1.
Polyphenol
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Polyphenols are a structural class of mainly natural, but also synthetic or semisynthetic, organic chemicals characterized by the presence of large multiples of phenol structural units. The number and characteristics of these phenol structures underlie the unique physical, chemical, examples include tannic acid and ellagitannin. The historically important chemical class of tannins is a subset of the polyphenols, the term polyphenol appears to have been in use since 1894. g. Phenyl esters, methyl phenyl ethers and O-phenyl glycosides and this definition departs from the WBSSH definition in terms of physicochemical behavior, with its lack of reference to solubility, precipitation, and complexation phenomena. The raspberry ellagitannin, on the hand, with its 14 gallic acid moieties. Individual polyphenols engage in related to both their core phenolic structures, their linkages, and types of glycosides they form. In addition, as noted above, a feature of polyphenols was their ability to form particular. As opposed to smaller phenols, polyphenols are often larger molecules deposited in cell vacuoles, hence, many larger polyphenols are biosynthesized in-situ from smaller polyphenols to nonhydrolyzable tannins and remain undiscovered in the plant matrix. Most polyphenols contain repeating phenolic moieties of pyrocatechol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, proanthocyanidins are mostly polymeric units of catechin and epicatechin. The phenolic substructures arise from various biosynthetic pathways, especially phenylpropanoid and polyketide branches aimed at plant, in these, diverse biosynthetic steps abound, the seven-atom ring appearing in theaflavin structure above is an example of a carbocycle that is of a nonbenzenoid aromatic tropolone type. Because of the preponderance of saccharide-derived core structures, as well as spiro- and other structure types, the total synthesis of a fully unmasked polyphenol, that of the ellagitannin tellimagrandin I, was a diastereoselective sequence reported in 1994 by Feldman, Ensel and Minard. Khanbabaee and Grosser accomplished a relatively efficient total synthesis of pedunculagin in 2003, work proceeded with focus on enantioselective total syntheses, e. g. A biomimetic synthesis, and the first formal total synthesis 5-O-Desgalloyl-epi-punicacortein A, the novel strategies and methods referred to in these recent examples helped to open the field of polyphenol chemical synthesis to an unprecedented degree. They are reactive species toward oxidation, ABTS may be used to characterise polyphenol oxidation products. Polyphenols also characteristically possess a significant binding affinity for proteins, which can lead to the formation of soluble and insoluble protein-polyphenol complexes, some polyphenols are traditionally used as dyes. For instance, in the Indian subcontinent, the peel, high in tannins and other polyphenols. The aims are generally to use of plant residues from grape. Cashew nut shell liquid is an important phenolic raw material containing mostly cardol, cardanol, pyrogallol and pyrocatechin are among the oldest photographic developers
2.
Anthocyanin
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Anthocyanins are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may appear red, purple, or blue depending on the pH. They belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the pathway, they are odorless but flavorful. Anthocyanins occur in all tissues of plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers. Anthoxanthins are clear, white to yellow counterparts of anthocyanins occurring in plants, anthocyanins are derived from anthocyanidins by adding sugars. Anthocyanins have an antioxidant role in plants against reactive oxygen species caused by abiotic stresses, such as overexposure to ultraviolet light, tomato plants protect against cold stress with anthocyanins countering reactive oxygen species, leading to a lower rate of cell death in leaves. Anthocyanins are considered secondary metabolites as an additive with E number E163, they are approved for use as a food additive in the EU, Australia. Although anthocyanins have antioxidant properties in vitro, this antioxidant effect is not conserved after the plant is consumed, as interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and European Food Safety Authority, dietary anthocyanins and other flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. The absorbance pattern responsible for the red color of anthocyanins may be complementary to that of green chlorophyll in photosynthetically active tissues such as young Quercus coccifera leaves and it may protect the leaves from attacks by plant eaters that may be attracted by green color. Anthocyanins are found in the vacuole, mostly in flowers and fruits but also in leaves, stems. In these parts, they are predominantly in outer cell layers such as the epidermis. Most frequently occurring in nature are the glycosides of cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, roughly 2% of all hydrocarbons fixed in photosynthesis are converted into flavonoids and their derivatives such as the anthocyanins. Not all land plants contain anthocyanin, in the Caryophyllales, they are replaced by betalains, anthocyanins and betalains have never been found in the same plant. Sometimes bred purposely for high anthocyanin quantities, ornamental plants such as sweet peppers may have unusual culinary, anthocyanins occur in the flowers of many plants, such as the famously blue poppies of some Meconopsis species and cultivars. Red-fleshed peaches and apples contain anthocyanins, anthocyanins are less abundant in banana, asparagus, pea, fennel, pear, and potato, and may be totally absent in certain cultivars of green gooseberries. The highest recorded amount appears to be specifically in the coat of black soybean containing around 2 g per 100 g, in purple corn kernels and husks. Due to critical differences in origin, preparation and extraction methods determining anthocyanin content. The variety known as Indigo Rose became commercially available to the agricultural industry, investing tomatoes with high anthocyanin content doubles their shelf-life and inhibits growth of a post-harvest mold pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. Tomatoes have also been modified with transcription factors from snapdragons to produce high levels of anthocyanins in the fruits
3.
Cucurbita
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Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
4.
Pumpkin
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A pumpkin is a cultivar of a squash plant, most commonly of Cucurbita pepo, that is round, with smooth, slightly ribbed skin, and deep yellow to orange coloration. The thick shell contains the seeds and pulp, some exceptionally large cultivars of squash with similar appearance have also been derived from Cucurbita maxima. Specific cultivars of winter squash derived from other species, including C. argyrosperma, in New Zealand and Australian English, the term pumpkin generally refers to the broader category called winter squash elsewhere. Native to North America, pumpkins are grown for commercial use and are used both in food and recreation. Pumpkins, like squash, are thought to have originated in North America. The oldest evidence, pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and 5500 BC, was found in Mexico, since some squash share the same botanical classifications as pumpkins, the names are frequently used interchangeably. Pumpkin fruits are a type of botanical berry known as a pepo, traditional C. pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 6 and 18 pounds, though the largest cultivars regularly reach weights of over 75 pounds. The color of pumpkins derives from orange carotenoid pigments, including beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha and beta carotene, the word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which is Greek for large melon, something round and large. The French adapted this word to pompon, which the British changed to pumpion and later American colonists changed that to the word that is used today, pumpkin. The term pumpkin has no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning, all pumpkins are winter squash, mature fruit of certain species in the genus Cucurbita. Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin, circa 2005, white pumpkins had become increasingly popular in the United States. Other colors, including green, also exist. Pumpkins are grown all around the world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes to commercial and ornamental sales. Of the seven continents, only Antarctica is unable to produce pumpkins, the biggest international producers of pumpkins include the United States, Canada, Mexico, India, the traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut Field variety. As one of the most popular crops in the United States,1.5 billion pounds of pumpkins are produced each year, the top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California. According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95% of the U. S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois, Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libbys, produces 85% of the processed pumpkin in the United States, at their plant in Morton, Illinois. In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Nestlé crop, Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted in early July. The specific conditions necessary for growing pumpkins require that soil temperatures three inches deep are at least 60 °F and soil that holds water well
5.
Pigment
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A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
6.
