it reached a top speed of 220 km/h with 177 PS. In 2001, two versions of the 206 were launched – the 206 CC with a folding steel roof. A 4-door notchback sedan version, developed by Iran Khodro, was unveiled in late 2005, and it is available in the Iranian, North African, Chinese, Russian, Romanian, Turkish and Bulgarian markets. In 2003, it received a facelift, getting clear headlights, different rear clusters, new side repeater lamps, chrome badges. The Peugeot 206 proved to be a success all over Europe. It was the car in Europe from 2001 to 2003. The 1. 4-litre XR was the best-selling model, on 26 May 2005, the 206 celebrated the five millionth unit produced since its commercial launch on 10 September 1998. Sales in the United Kingdom were strong from the start, with the 206 regularly being among the five most popular new cars during its first six years on sale
28.
Ford Ka
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The Ford Ka is a small car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company from 1996 to 2016, as a city car, and from 2014 to present as a subcompact car. It entered its second generation in 2008, being produced by Fiat in Tychy, a third generation was introduced in 2014. There is also the Ford Ka NOW, the third generation is produced as a five-door hatchback and as a four-door sedan. It was initially only in Brazil, being later introduced in India, Mexico, South Africa, Argentina. The name Ka has a number of possible pronunciations, for example, with a long or short a, or with the letters pronounced separately. Fords press office has used all three, according to Auto Trader, Ford top brass have given the correct pronunciation as Ka like Cat. The car was introduced on 11 September 1996 as a small and it was based on the Mark IV Ford Fiesta platform, but with a completely different exterior design. The design borrowed a lot from Ghias Saetta show car, a designed by Filippo Sapino. The Ka evolved from concept vehicles to production with minor changes, the large, one piece, moulded bumpers and wheel arches made the vehicle more durable and easier to repair. The vehicle was manufactured on the existing Fiesta production line in Almussafes, Valencia, the Chief Program Engineer was Kevin O’Neill. The designer of the car was Chris Svensson of Sunderland, who had designed a car when at the Royal College of Art in 1992. When the Ka was introduced to the public it provoked mixed reactions, due to its original and striking New Edge design, overseen by Jack Telnack and executed by Claude Lobo. Besides the styling, the Ka, like its sister cars Fiesta, under Richard Parry-Jones supervision, the suspension and steering settings allowed for hard cornering and high levels of grip, providing strong handling characteristics. An anti-lock braking system option was added in January 1997, aside from corrosion, the main drawback was the 1,300 cc OHV four-cylinder Endura-E engine, a design dating to the 1950s Kent engine used in the Ford Anglia. Although not very modern, it provided enough torque to allow relaxed if not spirited driving, for the first three years of production, all models had black plastic bumpers to minimise parking damage to paintwork in city conditions. These bumpers contained a stabiliser to prevent UV degradation which made them unsuitable for painting because the paint would not adhere properly, however, it became clear that many owners wanted body-coloured bumpers, so they were introduced in 1999 using different bumper mouldings. The Ka has proved profitable for Ford despite its low selling price. In 2006, Ford sold 17,000 examples of the Ka model in the United Kingdom, in Australia, the Ka was introduced in October 1999 and was sold until 2002
29.
Renault Twingo
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The Renault Twingo is a city car manufactured and marketed by the French automaker Renault. The first-generation Twingo debuted at the Paris Motor Show in September 1992, Renault launched the second-generation Twingo in the summer of 2007—and the third generation debuted at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show and receiving its formal market launch in September 2014. Twingo is a portmanteau of the words twist, swing and tango, the original Twingo was launched in April 1993, was sold in Europes LHD markets until June 2007 and received intermediate restylings in 1998,2000 and 2004. Designed under the direction of Patrick Le Quément, Renaults chief designer, the car derived from a series of concepts developed through the W60 project when Gaston Juchet was Renaults chief designer. The project was aimed at replacing the Renault 4 with a minivan model, Le Quément chose a Jean-Pierre Ploué design to develop the production version. He included an unconventional front-end layout resembling a smile, the interior equipment was mounted on a central console to free space. Renault had participated in the 1981-1984 Mono-Box ECO2000 car project along with PSA Peugeot-Citroën, the Twingo I electronic centrally-mounted instrument panel had a speedometer, fuel gauge, clock, odometer and trip recorder controlled via a stalk-located button. A strip of warning lights was located behind the steering wheel, the rear seat featured a sliding mechanism to enable either increased boot space or rear seat legroom. The boot parcel shelf was attached to the inside of the tailgate, all engines were replaced with an 8-valve 1. 15-litre 60 hp unit. A 16-valve 75 hp version was added in 2000, the car retailed at a price of 55, 000FF. In June 1994, new colours introduced along with minor interior changes. Four months later, the Twingo Easy model was launched, with an automatic gearbox. In September 1995, the first of many special Twingo editions launched, in July 1996, a new 1149cc engine was fitted to replace the previous engine from the Renault 5. Also, various improvements made including the addition of a brake light. Two years later, the Twingo underwent its first major restyling revisions to the interior, the front and rear lights were revised, along with the front orange indicator lights being merged into the headlamp housing. Two months later, the top-of-the-range Twingo Initiale model launched, in September 2000, the Twingo underwent its second major restyling. Additions included larger 14 wheels, revised door trims with larger door pockets, december 2000 brought a new 1.2 litre 16v engine launched, with 75 hp. In April 2001, a new semi automatic gearbox launched, called Quickshift, additional revisions followed in September 2002, including new interior trims and wheel covers
30.
Groupe PSA
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PSA is listed on the Euronext Paris stock exchange and is again a constituent of the CAC40 index after having been removed in 2012. Beginning in 2016, PSA began to outline a strategy which entailed the expansion of the company. PSA has announced plans to enter the Indian, American, Canadian, ASEAN, headquartered in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, PSA was in 2016 the third-largest Europe-based automaker. Following the completion of the acquisition of the GM Opel and Vauxhall Motors brands. In December 1974 Peugeot S. A. acquired a 38. 2% share of Citroën, on 9 April 1976 they increased their stake of the then bankrupt company to 89. 95%, thus creating the PSA Group, becoming PSA Peugeot Citroën. Since Citroën had two new designs in the market at this time and Peugeot was typically prudent in its own finances. Further investment was required because PSA decided to create a new brand for the entity for the disparate French and British models, based on the Talbot sports car last seen in the 1950s. From then on, the whole Chrysler/Simca range was sold under the Talbot badge until production of Talbot-branded passenger cars was shelved in 1987, all of this investment caused serious financial problems for the entire PSA group, PSA lost money from 1980 to 1985. In 1987, the dropped the Talbot brand for passenger cars when it ceased production of the Simca-developed Horizon. What was to have been the Talbot Arizona became the Peugeot 309, with the former Rootes plant in Ryton, producing Peugeots in Ryton was significant, as it signalled the first time that PSA would build cars in the UK. The Talbot name survived for a longer on commercial vehicles until 1992 before being shelved completely. From 1987 to 1995, the plant also produced the Peugeot 405 saloon, on 29 February 2012, PSA announced the creation of a major alliance with General Motors, as part of which GM became PSAs second-largest shareholder, after the Peugeot family, with a holding of 7%. The alliance was intended to enable $2 billion per year of cost savings through platform sharing, common purchasing and other economies of scale. In July 2012, an official said that PSA Peugeot Citroën would cut as much as 10 percent of its French workforce of 100,356 employees on permanent. The jobs cut was more than previously announced, on 24 October, PSA said it was close to an agreement with creditor banks on €11.5 billion of refinancing and had won state guarantees on €7 billion in further borrowing by its Banque PSA Finance. And in doing so, PSA ended up losing revenue rapidly, CEO Philippe Varin says that Citroën and Peugeot are too close, so he plans on positioning Citroën C-line models lower than Peugeot with DS models above Peugeot. On 12 December 2013, General Motors announced it was selling its 7% stake in PSA Peugeot Citroën, in early 2016, PSA unveiled a roadmap detailing its plan to re-enter the North American car market for the first time in almost forty years. Although many only expected the DS to enter the North American market, on 10 February 2017, PSA announced the purchase of Hindustan Motors and the Hindustan Ambassador brand, which will be used to sell Peugeot and Citröen vehicles in India beginning in 2018
31.
Toyota
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Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japanese automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In March 2014, the corporation consisted of 338,875 employees worldwide and. As of 2016, Toyota is the worlds second-largest automotive manufacturer behind German Volkswagen Group, Toyota was the worlds first automobile manufacturer to produce more than 10 million vehicles per year which it has done since 2012, when it also reported the production of its 200-millionth vehicle. As of July 2014, Toyota was the largest listed company in Japan by market capitalization, Toyota is the worlds market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, and one of the largest companies to encourage the mass-market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models achieved the 10 million milestone in January 2017 and its Prius family is the worlds top selling hybrid nameplate with over 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017. The company was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937, as a spinoff from his fathers company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries, it created its first product, the Type A engine, and, in 1936, its first passenger car, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation produces vehicles under five brands, including the Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, TMC is part of the Toyota Group, one of the largest conglomerates in the world. Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, the main headquarters of Toyota is located in a 4-story building in Toyota. As of 2006, the office has the Toyopet Toyota logo. Vinod Jacob from The Hindu described the headquarters building as modest. In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the due to the lack of amenities in the city. Its Tokyo office is located in Bunkyo, Tokyo and its Nagoya office is located in Nakamura-ku, Nagoya. In addition to manufacturing automobiles, Toyota provides financial services through its Toyota Financial Services division, since 1950, the two entities had existed as separate companies as a prerequisite for reconstruction in postwar Japan. Shoichiro Toyoda presided over Toyota Motor Sales in preparation for the consummation of the merger occurred in 1982. Shoichiro then succeeded his uncle Eiji as the President of the organization that then became known as Toyota Motor Corporation. Announced the appointment of board members, this was a first for the corporation. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, Toyota is publicly traded on the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Sapporo exchanges under company code TYO,7203
32.