Carotenoid
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Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms, the only animals known to produce carotenoids are aphids and spider mites, which acquired the ability and genes from fungi. Carotenoids from the diet are stored in the fatty tissues of animals, there are over 600 known carotenoids, they are split into two classes, xanthophylls and carotenes. All are derivatives of tetraterpenes, meaning that they are produced from 8 isoprene molecules, in general, carotenoids absorb wavelengths ranging from 400-550 nanometers. This causes the compounds to be colored yellow, orange. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species, carotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae, they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis, and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage. Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings have vitamin A activity, CRT is the gene cluster responsible for the biosynthesis of carotenoids. Carotenoids belong to the category of tetraterpenoids, structurally, carotenoids take the form of a polyene hydrocarbon chain which is sometimes terminated by rings, and may or may not have additional oxygen atoms attached. Carotenoids with molecules containing oxygen, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, are known as xanthophylls, the unoxygenated carotenoids such as α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene, are known as carotenes. Carotenes typically contain only carbon and hydrogen, and are in the subclass of unsaturated hydrocarbons, probably the most well-known carotenoid is the one that gives this second group its name, carotene, found in carrots and are responsible for their bright orange color. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100 gram serving, vietnamese Gac fruit contains the highest known concentration of the carotenoid lycopene. Their color, ranging from yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly linked to their structure. Xanthophylls are often yellow, hence their class name, the double carbon-carbon bonds interact with each other in a process called conjugation, which allows electrons in the molecule to move freely across these areas of the molecule. As the number of conjugated double bonds increases, electrons associated with conjugated systems have more room to move and this causes the range of energies of light absorbed by the molecule to decrease. As more frequencies of light are absorbed from the end of the visible spectrum. Carotenoids are usually due to the presence of long unsaturated aliphatic chains as in some fatty acids. The physiological absorption of these fat-soluble vitamins in humans and other organisms depends directly on the presence of fats, carotenoids are a common and often ornamental feature in animals. For example, the color of flamingos and salmon
7.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
8.
Poison
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In biology, poisons are substances that cause disturbances in organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when an organism absorbs a sufficient quantity. The fields of medicine and zoology often distinguish a poison from a toxin, toxins are poisons produced by organisms in nature, and venoms are toxins injected by a bite or sting. The difference between venom and other poisons is the delivery method, industry, agriculture, and other sectors use poisons for reasons other than their toxicity. Pesticides are one group of substances whose toxicity to various insects, in 2013,3.3 million cases of unintentional poisonings occurred. This resulted in 98,000 deaths worldwide, down from 120,000 deaths in 1990, the use of poison as an adjective dates from the 1520s. Using the word poison with plant names dates from the 18th century, the term poison ivy, for example, was first used in 1784 and the term poison oak was first used in 1743. The term poison gas was first used in 1915, paracelsus, the father of toxicology, once wrote, Everything is poison, there is poison in everything. Only the dose makes a thing not a poison, the term poison is also used in a figurative sense, His brothers presence poisoned the atmosphere at the party. The law defines poison more strictly, substances not legally required to carry the label poison can also cause a medical condition of poisoning. Some poisons are also toxins, which is any poison produced by animals, vegetables or bacterium, such as the proteins that cause tetanus. A distinction between the two terms is not always observed, even among scientists, the derivative forms toxic and poisonous are synonymous. Animal poisons delivered subcutaneously are also called venom, in normal usage, a poisonous organism is one that is harmful to consume, but a venomous organism uses venom to kill its prey or defend itself while still alive. A single organism can be poisonous and venomous, but that is rare. Human antimicrobial peptides which are toxic to viruses, fungi, bacteria, in nuclear physics, a poison is a substance that obstructs or inhibits a nuclear reaction. For an example, see nuclear poison, environmentally hazardous substances are not necessarily poisons, and vice versa. Biologically speaking, any substance, if given in large amounts, is poisonous. For instance, several kilograms worth of water would constitute a lethal dose, many substances used as medications—such as fentanyl—have an LD50 only one order of magnitude greater than the ED50. An alternative classification distinguishes between lethal substances that provide a value and those that do not
9.
Traditional medicine
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Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their health care needs. When adopted outside of its culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine. Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include herbalism, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, the line between alternative medicine and quackery is a contentious subject. Traditional medicine may include formalized aspects of medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on. Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine, alternative medicine, indigenous medicine and these terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may wish to highlight. Similarly, a remedy is a treatment to cure a disease or ailment that employs certain spices, vegetables. Home remedies may or may not have medicinal properties that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, in the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In Ancient Egyptian medicine, the Ebers papyrus from c.1552 BC records a list of folk remedies, the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to Kashrut. Many herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka, Latin manuscripts of De Materia Medica were combined with a Latin herbal by Apuleius Platonicus and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon codex Cotton Vitellius C. III. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna, the Persian Rhazes, Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the Bedouins and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and Ayurvedic medical traditions. Spanish indigenous medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492, islamic physicians and Muslim botanists such as al-Dinawari and Ibn al-Baitar significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicennas The Canon of Medicine, the Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The Unani system of medicine is also based on the Canon. Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by Hieronymus Bock whose herbal, the book was translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens, and from Dutch into English by Carolus Clusius, published by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became John Gerards Herball or General Hiftorie of Plantes, each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions. Womens folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts, forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and emollients mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe. The Puritans took Gerards work to the United States where it influenced American Indigenous medicine, both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted Aztec ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as warm, cold, and moist, but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories
10.
Nutrition facts label
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The nutrition facts label is a label required on most packaged food in many countries. Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes, in some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods. Australia and New Zealand use an information panel of the following format, Other items are included as appropriate. In April 2013 the New Zealand government introduced rules around common claims made on food packaging, in Canada, a standardized Nutrition Facts label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12,2005. In accordance with food packaging laws in the country, all information, including the nutrition label, canadian regulation tightly controls the manner in which the nutrition fact table data are laid out. There is a variety of possible formats for use on a given food package. A selection hierarchy is used to select among the many formats and this results in standard formats being considered for use before horizontal and linear formats. The selection hierarchy also allows the NFT to occupy no more than 15% of the packages available display area. In practice, determining the ADS of a package, and selecting the appropriate NFT format, a new regulation is now in force. Nutritional labelling becomes mandatory for most pre-packaged foods as from December 2016, in the European Union, along the old rules, the information is most often labelled Nutrition Information. An example is shown on the right, the panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity —100 g or 100 ml of the product — and often also for a defined serving, first will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules. Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements, usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The fat figure is likely to be broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat. With regards to health claims and nutrition claims, these are harmonised in the EU through Regulation 1924/2006, in November 2012, the European Commission published two new regulations, Regulation No. Certain nutrition claim groups as of Regulation No 1924/2006 had to be changed, moreover, the health claims associated to barley beta-gluten were amended. Within Regulation 1924, there are definitions of terms such as low fat, high fibre. All health claims have been harmonised in the European Union and they can be used if they have been approved by EFSA
11.
Metabolism
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Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, usually, breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical. Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly, enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cells environment or to signals from other cells. The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious, for example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the rate, influences how much food an organism will require. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the metabolic pathways. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their appearance in evolutionary history. Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three classes of molecule, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids. These biochemicals can be joined together to make such as DNA and proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds, many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals and their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform, the fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol, a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another class of lipids. Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with hydroxyl groups attached. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy, the basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose
12.
Flavonoid
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Flavonoids are a class of plant and fungus secondary metabolites. Chemically, flavonoids have the structure of a 15-carbon skeleton. This carbon structure can be abbreviated C6-C3-C6 and this class was the first to be termed bioflavonoids. The terms flavonoid and bioflavonoid have also more loosely used to describe non-ketone polyhydroxy polyphenol compounds which are more specifically termed flavanoids. The three cycle or heterocycles in the backbone are generally called ring A, B and C. Ring A usually shows a phloroglucinol substitution pattern, Flavonoids are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions. Flavonoids are the most important plant pigments for coloration, producing yellow or red/blue pigmentation in petals designed to attract pollinator animals. In higher plants, flavonoids are involved in UV filtration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and they may also act as chemical messengers, physiological regulators, and cell cycle inhibitors. Flavonoids secreted by the root of their host plant help Rhizobia in the stage of their symbiotic relationship with legumes like peas, beans, clover. In addition, some flavonoids have inhibitory activity against organisms that cause plant diseases, over 5000 naturally occurring flavonoids have been characterized from various plants. Flavonols, the original such as quercetin, are also found ubiquitously. Further information on sources of flavonoids can be obtained from the US Department of Agriculture flavonoid database. Parsley, both fresh and dried, contains flavones, blueberries are a dietary source of anthocyanidins. Black tea is a source of dietary flavan-3-ols. The citrus flavonoids include hesperidin, quercitrin, rutin, and the flavone tangeritin, Flavonoids exist naturally in cocoa, but because they can be bitter, they are often removed from chocolate, even dark chocolate. Although flavonoids are present in milk chocolate, milk may interfere with their absorption, peanut skin contains significant polyphenol content, including flavonoids. Food composition data for flavonoids were provided by the USDA database on flavonoids, in the United States NHANES survey, mean flavonoid intake was 190 mg/d in adults, with flavan-3-ols as the main contributor. In the European Union, based on data from EFSA, mean flavonoid intake was 140 mg/d, the main type of flavonoids consumed in the EU and USA were flavan-3-ols, mainly from tea, while intake of other flavonoids was considerably lower
13.
Stilbenoid
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Stilbenoids are hydroxylated derivatives of stilbene. In biochemical terms, they belong to the family of phenylpropanoids, stilbenoids can be produced by plants and bacteria. Stilbenoids are hydroxylated derivatives of stilbene and have a C6-C2-C6 structure and they belong to the family of phenylpropanoids and share most of their biosynthesis pathway with chalcones. Under UV irradiation, stilbene and its derivatives undergo intramolecular cyclization, oligomeric forms are known as oligostilbenoids. Another example is resveratrol, an antifungal which is found in grapes, Ampelopsin A and Ampelopsin B are resveratrol dimers produced in porcelain berry. A bacterial stilbenoid, -,3, 5-Dihydroxy-4-isopropyl-trans-stilbene, is produced by Photorhabdus which is a symbiont of insect nematodes called Heterorhabditis. Phytoalexins have been suggested by studies to be responsible for resistance to some tree diseases. Chemical Defense Responses of Wilt-Resistant Pine Species, Pinus strobus and P. taeda, against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Infection
14.
Lignan
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The lignans are a large group of chemical compounds found in plants. Some examples of lignans are pinoresinol, podophyllotoxin, and steganacin, plant lignans are polyphenolic substances derived from phenylalanine via dimerization of substituted cinnamic alcohols, known as monolignols, to a dibenzylbutane skeleton 2. This reaction is catalysed by enzymes and is often controlled by dirigent proteins. Many natural products, known as phenylpropanoids, are built up of C6C3 units derived from cinnamyl units just as terpene chemistry builds on isoprene units. Structure 3 is a neolignan, a formed by joining the two propylbenzene residues at other than the β-carbon atom of the propyl side chain. When a part of the diet, some plant lignans are metabolized by intestinal bacteria to mammalian lignans enterodiol. Lignans that can be metabolized to mammalian lignans are pinoresinol, lariciresinol, secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, hydroxymatairesinol, syringaresinol, lignans are one of the major classes of phytoestrogens, which are estrogen-like chemicals and also act as antioxidants. The other classes of phytoestrogens are isoflavones and coumestans, plant lignans are co-passengers of dietary fiber, and therefore fiber-rich food items are often good sources of lignans. Flax seed and sesame seed contain higher levels of lignans than most other foods, the principal lignan precursor found in flaxseed is secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. Other sources of lignans include cereals, soybeans, cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cabbage, secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol were the first plant lignans identified in foods. Pinoresinol and lariciresinol are more recently identified plant lignans that contribute substantially to the total dietary lignan intakes, typically, lariciresinol and pinoresinol contribute about 75% to the total lignan intake whereas secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol contribute only about 25%. This distribution may change as the contributions of syringaresinol and hydroxymatairesinol have not properly been quantified in foods, sources of lignans, A recent study shows the complexity of mammalian lignan precursors in the diet. In the table below are a few examples of the 22 analyzed species, lignans serve an antioxidant role in the plants defenses against biotic and abiotic factors, and have shown anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity in basic research models of human diseases. Lignans may also have anticarcinogenic activities, IUPAC lignan nomenclature Lignan content in food
15.