Toyota Aygo
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The Toyota Aygo /ˈaɪɡoʊ/ is a city car sold by Toyota in Europe since 2005. All Aygos are built with the related Citroën C1 and the Peugeot 107/108 at the new factory of the Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile Czech joint venture in Kolín, the Aygo was first displayed at the 2005 Salon de lAutomobile de Genève. The name Aygo comes from i-go, symbolising freedom and mobility, the Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1 are rebadged versions of the same car. The Aygos starting on-the-road price is 8,500 €, the main difference between the Aygo and its siblings is in the interior equipment, badges, logos and the easily recognizable rear end of the car. The planned production is 300,000 cars annually –100,000 cars per brand, sales began in July 2005 and the car is available as a three or five-door hatchback. There are two available, a 1.0 L three-cylinder engine rated at 68 bhp. The Aygo was used on BBCs Top Gear in a giant match of football, the Top Gear presenters deemed the Aygo and its Peugeot and Citroën counterparts to be competent town cars. The stunt was driven by UK Stuntman Steve Truglia in May 2009, in January 2010, the Aygo was part of a worldwide recall by Toyota for a faulty sticking accelerator pedal. It was found that some circumstances, the pedal could stick in a partially depressed position. The recall affected the Aygo, Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1 models built between February 2005 and August 2009, information from Toyota later suggested, however, that only Aygos with automatic gearboxes were affected, and that those with manual gearboxes were not. The Aygo received its first facelift, replacing the front bumper shape from the original, the Aygo received its second facelift, this time incorporating a much more angular bumper, and space for the inclusion of daytime running lights. In 2008, Toyota created a driveable one-off concept car based on the Toyota Aygo, named the Aygo Crazy, it was unveiled to the public at the July 2008 British International Motor Show in London, before appearing at other UK-based motor shows that year. Aygo Crazy has a mid mounted 1.8 litre VVTi engine from the Toyota MR2 and Celica, mated to an MR2 five speed gearbox, the manufacturer claims the engine produces 147 kW at 6,700 rpm and 240 N·m torque at 3,400 rpm. Weighing just 1,050 kg, this gives it a 0–100 km/h sprint time of 5.75 seconds, unlike the standard Aygo, it has no driver aids, power steering or anti-lock brakes but its rear wheel drive layout helps traction under heavy acceleration. Suspension is from the MR2, with adjustable Tein shock absorbers and MacPherson struts front, an uprated Helix clutch is also used. The interior features a roll cage for extra chassis comfort. Two specially designed sports seats, trimmed in red and black, Toyota claims the Aygo Crazy cost GB£100,000 to build. Toyota revealed the new-look, completely redesigned Aygo, at the March 2014 Geneva Motor Show with the slogan go fun yourself and it rolled off the production line on May 27,2014
33.
Heuliez
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Heuliez was a French company that worked as a production and design unit for various automakers. It specialized in producing short series for niche markets, such as convertibles or station-wagons, business activity ended on 31 October 2013. The companys plant and buildings have taken over by the Fabrique régionale du Bocage. Heuliez was created in 1920 by Adolphe Heuliez, who started by making horse-drawn carts, as early as 1925, he assembled his first car, a Peugeot 177B. He also created a company for the production of buses. Towards the end, however, the product of Heuliez was the retractable roof made for the Peugeot 206 CC. It also produced cars, such as the Opel Tigra. Since 1985, Heuliez has produced more than 450,000 cars, more recently, however, poor sales of the Tigra forced Heuliez to reduce its staff by 541 and Opel asked Heuliez to reduce its output from 200 to 50 cars/day until the end of 2006. In October 2007, Heuliez asked for protection from creditors, Heuliez is trying to put a four-door convertible, similar to the Peugeot 407 Macarena prototype, into production within the next five years. The main production plant is located in Cerizay in the Deux-Sèvres département, the president of Heuliez is Paul Quéveau. In 2010, Heuliez went out of convertible rooftop-making business
34.
Saft Groupe S.A.
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Saft is a company involved in the design, the development and the manufacturing of batteries used in transport, industry and defense. Headquartered in France, it has an international presence, in 1924, the company was partially listed on the Paris Bourse. In 1928, the Compagnie Générale Electrique purchased it, in 1949, it introduced a new type of alkaline battery. The company widened its range of activities and markets, including plants, telephone systems. It introduced a revolutionary manufacturing system for sintered plates, which had an impact in the aeronautic field. In 1953, the US Naval Air Command requested 2000 batteries of 24 V, the contract with the US military was of US$8,951,493 in 2017 dollars. In 1980, together with PSA, Saft conducted a study to evaluate the potential of using batteries to power electric cars, during the next years, the investment was focused on built a sophisticated robotic assembly line. In the 1940s, Saft opened a subsidiary in the United Kingdom and, in the 70s, in the 80s, the company settled in Singapore and continued its expansion. It became the manufacturer of nickel-cadmium batteries both in the aviation sector and in the railway sector. In 1995 Alcatel delisted the company from the market and acquired a 100 percent of its shares. Later, Saft purchased Nife and Alcad, its main rivals, in 2001 it suffered a setback and sold facilities in Korea and Mexico. The same year it acquired from Invensys plc the American company Hawker Eternacell and it also took control of the American company ASB and Sonnenschein Lithium. In 2003, it purchased the German company Friemann und Wolf Batterietechnik GmbH, and the assets of Emisa and Centra, from Exide. In 2004, the equity firm Doughty Hanson Funds purchased from Alcatel, at a cost of 900 million euros, a 100 percent stake in Saft. In July 2005, Saft agreed the purchase of a 51 percent stake in AMCO Power Systems Ltd with its owner, in February of that year, Saft purchased from Amalgamations Private its remaining stake in AMCO Power Systems, which was renamed AMCO-Saft India Ltd. In May 2006, EADS and Saft America, through ASB, formed the new subsidiary Advanced Thermal Batteries Inc located in Cockeysville, Maryland, with the purpose of supplying the military industry. In April 2007, Doughty Hanson sold all its stake in Saft, since then, the majority of the shares were kept on free float. In January 2008 Johnson Controls-Saft opened the first production facility for lithium-ion hybrid vehicle batteries in Nersac, in 2009, Johnson Controls-Saft started the construction of a lithium-ion production plant in Michigan, while Saft built another for itself in Florida
35.
PSA TU engine
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The PSA TU engine is a family of small four-cylinder engines used in the Peugeot and Citroën range of cars. It was introduced in 1986 with the Citroën AX, replacing the X family, the TU is available in either petrol or a non-turbo Diesel variants, the latter called TUD. The X engine, by comparison, had an integral transmission mounted on the side of the crankcase, the TU engine is/was used in the following cars, Citroën, AX, Saxo, C2, C3, BX, ZX, Xsara, C15, Nemo and Berlingo. Peugeot,106,205,206,207,309,306,307,405, Bipper, Partner, iran Khodro, Samand Soren and Runna. The TU9 was the version, used in a variety of cars including the Citroën AX, Saxo. Production was stopped in the Citroen Saxo and Peugeot 106 with the introduction of Euro III in 2001, the introduction of Euro III led to the adoption of multipoint injection, but power remained the same. This engine was the option in the Citroën C2 and C3. The TU2 has a displacement of 1294 cc, with a bore of 75 mm, a new version with 100 PS was created in 1992 for the Peugeot 106 Rallye, with the adoption of a Magneti Marelli fuel injection system and a catalytic converter. This version in the 106 Rallye uses a different taller TU3 aluminum block to the TU24, different con rod lengths, the aluminium heads also differ slightly in port size and shape with different camshafts. The valve sizes are very different with the TU24 being 39. 3mm Inlet /31. 2mm Exhaust. TU2J2 being 39. 5mm Inlet and 31. 4mm Exhaust with slightly thinner valve stems to the TU24, the TU3 has a displacement of 1360 cc, with a bore of 75 mm and a stroke of 77 mm. In its early years, it was available with either a single or double barrel carburetor, with fuel injection introduced in 1990 for the AX GTI and 106 XSi, the carburated versions gave way to fuel injection in 1992, while the sports version was retired in 1996. A DOHC 16-valve version of the TU3 with variable timing was introduced in 2004 with the Peugeot 206 quiksilver. However, this version was named ET3, possibly as a prelude for the new PSA/BMW Prince engine family, the TU5 has a displacement of 1587 cc, with a bore of 78.5 mm and a stroke of 82 mm. It was initially available in 8- and 16-valve configuration, but only the DOHC 16V option remains, the block is made of cast iron and the head is aluminium. Power is 109 PS in most current applications, the same as the DV61.6 L Diesel engine, the TU5 has been used in motorsports by both Citroën and Peugeot. The latest application is in the Citroën C-Elysée and Peugeot 301 where it is renamed as EC5, TU5 JP+ and TU5 JP/L4 are almost same engines, but with slight differences. The TUD was the diesel variant, an indirect injection diesel with mechanical pump
36.