Flavones
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Flavones, are a class of flavonoids based on the backbone of 2-phenylchromen-4-one shown on the right. Natural flavones include apigenin, luteolin, tangeritin, chrysin, 6-hydroxyflavone, baicalein, scutellarein, synthetic flavones include diosmin, flavoxate, and 7, 8-dihydroxyflavone. Flavone also refers to the flavone compound 2-phenyl-4H-chromen-4-one, flavones are mainly found in cereals and herbs. In the West, the daily intake of flavones is in the range 20–50 mg per day. In recent years, scientific and public interest in flavones has grown, as interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute, dietary flavones, and more generally polyphenols, have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. Flavones have effects on CYP activity which are enzymes that metabolize most drugs in the body, the Wessely–Moser rearrangement has been an important tool in structure elucidation of flavonoids. It involves the conversion of 5,7, 8-trimethoxyflavone into 5,6, flavones at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings
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Isoflavones
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Isoflavones are a type of naturally occurring isoflavonoids, many of which act as phytoestrogens in mammals. Isoflavones are produced almost exclusively by the members of the Fabaceae family, isoflavones of nutritional interest are substituted derivatives of isoflavone, being related to the parent by the replacement of two or three hydrogen atoms with hydroxyl groups. The parent isoflavone is of no nutritional interest, isoflavone differs from flavone in location of the phenyl group. Isoflavones are produced via a branch of the phenylpropanoid pathway that produces flavonoid compounds in higher plants. Soybeans are the most common source of isoflavones in human food, plants use isoflavones and their derivatives as phytoalexin compounds to ward off disease-causing pathogenic fungi and other microbes. In addition, soybean uses isoflavones to stimulate soil-microbe rhizobium to form nitrogen-fixing root nodules, most members of the Fabaceae family contain significant quantities of isoflavones. Analysis of levels in various species has found that the highest levels of genistein and daidzein in psoralea. Various legumes including soybean, green bean, alfalfa sprout, mung bean sprout, cowpea, kudzu root, highly processed foods made from legumes, such as tofu, retain most of their isoflavone content, and fermented miso, which has increased levels. Other dietary sources of isoflavones include chick pea, alfalfa, isoflavones are also found in foods of animal origin such as dairy products, meat, eggs and seafood, but the overall contribution to total intake is low. In countries using the chorleywood bread process, such as in the UK, in plant tissue, they most often occur as glycosides or their respective malonates or acetyl conjugates, rendering them even more water-soluble. The latter forms are unstable and are transformed, e. g. by decarboxylation, often when leguminose plants are challenged with viral or fungal infections, the water-soluble transport forms are hydrolyzed to the respective aglycones at the target site. The consumption of food or dietary supplements is under preliminary research for its potential association with lower rates of postmenopausal cancer. Use of soy isoflavone dietary supplements may be associated with reduction of hot flashes in postmenopausal women, despite the frequent use of isoflavone supplements, there are insufficient data on safety and adverse effects. Isoflavones have GRAS status in the United States
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Flavan-3-ol
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Flavan-3-ols are derivatives of flavans that use the 2-phenyl-3, 4-dihydro-2H-chromen-3-ol skeleton. These compounds include catechin, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallate, flavanols are not to be confused with flavonols, a class of flavonoids containing a ketone group. The single-molecule catechin, or isomer epicatechin, adds four hydroxyls to flavan-3-ol, making building blocks for concatenated polymers, flavanols possess two chiral carbons, meaning four diastereoisomers occur for each of them. Catechins are distinguished from the yellow, ketone-containing flavonoids such as quercitin and rutin, early use of the term bioflavonoid was imprecisely applied to include the flavanols, which are distinguished by absence of ketone. Catechin monomers, dimers, and trimers are colorless, higher order polymers, anthocyanidins, exhibit deepening reds and become tannins. The catechins are abundant in teas derived from the tea plant Camellia sinensis, as well as in some cocoas, catechins are also present in the human diet in fruits, vegetables and wine, and are found in many other plant species, as well as cocoa. Catechin and epicatechin are epimers, with -epicatechin and -catechin being the most common optical isomers found in nature, catechin was first isolated from the plant extract catechu, from which it derives its name. Heating catechin past its point of decomposition releases pyrocatechol, which explains the origin of the names of these compounds. Catechin gallates are gallic acid esters of the catechins, an example is epigallocatechin gallate, the flavonoids are products from a cinnamoyl-CoA starter unit, with chain extension using three molecules of malonyl-CoA. Reactions are catalyzed by a type III PKS enzyme and these enzyme do not use ACPSs, but instead employ coenzyme A esters and have a single active site to perform the necessary series of reactions, e. g. chain extension, condensation, and cyclization. Chain extension of 4-hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA with three molecules of malonyl-CoA gives initially a polyketide, which can be folded and these allow Claisen-like reactions to occur, generating aromatic rings. HSCoA, Coenzyme A. L-Tyr, L-tyrosine, L-Phe, L-phenylalanine, the supposed health benefits of catechins have been studied extensively in humans and animal models, but there are no proven effects that apply to human health. Until 2013, neither the Food and Drug Administration nor the European Food Safety Authority had approved any health claim for catechins or approved any as pharmaceutical drugs, moreover, several companies have been cautioned by the FDA over misleading health claims. Additionally, such a product is high in fat, sugar and Calories, fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy can be used to detect flavanols in plant cells Recent study tested catechins employed to coat nanoparticles of iron oxides in the blood. These particles allow visualization of vessels - and especially cancer tumors in mice - in an MRI exam, the nanoparticles would clump together without the catechin coating
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Catechins
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Flavan-3-ols are derivatives of flavans that use the 2-phenyl-3, 4-dihydro-2H-chromen-3-ol skeleton. These compounds include catechin, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallate, flavanols are not to be confused with flavonols, a class of flavonoids containing a ketone group. The single-molecule catechin, or isomer epicatechin, adds four hydroxyls to flavan-3-ol, making building blocks for concatenated polymers, flavanols possess two chiral carbons, meaning four diastereoisomers occur for each of them. Catechins are distinguished from the yellow, ketone-containing flavonoids such as quercitin and rutin, early use of the term bioflavonoid was imprecisely applied to include the flavanols, which are distinguished by absence of ketone. Catechin monomers, dimers, and trimers are colorless, higher order polymers, anthocyanidins, exhibit deepening reds and become tannins. The catechins are abundant in teas derived from the tea plant Camellia sinensis, as well as in some cocoas, catechins are also present in the human diet in fruits, vegetables and wine, and are found in many other plant species, as well as cocoa. Catechin and epicatechin are epimers, with -epicatechin and -catechin being the most common optical isomers found in nature, catechin was first isolated from the plant extract catechu, from which it derives its name. Heating catechin past its point of decomposition releases pyrocatechol, which explains the origin of the names of these compounds. Catechin gallates are gallic acid esters of the catechins, an example is epigallocatechin gallate, the flavonoids are products from a cinnamoyl-CoA starter unit, with chain extension using three molecules of malonyl-CoA. Reactions are catalyzed by a type III PKS enzyme and these enzyme do not use ACPSs, but instead employ coenzyme A esters and have a single active site to perform the necessary series of reactions, e. g. chain extension, condensation, and cyclization. Chain extension of 4-hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA with three molecules of malonyl-CoA gives initially a polyketide, which can be folded and these allow Claisen-like reactions to occur, generating aromatic rings. HSCoA, Coenzyme A. L-Tyr, L-tyrosine, L-Phe, L-phenylalanine, the supposed health benefits of catechins have been studied extensively in humans and animal models, but there are no proven effects that apply to human health. Until 2013, neither the Food and Drug Administration nor the European Food Safety Authority had approved any health claim for catechins or approved any as pharmaceutical drugs, moreover, several companies have been cautioned by the FDA over misleading health claims. Additionally, such a product is high in fat, sugar and Calories, fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy can be used to detect flavanols in plant cells Recent study tested catechins employed to coat nanoparticles of iron oxides in the blood. These particles allow visualization of vessels - and especially cancer tumors in mice - in an MRI exam, the nanoparticles would clump together without the catechin coating
19.
Catechin
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Catechin /ˈkætᵻtʃɪn/ is a flavan-3-ol, a type of natural phenol and antioxidant. It is a plant secondary metabolite and it belongs to the group of flavan-3-ols, part of the chemical family of flavonoids. The name of the chemical family derives from catechu, which is the tannic juice or boiled extract of Mimosa catechu. Catechin possesses two benzene rings and a dihydropyran heterocycle with a group on carbon 3. The A ring is similar to a resorcinol moiety while the B ring is similar to a catechol moiety, there are two chiral centers on the molecule on carbons 2 and 3. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin, the most common catechin isomer is the -catechin. The other stereoisomer is -catechin or ent-catechin, the most common epicatechin isomer is -epicatechin. The different epimers can be distinguished using chiral column chromatography, making reference to no particular isomer, the molecule can just be called catechin. Mixtures of the different enantiomers can be called -catechin or DL-catechin and -epicatechin or DL-epicatechin, catechin and epicatechin are the building blocks of the proanthocyanidins, a type of condensed tannin. Diastereoisomers gallery Moreover, the flexibility of the C-ring allows for two isomers, putting the B ring either in a pseudoequatorial position or in a pseudoaxial position. Studies confirmed that -catechin adopts a mixture of A- and E-conformers in aqueous solution, as flavonoids, catechins can act as antioxidants when in high concentration in vitro, but compared with other flavonoids, their antioxidant potential is low. Electrochemical experiments show that -catechin oxidation mechanism proceeds in steps, related with the catechol and resorcinol groups. The oxidation of the catechol 3′, 4′-dihydroxyl electron-donating groups occurs first, at very low positive potentials, the hydroxyl groups of the resorcinol moiety oxidised afterwards were shown to undergo an irreversible oxidation reaction. The laccase/ABTS system oxidizes -catechin to oligomeric products of which proanthocyanidin A2 is a dimer, the two isomers are mostly found as cacao and tea constituents. -Epicatechin can be found in beans and was first called kakaool or cacao-ol. It was isolated from green tea by Michiyo Tsujimura in 1929, maximilian Nierenstein was among those who proved the presence of catechin in cocoa beans in 1931. Catechin is also found as glycoside and the form has also antioxidant properties in vitro. The main dietary sources of catechins in Europe and the United States are tea, catechins and epicatechins are found in cocoa, which, according to one database, has the highest content of catechins among foods analyzed, followed by prune juice and broad bean pod
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Proanthocyanidin
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Proanthocyanidins are a class of polyphenols found in a variety of plants. Many are oligomers of catechin and epicatechin and their gallic acid esters, more complex polyphenols, having the same polymeric building block, form the group of tannins. Proanthocyanidins were discovered in 1947 by Jacques Masquelier, who developed and patented techniques for the extraction of oligomeric proanthocyanidins from pine bark, however, bilberry, cranberry, black currant, green tea, black tea, and other plants also contain these flavonoids. Cocoa beans contain the highest concentrations, proanthocyanidins also may be isolated from Quercus petraea and Q. robur heartwood. Açaí oil, obtained from the fruit of the palm, is rich in numerous procyanidin oligomers. Apples contain on average per serving about eight times the amount of found in wine, with some of the highest amounts found in the Red Delicious. An extract of maritime pine bark called Pycnogenol bears 65-75 percent proanthocyanidins, thus a 100 mg serving would contain 65 to 75 mg of proanthocyanidins. Proanthocyanidin glycosides can be isolated from cocoa liquor, the seed testas of field beans contain proanthocyanidins that affect the digestibility in piglets and could have an inhibitory activity on enzymes. Cistus salviifolius also contains oligomeric proanthocyanidins, condensed tannins may be characterised by a number of techniques including depolymerisation, asymmetric flow field flow fractionation or small-angle X-ray scattering. DMACA is a dye that is useful for localization of proanthocyanidin compounds in plant histology. The use of the reagent results in blue staining and it can also be used to titrate proanthocyanidins. Proanthocyanidins from field beans or barley have been estimated using the vanillin-HCl method, proanthocyanidins can be titrated using the Procyanidolic Index. It is a method that measures the change in color when the product is mixed with certain chemicals. The greater the changes, the higher the PCOs content is. However, the Procyanidolic Index is a value that can measure well over 100. Unfortunately, a Procyanidolic Index of 95 was erroneously taken to mean 95% PCO by some, all current methods of analysis suggest that the actual PCO content of these products is much lower than 95%. Gel permeation chromatography analysis allows separation of monomers from larger proanthocyanidin molecules, monomers of proanthocyanidins can be characterized by analysis with HPLC and mass spectrometry. Tandem mass spectrometry can be used to sequence proanthocyanidins, oligomeric proanthocyanidins strictly refer to dimer and trimer polymerizations of catechins
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Food chemistry
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Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer and this discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785. In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the benefit of the public and its early experiments were based on bread, milk and wine. The American Chemical Society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of Food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in 1995. A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to 95% in lettuce, cabbage and it is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and food spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is measured in food is by water activity which is important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys to food preservation in most instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Comprising 75% of the world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. Combine them in the shown to the right and you have sucrose. A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide, such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Sugar content is measured in degrees brix. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures, some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid, most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic, another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. In the case of cholesterol, the group is a mere -OH. Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of foods such as milk, cheese
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Extract
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An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or in powder form, the aromatic principles of many spices, nuts, herbs, fruits, etc. Absorption is generally accomplished by steeping in alcohol, as vanilla beans, maceration is used to create smaller bits of the whole, as in making peppermint extract, etc. Distillation is used with maceration, but in cases, it requires expert chemical knowledge. The most important among those that lend themselves to pure extract manufacture include lemons, oranges, the majority of concentrated fruit flavors such as banana, cherry, peach, pineapple, raspberry and strawberry, are produced by combining a variety of esters with special oils. The desired colors are obtained by the use of dyes. Among the esters most generally employed are ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate, the chief factors in the production of artificial banana, pineapple, and strawberry extract are amyl acetate and amyl butyrate. Artificial extracts generally do not possess the delicacy of natural fruit flavor, vanilla extract Spagyric This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ward, Artemas
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Cell culture
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Cell culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. Most cells require a surface or an artificial substrate whereas others can be free floating in culture medium. The historical development and methods of culture are closely interrelated to those of tissue culture. Viral culture is related, with cells as hosts for the viruses. The laboratory technique of maintaining live cell lines separated from their original tissue source became more robust in the middle 20th century. In 1885, Wilhelm Roux removed a portion of the plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in a warm saline solution for several days. Ross Granville Harrison, working at Johns Hopkins Medical School and then at Yale University, published results of his experiments from 1907 to 1910, Cell culture techniques were advanced significantly in the 1940s and 1950s to support research in virology. Growing viruses in cell cultures allowed preparation of purified viruses for the manufacture of vaccines, the injectable polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk was one of the first products mass-produced using cell culture techniques. Cells can be isolated from tissues for ex vivo culture in several ways, cells can be easily purified from blood, however, only the white cells are capable of growth in culture. Mononuclear cells can be released from soft tissues by enzymatic digestion with enzymes such as collagenase, trypsin, or pronase, alternatively, pieces of tissue can be placed in growth media, and the cells that grow out are available for culture. This method is known as explant culture, cells that are cultured directly from a subject are known as primary cells. With the exception of some derived from tumors, most primary cell cultures have limited lifespan, numerous cell lines are well established as representative of particular cell types. For the majority of isolated cells, they undergo the process of senescence. Cells are grown and maintained at a temperature and gas mixture in a cell incubator. Culture conditions vary widely for each type, and variation of conditions for a particular cell type can result in different phenotypes. Aside from temperature and gas mixture, the most commonly varied factor in culture systems is the growth medium. Recipes for growth media can vary in pH, glucose concentration, growth factors, the growth factors used to supplement media are often derived from the serum of animal blood, such as fetal bovine serum, bovine calf serum, equine serum, and porcine serum. One complication of these blood-derived ingredients is the potential for contamination of the culture with viruses or prions, current practice is to minimize or eliminate the use of these ingredients wherever possible and use human platelet lysate
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In vitro
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In vitro studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. In contrast, in studies are those conducted in animals, including humans. In vitro studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their biological surroundings, such as microorganisms, cells. For example, microrganisms or cells can be studied in artificial culture media, colloquially called test-tube experiments, these studies in biology, medicine, and their subdisciplines are traditionally done in test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc. They now involve the range of techniques used in molecular biology. In contrast, studies conducted in living beings are called in vivo, polymerase chain reaction is a method for selective replication of specific DNA and RNA sequences in the test tube. Protein purification involves the isolation of a protein of interest from a complex mixture of proteins. In vitro fertilization is used to allow spermatozoa to fertilize eggs in a culture dish before implanting the resulting embryo or embryos into the uterus of the prospective mother and these ADME process parameters can then be integrated into so called physiologically based pharmacokinetic models or PBPK. In vitro studies permit a species-specific, simpler, more convenient, just as studies in whole animals more and more replace human trials, so are in vitro studies replacing studies in whole animals. This complexity makes it difficult to identify the interactions between individual components and to explore their basic biological functions, in vitro work simplifies the system under study, so the investigator can focus on a small number of components. Another advantage of in vitro methods is that cells can be studied without extrapolation from an experimental animals cellular response. Investigators doing in vitro work must be careful to avoid over-interpretation of their results, for example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an in vitro setting. However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of in vivo trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms. Results obtained from in vitro experiments cannot usually be transposed, as is, building a consistent and reliable extrapolation procedure from in vitro results to in vivo is therefore extremely important. However, increasingly sophisticated in vitro experiments collect increasingly numerous, complex, mathematical models, such as systems biology models, are much needed here. In pharmacology, IVIVE can be used to approximate pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics and that indicates that extrapolating effects observed in vitro needs a quantitative model of in vivo PK. Physiologically based PK models are generally accepted to be central to the extrapolations, in these conditions, developing a simple PD model of the dose–response relationship observed in vitro, and transposing it without changes to predict in vivo effects is not enough