Jetronic
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Jetronic is a trade name of a fuel injection technology for automotive petrol engines, developed and marketed by Robert Bosch GmbH from the 1960s onwards. Bosch licensed the concept to many automobile manufacturers, there are several variations of the technology offering technological development and refinement. Analog fuel injection, D is from German, Druck meaning pressure, inlet manifold depression is measured using a pressure sensor located in, or connected to the intake manifold, in order to calculate the duration of fuel injection pulses. Originally, this system was called Jetronic, but the name D-Jetronic was later created as a retronym to distinguish it from newer versions. D-Jetronic was a precursor of modern common rail systems as it had constant pressure fuel delivery to the injectors and pulsed injections, mechanical fuel injection, K stands for German, Kontinuierlich, meaning continuous. Commonly called Continuous Injection System in the USA, K-Jetronic is different from pulsed injection systems in that the fuel flows continuously from all injectors, while the fuel pump pressurises the fuel up to approximately 5 bar. The volume of air taken in by the engine is measured to determine the amount of fuel to inject and this system has no lambda loop or lambda control. The final car to use K-Jetronic was the 1994 Porsche 911 Turbo 3.6, fuel is pumped from the tank to a large control valve called a fuel distributor, which divides the single fuel supply line from the tank into smaller lines, one for each injector. The control pressure is regulated with a device called the control pressure regulator or the warm-up regulator. Depending on the model, the CPR may be used to compensate for altitude, full load, the injectors are simple spring-loaded check valves with nozzles, once fuel system pressure becomes high enough to overcome the counterspring, the injectors begin spraying. A variant of K-Jetronic with closed-loop lambda control, also named Ku-Jetronic, the system was developed to comply with U. S. A. state of Californias California Air Resources Board exhaust emission regulations, and later replaced by KE-Jetronic. First introduced in the Volvo 265 in 1976, the engine control unit may be either analog or digital, and the system may or may not have closed-loop lambda control. The system is based on the K-Jetronic mechanical system, with the addition of an electro-hydraulic actuator, with the electronics disconnected, this system will operate as a K-Jetronic system. Commonly known as CIS-E in the USA, the later KE3 variant features knock sensing capabilities. L-Jetronic was often called Air-Flow Controlled injection to further separate it from the pressure-controlled D-Jetronic — with the L in its name derived from German, luft, meaning air. In the system, air flow into the engine is measured by a moving vane known as the air flow sensor — referred to in German documentation as the LuftMengenMesser or LMM. L-Jetronic used custom-designed integrated circuits, resulting in a simpler and more reliable engine control unit than the D-Jetronics, L-Jetronic was used heavily in 1980s-era European cars, as well as BMW K-Series motorcycles. Licensing some of Boschs L-Jetronic concepts and technologies, Lucas, Hitachi Automotive Products, NipponDenso, L-Jetronic manufactured under license by Japan Electronic Control Systems was fitted to the 1980 Kawasaki Z1000-H1, the worlds first production fuel injected motorcycle
37.
Peugeot 108
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The Peugeot 108 is a city car, launched by the French manufacturer Peugeot in March 2014, at the Geneva Motor Show. It went on later in July 2014, for the United Kingdom. It is related to the Citroën C1 and Toyota Aygo, again sharing the chassis, engines, transmissions. Cars are built in the factory, situated in the Czech Republic. Media related to Peugeot 108 at Wikimedia Commons Official website
38.