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Animal testing
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This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments. Examples of applied research include testing, breeding, defense research and toxicology, in education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different countries, worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used annually. In the United States in 2014, official statistics indicate that 834,453 vertebrates were used in research, in the European Union, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the United States, then the number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. One estimate of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million, in the European Union in 2011,11.5 million animals were used in research. Mice, rats, fish, amphibians and reptiles together account for over 85% of research animals, most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, the terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. Literally, vivisection means the cutting up of a living animal, the word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word vivisection is preferred by those opposed to this research, the earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals, galen, a physician in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known as the father of vivisection. Animals have repeatedly been used through the history of biomedical research, the founders, in 1831, of the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the animals both while they were alive and when they were dead. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In the 1880s, Robert Koch infected mice and guinea pigs with anthrax, in the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. In World War I, German agents infected sheep bound for Russia with anthrax, between 1917 and 1918, the Germans infected mules in Argentina bound for American forces, resulting in the death of 200 mules. Insulin was first isolated from dogs in 1922, and revolutionized the treatment of diabetes, on November 3,1957, a Soviet dog, Laika, became the first of many animals to orbit the earth. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos and this genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century, in the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed
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Atropa belladonna
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Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the Nightshade family Solanaceae, native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Its distribution extends from Great Britain in the west to western Ukraine and it is also naturalised and/or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States. The foliage and berries are toxic, containing tropane alkaloids. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine and hyoscyamine, which cause a bizarre delirium and hallucinations, the antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine. It has a history of use as a medicine, cosmetic. Before the Middle Ages, it was used as an anesthetic for surgery, the ancient Romans used it as a poison, Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial, often growing as a subshrub, from a fleshy rootstock. Plants grow to 2 metres tall with ovate leaves 18 centimetres long, the bell-shaped flowers are dull purple with green tinges and faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny-black, the berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though the seeds contain toxic alkaloids. There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale-yellow fruit, Atropa belladonna is native to temperate southern and central Europe but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in gardens near Malmö. In Britain it is only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows. More widespread as an alien, it is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb, seed is spread mainly by birds. It is naturalized in parts of North America, where it is found in shady. It is considered a species in parts of the world. Atropa belladona is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its upright habit. Germination of the seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid, the seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting. The name Atropa belladonna was published by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753 and it is in the nightshade family, which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, jimsonweed, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers
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Salicin
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Salicin is produced in willow bark and acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the human body. Salicin is also found in the bark of Populus species. It is also found in castoreum, which was used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, the activity of castoreum has been credited to the accumulation of salicin from willow trees in the beavers diet, which is transformed to salicylic acid and has an action very similar to aspirin. Salicin was the origin of aspirin and is chemically related to it. When consumed, the ether bridge is broken down. The two parts of the molecule, glucose and salicyl alcohol, then are metabolized separately, by oxidizing the alcohol function the aromatic part finally is metabolized to salicylic acid. Mild side effects are standard, with occurrences of nausea, vomiting, rash, dizziness. Overdose from high quantities of salicin can be toxic, damaging kidneys, causing stomach ulcers, diarrhea, some people may be allergic or sensitive to salicylates and suffer reactions similar to those produced by aspirin. People should not take salicin if they have asthma, diabetes, gout, gastritis, hemophilia, stomach ulcers, also contraindicated are children under 16, and pregnant and breastfeeding women
28.
Analgesic
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An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems and they are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol, the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as the salicylates, when choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent, the World Health Organization pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step. Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common such as muscle sprains. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions, each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Drugs for pain are typically classified by chemical structure and they may also be classified in other ways. Sometimes they are classified by use for classes of medical condition. Other times they are sorted by the needs of populations who would use them. They might be listed by availability in an area, perhaps to prevent recommending a drug which is illegal in one place even if it is easily available elsewhere. Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a used to treat pain. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain, in combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously, effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic, paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are a class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic and antipyretic effects. The most prominent members of group of drugs, aspirin. These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs, the cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions, COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme and these drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular
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Over-the-counter drug
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In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physicians care. OTC drugs are regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients, not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures. The term over-the-counter may be somewhat counterintuitive, since, in many countries, in contrast, prescription drugs are almost always passed over a counter from the pharmacist to the customer. Some drugs may be classified as over-the-counter, but may only be dispensed by a pharmacist after an assessment of the patients needs or the provision of patient education. In many countries, a number of OTC drugs are available in establishments without a pharmacy, such as stores, supermarkets. Regulations detailing the establishments where drugs may be sold, who is authorized to dispense them, as of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U. S. reportedly use OTC drugs. In Canada, there are four drug schedules, Schedule 1, Schedule 2, Do not require a prescription, but require an assessment by a pharmacist prior to sale. These drugs are kept in an area of the pharmacy where there is no public access, Schedule 3, Do not require a prescription, but must be kept in an area under the supervision of a pharmacist. These drugs are kept in an area of the outlet where self-selection is possible. Unscheduled, Do not require a prescription and may be sold in any retail outlet, all medications outside of Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, due to this, the exact drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product, examples are domperidone,400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. The drugs are usually on the shelves and the store sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential, examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine,400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances is regulated by the Food, the FDA requires that all new drugs obtain a New Drug Application before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective from this requirement. Thus, in the United States an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either pursuant to an FDA monograph, the Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products. This is in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA, the FDA requires that OTC products are labeled with an approved Drug Facts label to educate consumers about their medications
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Arrow poison
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Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the dart frog, and curare. Poisoned arrows have featured in mythology, notably the Greek story of Heracles slaying the centaur Nessus using arrows poisoned with the blood of the Lernaean Hydra, the Greek hero Odysseus poisons his arrows with hellebore in Homers Odyssey. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homers epic about the Trojan War, baldrs death in the Norse myths features poison arrows. The modern terms toxic and toxin derive from the ancient Greek word for bow, toxon, from Old Persian *taxa-, poison arrows were used by real peoples in the ancient world, including the Gauls, ancient Romans, and the nomadic Scythians and Soanes. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which arrows were used. The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some Native Americans has also been documented, over the ages, Chinese warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances. Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources, Curare is a term for arrow poisons that contain tubocurarine, curarine, quinine, protocurarine. Most frequently it is derived from the bark of Strychnos toxifera, S. guianensis, Curare is a competitive antagonist that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the post synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction. It is a muscle relaxant that causes death by paralyzing the respiratory system, in Africa arrow poisons are made from plants that contain cardiac glycosides, such as Acokanthera, oleander, milkweeds, or Strophanthus, all of which are in the Apocynaceae family. Inee or onaye is a made from Strophanthus hispidus, which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin. It is used in sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of Togo, poisoned arrows are used widely in the jungle areas of Assam, Burma and Malaysia. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the Antiaris, Strychnos, Antiaris toxicaria for example, a tree of the mulberry and breadfruit family, is commonly used on Java and its neighbouring islands. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with plant extracts. The fast-acting active ingredient attacks the nervous system causing paralysis, convulsions. Several species of Aconitum or aconite have been used as arrow poisons, the Minaro in Ladakh use A. napellus on their arrows to hunt Siberian ibex, they were in use recently near lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan. The Ainus in Japan used a species of Aconitum to hunt brown bear and it was also used by the Butias and Lepchas in Sikkim and Assam
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Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
32.
Agrippina the Younger
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Agrippina the Younger has been described by ancient sources and modern scholars as ruthless, ambitious, violent, and domineering. She was a beautiful and reputable woman and according to Pliny the Elder, she had a canine in her upper right jaw. Many ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Emperor Claudius, though accounts vary, Agrippina was the first daughter and fourth living child of Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus. She had three brothers, Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar and the future Emperor Caligula, and two younger sisters, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Agrippinas two elder brothers and her mother were victims of the intrigues of the Praetorian Prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus and she was the namesake of her mother. Agrippina the Elder was remembered as a modest and heroic matron, who was the daughter and fourth child of Julia the Elder. Maternally, Agrippina descended directly from Augustus, Germanicus, Agrippinas father, was a very popular general and politician. His mother was Antonia Minor and his father was the general Nero Claudius Drusus and he was Antonia Minors first child. Germanicus had two siblings, a sister, named Livilla, and a brother, the future Emperor Claudius. Claudius was Agrippinas paternal uncle and third husband, Antonia Minor was a daughter to Octavia the Younger by her second marriage to triumvir Mark Antony, and Octavia was the second eldest sister and full-blooded sister of Augustus. In the year 9, Augustus ordered and forced Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, Germanicus was a favorite of his great-uncle Augustus, who hoped that Germanicus would succeed his uncle Tiberius, who was Augustuss own adopted son and heir. This in turn meant that Tiberius was also Agrippinas adoptive grandfather in addition to her paternal great-uncle, Agrippina was born on 6 November AD15 or possibly 14, at Oppidum Ubiorum, a Roman outpost on the Rhine River located in present-day Cologne, Germany. A second sister Julia Drusilla was born on 16 September AD16, as a small child, Agrippina travelled with her parents throughout Germany until she and her siblings returned to Rome to live with and be raised by their maternal grandmother Antonia. In October AD19, Germanicus died suddenly in Antioch and she lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Her great-uncle Tiberius had already become emperor and the head of the family after the death of Augustus in 14. After her thirteenth birthday in 28, Tiberius arranged for Agrippina to marry her paternal first cousin once removed Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Domitius came from a distinguished family of consular rank. Through his mother Antonia Major, Domitius was a nephew of Augustus, first cousin to Claudius. He had two sisters, Domitia Lepida the Elder and Domitia Lepida the Younger, Domitia Lepida the Younger was the mother of the Empress Valeria Messalina
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Claudius
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Claudius was Roman emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and he was born at Lugdunum in Gaul, the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Claudius infirmity probably saved him from the fate of other nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligulas reigns. His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligulas assassination, despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also a builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts. During his reign the Empire began the conquest of Britain, having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility, Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion, many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 AD, his grand-nephew and adopted son Nero succeeded him as Emperor, Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum. He had two siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two children who died young. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus sister and his paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the son of Augustus. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour, Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years, Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a former mule-driver to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness, however, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In 7 AD, Livy was hired to tutor him in history and he spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus
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Locusta
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Locusta was a notorious poison mixer in Ancient Rome. She, along with Canidia and Martina, made up the trio of female poisoners in Roman times. She was born in the ancient province of Gaul and her early history remains mostly a mystery. According to ancient historians, in AD54 Locusta was hired by Empress Agrippina the Younger to supply a poisoned dish of mushrooms for the murder of her husband Emperor Claudius. Once the drug was made, the task of administering it was given to Claudiuss food-taster Halotus, and Claudius died. In 55, she was convicted of poisoning another victim, but Agrippinas son Emperor Nero rescued her from execution and her first attempt at poisoning Britannicus proved futile, as the concoction was too weak to kill him. Angry and impatient at Locustas failure, Nero beat her with his own hands, when she succeeded Nero rewarded her with a vast estate and even sent pupils to her. When Nero fled Rome in AD68, he acquired poison from Locusta for his own use, after Neros suicide, Locusta was condemned to die by the Emperor Galba during his brief reign, which ended 15 January AD69. Along with many other of Neros favorites such as Helius, Patrobius, and Narcissus, she was led in chains through the city, Locustas career is described by the ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio. Juvenal also mentions Locusta in Book 1, line 71 of his Satires, in The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas the poisoner Madame de Villefort is frequently compared to Locusta
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Livia
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Livia Drusilla, also known as Julia Augusta after her formal adoption into the Julian family in AD14, was the wife of the Roman emperor Augustus throughout his reign, as well as his adviser. She was the mother of the emperor Tiberius, paternal grandmother of the emperor Claudius, paternal great-grandmother of the emperor Caligula and she was deified by Claudius who acknowledged her title of Augusta. She was born on 30 January 59 or 58 BC as the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus by his wife Aufidia, the diminutive Drusilla often found in her name suggests that she was a second daughter. Marcus Livius Drusus Libo was her adopted brother and she was probably married in 43 BC. Her father married her to Tiberius Claudius Nero, her cousin of patrician status who was fighting him on the side of Julius Caesars assassins against Octavian. Her first child, the future Emperor Tiberius, was born in 42 BC, later, Livia, her husband Tiberius Nero and their two-year-old son, Tiberius, moved on to Greece. At this time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius, legend said that Octavian fell immediately in love with her, despite the fact that he was still married to Scribonia. Octavian divorced Scribonia in 39 BC, on the day that she gave birth to his daughter Julia the Elder. Seemingly around that time, when Livia was six months pregnant, on 14 January, the child was born. Augustus and Livia married on 17 January, waiving the traditional waiting period, Tiberius Claudius Nero was present at the wedding, giving her in marriage just as a father would. The importance of the patrician Claudii to Octavians cause, and the survival of the Claudii Nerones are probably more rational explanations for the tempestuous union. Nevertheless, Livia and Augustus remained married for the next 51 years, after Mark Antonys suicide following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian had removed all obstacles to his power and henceforth ruled as Emperor, from 27 BC on, under the honorary title Augustus. He and Livia formed the model for Roman households. Despite their wealth and power, Augustuss family continued to live modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill, Livia would set the pattern for the noble Roman matrona. She wore neither excessive jewelry nor pretentious costumes, she took care of the household and her husband, always faithful, in 35 BC Octavian gave Livia the unprecedented honour of ruling her own finances and dedicated a public statue to her. She had her own circle of clients and pushed many protégés into political offices, including the grandfathers of the later emperors Galba and Otho. With Augustus being the father of one daughter, Livia revealed herself to be an ambitious mother and soon started to push her own sons Tiberius. Drusus was a general and married Augustuss favourite niece, Antonia Minor
36.