Peugeot 208
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The Peugeot 208 is a supermini produced by the French automaker Peugeot and unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2012. The first 208 models were three-door hatchbacks produced in 2011 at the new plant in Slovakia. In June 2012, as five door hatchbacks became available, production of the 208 also commenced at Peugeots French plants at Mulhouse and at Poissy. The 208, developed under code name A9, is built on the PSA PF1 platform, the boot offers 285 L of space,15 L more than the 207, and the leg room in the rear seat increases 5 cm. The design was led by Pierre Authier, with Sylvain Henry as exterior designer, the interior design is by Adam Bazydlo and the colour and trim is by Marie Sanou. The car will feature a tablet computer-like screen and panoramic glass roof surrounded by LED lights, the car is relatively aerodynamic with a drag coefficient, Cd, of 0.29. All the petrol engines comply with the Euro 5 norm and the engines have CO2-emissions of 99 g/km or lower.0 VTi and 1.2 VTi. The 1.0 comes with a fuel consumption of 4.3 L/100 km. The GTIs Prince engine is shared with the Mini and various Citroëns, in April 2013, a 208 T16 was tested by Sébastien Loeb at Mont Ventoux. At Pikes Peak on 30 June 2013, Sébastien Loeb used the 208 T16 to break Rhys Millens record time, the previous record of 9,46.164 was shattered, and a new record time of 8,13.878 was set. The car also won the race at the 2014 Goodwood Festival of Speed. Team Peugeot-Hansen won the title at the FIA World Rallycross Championship in 2015. Jérôme Grosset-Janin was runner-up in the FIA European Rallycross Championship in the same year, Peugeot announced the 300, 000th 208 was produced in February 2013. Official website Peugeot 208 design story
39.
Peugeot 301 (2012)
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The Peugeot 301 is a compact car, produced by the French automaker Peugeot. It was announced to the public in May 2012, with a launch that took place at the Paris Motor Show in September. The 301 is built at Peugeot’s Vigo plant in Spain, alongside its twin Citroën C-Elysée, and has manufactured in China since November 2013. Sales of the 301 commenced in November 2012, initially in Turkey, as the 301 is designed specifically for emerging markets, the 301 is not available in Western Europe, including France and the United Kingdom. The 301 is 4,440 mm in length, with a 2,650 mm wheelbase. A similar model to the 301, badged as a Citroën C-Elysée, was launched at the Paris Motor Show in 2012, with sales targeted in the first instance in eastern Europe. The C-Elysée is also sold in Spain, Portugal, Greece, and since March 2016 also in Italy. The C-Elysée shares its dimensions with the 301, and is available with 1.2 VTi 72 hp,1. 6VTi 115 hp and 1. 6HDi 90 hp engines, and 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmissions. In 2013, Citroën Racing created a new sub-division, the Citroën World Touring Car Team, the name Citroën C-Elysée WTCC has been chosen for the race car running in this world competition. It was developed in a few months, thanks to the experience of the Citroën World Rally Team. The Citroën World Touring Car Team won fourteen victories out of the fifteen first races of the 2014 WTCC season, in spite of the handicap of the 60 kg Compensation Weight put to the leading cars. The Citroën/Total WTCC Team won the Manufacturers WTCC Championship,5 races before the end of the season, after the 2014 Shanghai first race, the Citroën World Touring Car Team pilots also got the three first ranks of the Drivers World Touring Car Championship
40.
Peugeot 308
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The Peugeot 308 is a small family car produced by the French car manufacturer Peugeot. It was unveiled on 5 June 2007, and launched in September 2007 and its development code was Project T7, and is the first car of the X08 generation of Peugeot models. The 308 features a range of petrol and diesel engine options, in March 2011, the 308 received a facelift and it premiered at the Geneva Motor Show. A second generation was unveiled in 2013 and it was awarded as the 2014 European Car of the Year. Launched as the replacement for the Peugeot 307 in most international markets, the new vehicle was based upon the old 307’s chassis and its coefficient of drag is 0.29, and it has a five-star Euro NCAP rating. Following the 2011 facelift, the drag-factor was reduced to 0.28, the 308 is manufactured in France at the Mulhouse and Sochaux factories. It is also manufactured in Kaluga, Russia, for the market, since 2010. The 307 remains in production for several countries, especially those that prefer saloon bodies, the 308 is available as a 5-door hatchback, with a 3-door limited to a few markets. In 2010, Peugeot announced the return of a GTI model, the 308 SW is available in a 5 or 7 seat versions. A further variation of the X08 chassis used by the 308 is an SUV or an MPV named 3008, a cabriolet with a retractable hardtop known as the 308 CC replaced the Peugeot 307 CC in the spring of 2009. The roof folds into the boot in 20 seconds, and at up to speeds of 7.5 mph, with the roof up the boot space capacity is 465 litres but this reduces to 266-litres with the roof down. In September 2011 Peugeot has presented for the Chinese market a four-door sedan version of the 308, the interior is identical to the European model. The engine range includes two petrol 1.6 16V110 hp and 143 hp 2.0 16V, the trunk has a volume of 502 liters. The Peugeot 308 sedan, sold at 160.000 units in 3 years, joins the Peugeot 408 in China, a C-segment car with a slightly higher price. A facelifted 308 was released in May 2011 following the launch at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show with a new front end. Peugeot also launched the 308 e-HDI micro-hybrid model with stop-start technology, a system to recover energy during deceleration, a full hybrid 3008 was also announced at the same time. The version produced in South America is assembled with this facelift, the facelift was also given to 308 SW and 308 CC. Bosch announced in 2007 that it is supplying hybrid diesel-electric technology to Peugeot for the 308, Peugeot presented a 2+2 coupé concept car development of the 308, the 308 RCZ, at the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show
41.