Augustus
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Augustus was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Roman emperor, controlling the Roman Empire from 27 BC until his death in AD14. He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia and his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesars will as his adopted son and heir, then known as Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar, following their victory at the Battle of Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. The Triumvate was eventually torn apart by the ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, in reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and it took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis, the resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of peace known as the Pax Romana. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, expanding into Germania, beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. Augustus died in AD14 at the age of 75 and he probably died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Augustus was known by many names throughout his life, At birth, he was named Gaius Octavius after his biological father. Historians typically refer to him simply as Octavius between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC, upon his adoption, he took Caesars name and became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards. He quickly dropped Octavianus from his name, and his contemporaries referred to him as Caesar during this period, historians. In 27 BC, following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra and it is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of Augustus, which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD14. While his paternal family was from the town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres from Rome and he was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his fathers victory at Thurii over a band of slaves. Due to the nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his fathers home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius only mentions his fathers equestrian family briefly in his memoirs and his paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War
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Taxus baccata
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Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may now be known as English yew. The word yew is from Proto-Germanic *īwa-, possibly originally a loanword from Gaulish *ivos, compare Irish ēo, Welsh ywen, baccata is Latin for bearing red berries. The word yew as it was originally used seems to refer to the color brown, the yew was known to Theophrastus, who noted its preference for mountain coolness and shade, its evergreen character and its slow growth. Most Romance languages, with the exception of French, kept a version of the Latin word taxus from the same root as toxic. In Slavic languages, the root is preserved, Russian tis, Slovakian tis, Slovenian tisa. In German it is known as Eibe, in Iran, the tree is known as sorkhdār. The common yew was one of the species first described by Linnaeus. It is one of around 30 conifer species in seven genera in the family Taxaceae and it is a small to medium-sized evergreen tree, growing 10–20 metres tall, with a trunk up to 2 metres diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem, the aril is 8–15 millimetres long and wide and open at the end. The arils mature 6 to 9 months after pollination, and with the contained, are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds. Maturation of the arils is spread over 2 to 3 months, the seeds themselves are poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species including hawfinches, greenfinches and great tits. The aril is not poisonous, it is gelatinous and very sweet tasting, the male cones are globose, 3–6 millimetres diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. The yew is mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, Taxus baccata can reach 400 to 600 years of age. Some specimens live longer but the age of yews is often overestimated, ten yews in Britain are believed to predate the 10th century. The potential age of yews is impossible to accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the tree, while the boughs themselves often become hollow with age. One characteristic contributing to yews longevity is that it is able to split under the weight of advanced growth without succumbing to disease in the fracture, as do most other trees
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Paclitaxel
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Paclitaxel, sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes ovarian cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer and it is given by injection into a vein. There is also an albumin bound formulation, common side effects include hair loss, bone marrow suppression, numbness, allergic reactions, muscle pains, and diarrhea. Other serious side effects include heart problems, increased risk of infection, use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby. Paclitaxel is in the family of medications. It works by interference with the function of microtubules during cell division. Paclitaxel was first isolated in 1971 from the Pacific yew and approved for use in 1993. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 7.06 to 13.48 USD per 100 mg vial. This amount in the United Kingdom costs the NHS about 66.85 pounds and it is now manufactured by cell culture. Paclitaxel is approved in the UK for ovarian, breast and lung, bladder, prostate, melanoma, esophageal, in September 2006, NICE recommended paclitaxel should not be used in the adjuvant treatment of early node-positive breast cancer. In 2005, its use in the United States for the treatment of breast, pancreatic, albumin-bound paclitaxel is an alternative formulation where paclitaxel is bound to albumin nano-particles. Much of the toxicity of paclitaxel is associated with the solvent Cremophor EL in which it is dissolved for delivery. Abraxis BioScience developed Abraxane, in which paclitaxel is bonded to albumin as a delivery agent to the often toxic solvent delivery method. Synthetic approaches to paclitaxel production led to the development of docetaxel, docetaxel has a similar set of clinical uses to paclitaxel and is marketed under the name of Taxotere. Recently the presence of taxanes including paclitaxel, 10-deacetylbaccatin III, baccatin III, paclitaxel C, the finding of these compounds in shells, which are considered discarded material and are mass-produced by many food industries, is of interest for the future availability of paclitaxel. Paclitaxel drug eluting coated stents for coronary artery placement are sold under the trade name Taxus by Boston Scientific in the United States, Paclitaxel drug eluting coated stents for femoropopliteal artery placement are sold under the trade name Zilver PTX by Cook Medical, Inc. Dexamethasone is given prior to beginning paclitaxel treatment to some of the side effects. Leuprolide, a GnRH analog, has suggested on the basis of studies in mice
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Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
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Diet (nutrition)
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In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet often implies the use of intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons. Although humans are omnivores, each culture and each person holds some food preferences or some food taboos and this may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons. Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy, complete nutrition requires ingestion and absorption of vitamins, minerals, and food energy in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in the quality of life, health, some cultures and religions have restrictions concerning what foods are acceptable in their diet. For example, only Kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, although Buddhists are generally vegetarians, the practice varies and meat-eating may be permitted depending on the sects. In Hinduism, vegetarianism is the ideal, jains are strictly vegetarian and consumption of roots is not permitted. Raw foodism is another contemporary trend and these diets may require tuning or supplementation such as vitamins to meet ordinary nutritional needs. A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight loss or weight gain, changing a subjects dietary intake, or going on a diet, can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the amount of fat stored by the body. Some foods are recommended, or even altered, for conformity to the requirements of a particular diet. These diets are recommended in conjunction with exercise. Specific weight loss programs can be harmful to health, while others may be beneficial, the terms healthy diet and diet for weight management are often related, as the two promote healthy weight management. Having a healthy diet is a way to prevent health problems, and will provide the body with the balance of vitamins, minerals. An eating disorder is a disorder that interferes with normal food consumption. It is defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive diet, a healthy diet may improve or maintain optimal health. In developed countries, affluence enables unconstrained caloric intake and possibly inappropriate food choices, health agencies recommend that people maintain a normal weight by limiting consumption of energy-dense foods and sugary drinks, eat plant-based food, limit red and processed meat, and limit alcohol. Diet food Dieting Dessert crop Nutrition psychology The dictionary definition of diet at Wiktionary
. PMID 11124191.
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