Peugeot 408
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The Peugeot 408 is a small family car produced by Peugeot. It was unveiled on January 25,2010, at the Beijing Auto Show, in November 2010, production of the 408 commenced in El Palomar, Buenos Aires, Argentina, with sales starting in April 2011. Despite its name, it is not the successor to the Peugeot 407, the 408 is not slated for the Western European market, and not built there. Depending on where this car is produced, there are internal and external differences. The front of the car is one of the visible changes, indeed, in some markets, there are cars with the front of the South American version and the back of the Chinese version. Inside the vehicle, the most noticeable difference is seen at the door, the 408 is available in China with either a 1.6 L and 2.0 L petrol four-cylinder engine. The 1.6 has a capacity of 1587 cc and produces 110 bhp at 5,750 r. p. m. and maximum torque of 147 N·m at 4,000 rpm. The 2.0 L engine has a capacity of 1997 cc, either engine can be specified with a five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission. In South America a 1.6 L diesel engine, known as a HDi, is alongside the 2.0 L petrol engine and 1. 6L THP petrol engine with six-speed automatic transmission. The four-cylinder diesel has a capacity of 1560 cc and produces 143 bhp, the HDi has a top speed of 188 km/h and accelerates to 100 km/h in 12.4 seconds. In Malaysia,408 comes with two engines,1. 6L Prince turbo engine and 2. 0L petrol four-cylinder engine, the 1. 6L engine produces 163 bhp at 6,000 rpm. and maximum torque of 240 N·m from 1,400 rpm. The 2.0 L engine has a capacity of 1997 cc,1. 6L Prince turbo engines mated with 6-speed and 2. 0L engine mated with 4 speeds auto adaptive gearbox with Tiptronic and Sport mode only. The 408 First Generation continues in production in Latin America, with a front/rear facelift, front was restyled with grille and headlamps in 408 Second Generation style. The second generation Peugeot 408 was unveiled in the 2014 Beijing Auto Show, Peugeot 408 International Version was launched first at NAZA Tower in Malaysia with only one engine choice and transmission
42.
Peugeot 508
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The Peugeot 508 is a large family car launched in 2011 by French automaker Peugeot, and followed by the 508 SW, an estate version, in March 2011. It replaces the Peugeot 407, as well as the larger Peugeot 607, at the end of 2014, Peugeot launched the new generation of 508,508 SW and also RXH. The front of the car was redesigned and full led headlights are now available, new engines were also launched, for example, a new engine, front wheel drive appeared for the RXH. In 2015 the Peugeot 508 received a facelift that was marked by a vertical grill and the inclusion of the Peugeot lion in the centre of the new grill. In addition 2015 brought a new 180 bhp 2. 0-litre diesel option which can also be paired with a Hybrid4 electrical motor system effectively making the Peugeot 508 an AWD vehicle with combined 200 bhp. The 508 saloon is 4.79 m long, while the 508 SW is 4.81 m long, compared to the Peugeot 407 the 508 has a shorter front overhang and a longer rear passenger compartment. After a few initial leaked spyshots, the first definitive details, Peugeot released additional information on 6 September 2010. The 508 was officially launched at the 2010 Paris Motor Show, PSA Peugeot Citroën build the 508 in China in partnership with Dongfeng Motor, and sold 65,000 units locally in 2012. It was launched there on 10 August 2011 and it is reported Peugeot expects China to be the largest market for the car, at almost twice of what is expected to be sold in France. It will be the first time for the company to more in a country other than France for a model that is available in Europe. Peugeot has equipped the European-market 508 with its HDI common-rail diesel engines, though this matches the Volkswagen Passat Bluemotion, it features a slightly larger fuel tank which allows it to cover a slightly longer range of 1017 miles. At least two engines are available in 2011 and 2012. The first engines had emission of 114 g/km, the later model reduces emissions to 109 g/km. A modified air intake is the cause, the 508 range will also include PSAs HYbrid4 diesel-electric hybrid powertrain, which will reduce fuel consumption further, to 3.80 L/100 km,61.9 mpg‑US with CO2 emissions of 99 g/km. The top GT version comes with a 201 bhp,2. 2-litre turbodiesel engine which generates 458 N·m of torque and it comes mated solely to a six-speed torque converter automatic gearbox which offers manual shifts via paddles or a central selector. The 508 received a five-star Euro NCAP 2011-rating, the score was, At the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show, Peugeot revealed a hybrid-electric crossover estate luxe variant of the 508. To distinguish it from other 508s, the RXH features flared wheel arches, the Hybrid4 powertrain combined a 120 kW2.0 litre HDi FAP diesel engine with a 28 kW electric motor to lower fuel consumption to 4.2 l/100 km. The RXH was released in early 2012, the 508 RXH was launched in a single high spec limited edition version, before a full range became available
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Peugeot 2008
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The Peugeot 2008 is a subcompact crossover SUV produced by the French manufacturer Peugeot since 2013. Peugeot 2008 replaced the Peugeot 207 SW, as Peugeot did not plan to release an SW version of its 208 and it was developed under code name A94 and is based on the PF1 platform, sharing electronic components with Peugeot 208. The revised version was presented at the Geneva Motor Show in 2016 and it is available with a five speed manual gearbox or a six speed manual, according to engine size. As of 2017, its available with a six speed automatic. Stéphane Peterhansel won the 2016 Dakar Rally using a Peugeot 2008 DKR, with a mid rear mounted V6 twin turbo diesel engine, media related to Peugeot 2008 at Wikimedia Commons
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Peugeot 3008
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The Peugeot 3008 is a compact crossover unveiled by French automaker Peugeot in May 2008 and presented for the first time to the public in Dubrovnik, Croatia. It was launched in April 2009, despite having had its styling criticized, the 3008 has been praised by automobile magazines. In January 2010, the British motoring magazine What Car. awarded it Car of the Year for 2010 and it also was awarded 2010 Semperit Irish Car of the Year in Ireland. In 2016, Peugeot unveiled the New 3008 SUV with the car to become available as of January 2017, the car is due to be a new milestone for Peugeot in its quest to become the highest selling range of vehicles in the industry. In November 2016, the new 3008 SUV was awarded overall CarBuyer Car of the Year 2017 as well as winning best in the SUV category. In March 2017, the New 3008 SUV won European Car Of The Year 2017 by a jury of 58 motoring journalists from 22 European countries, the award comes the same day that Peugeot parent company PSA Group announced a $2.3 billion deal to buy GM’s Opel division. Opel’s Astra won the Car of the Year in 2016, reacted with these 2 awards within 2 years, the Peugeot Group CEO Jean-Philippe Imparato said, “This is an alliance of winners. ”The 3008 Exclusive & Allure models have a Head Up Display, which projects a reading onto a small perspex like screen just in front of the main windscreen area in front of the driver. It also contains an alert, which warns the driver if they are too close to the car in front. It also displays details for Cruise Control or the Speed Limiter, the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 was launched in February 2012 and is the worlds first mass production diesel-electric hybrid. The crossover hybrid has four different operating modes, Auto, ZEV, four-wheel drive mode, a 200v nickel-metal hydride battery pack is located in the rear. A second generation 3008 was announced by Peugeot in May 2016 and was first presented to the public at the Paris Motor Show in September 2016. Its design allows the vehicle to come into contention with large competitors in the C-Segment SUV market what has been a prominent market in the past years. It features Peugeots new i-Cockpit which is an improved design compared to the current i-Cockpit featured in the Peugeot 208, Peugeot 2008 and Peugeot 308. Features include a 8-inch touch screen to the console, a 12. 3-inch customisable heads-up display. Production started in 2016 with sales starting in January 2017,100,000 orders have been made in Europe between October 2016 and March 2017, half of them were made by people who did not own a Peugeot. European Car of the Year 2017 Official UK3008 website Official 3008 HYbrid4 page Peugeot 3008 Active 2. 0HDI Exterior and Interior in Full 3D HD
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Peugeot 5008
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The Peugeot 5008 is a compact MPV unveiled by French automaker Peugeot in June 2009 and has been on sale since November 2009. Five- and seven-seat versions are currently available and its engine range mimics the Peugeot 308. The 5008 shares underskin structure and mechanical components with the first generation Citroën C4 Grand Picasso, the 5008 was awarded 2010 MPV of the Year by What Car. The 5008 is available in North Africa, South America, Australia and it is also available in 11 countries in Asia and the Middle East, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia. The second generation 5008 will go on sale in 2016
Peugeot
La Marsa, Tunisia (STAFIM)
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Media related to Peugeot 106 at Wikimedia Commons