1.
Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
2.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
3.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Lombardy
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Lombardy is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres. Milan, Lombardys capital, is the second-largest city and the largest metropolitan area in Italy, the word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus, derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz, equivalent to long beard. Some sources derive the second element instead from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz, Lombardy referred during the early Middle Ages to the entire territory of Italy ruled by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe who conquered much of the Italian peninsula beginning in the 6th century. During the late Middle Ages, the term shifted meaning and was used to identify the whole of Northern Italy, with a surface of 23,861 km2, Lombardy is the 4th largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, three distinct natural zones can be fairly easily distinguished in the Lombardy region, mountains, hills and plains – the latter being divided in Alta and Bassa. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above made is the subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. The mighty Po river marks the border of the region for a length of about 210 km. In its progress it receives the waters of the Ticino River, the other streams which contribute to the great river are, the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands, from west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, then Lake Garda, the largest in Italy. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most commons trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow, in the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers. The highlands are characterized by the vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At a lower levels oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, on the slopes beech trees grow at the lowest limits. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone, Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. In addition, there is a seasonal temperature variation. A peculiarity of the climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate, numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, in the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental
6.
Gio Ponti
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Giovanni Gio Ponti was an Italian architect, industrial designer, furniture designer, artist, and publisher. Pontis parents were Enrico Ponti and Giovanna Rigone and he did military service during World War I in the Pontonier Corps with the rank of captain, from 1916 to 1918, receiving the Bronze Medal and the Italian Military Cross. Ponti graduated with a degree in Architecture in 1921 from the Politecnico di Milano University, also in 1921, he married Giulia Vimercati, they eventually would have four children and eight grandchildren. Ponti began his career in partnership with Mino Fiocchi and Emilio Lancia from 1923 through 1927. In these years he was influenced by and associated with the Milanese neo-classical Novecento Italiano movement, around 1933, Ponti ended his relationship with Lancia and teamed with two engineers, Antonio Fornaroli and Eugenio Soncini, to form Studio Ponti-Fornaroli-Soncini which would last until 1945. Ponti in 1950 won the commission to design the 32-story Pirelli Tower in collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi and this was the second skyscraper built in Milan, and likely the climax of Pontis entire career. In 1951, Ponti designed the plan, and two individual block contributions, for the IINA lIstituto Nazionale per le Assicurazione) Casa quarter housing project in Milan. In 1952 he went into partnership with the architect Alberto Rosselli, from 1953 to 1957, he built the Hotel della Città et de la Ville and the Centro Studi Fondazione Livio e Maria Garzanti, in Forlì, by the assignment of Aldo Garzanti, a famous Italian publisher. Between 1960 and 1962 Ponti designed and realize the first Italian Hotel Design, from 1923 to 1930 Ponti worked at the Manifattura Ceramica Richard Ginori, in Milan and Sesto Fiorentino, changing the companys whole output. Also very famous is the Due Foglie sofa. glass bottles, he designed stylish, among the latter, one of the most famous is the Billia lamp, which looks modern today but it was designed for Fontana Arte in 1931. Design by Ponti photographed by Paolo Monti In 1928 he founded Domus magazine, in 1941 he resigned as editor of Domus and set up Stile magazine, which he edited until 1947. In 1948 he returned to Domus, where he remained as editor until his death, from 1936 to 1961 he worked as a professor on the permanent staff of the Faculty of Architecture at Politecnico di Milano University. In 1934 he was given the title of Commander of the Royal Order of Vasa in Stockholm and he also obtained the Accademia dItalia Art Prize for his artistic merits, as well as a gold medal from the Paris Académie dArchitecture. Finally, he obtained an honorary Doctorate from the London Royal College of Art, Ponti, Gio, In Praise of Architecture, NY, F. W. Dodge Corporation,1960. Sherer, Daniel, “Gio Ponti in New York, Design, Architecture, catalogue essay for the Ponti Exhibition at the Triennale di Milano,6 May –24 July 2011, 35–45
7.
Pier Luigi Nervi
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Pier Luigi Nervi was an Italian engineer. He studied at the University of Bologna and qualified in 1913, dr. Nervi taught as a professor of engineering at Rome University from 1946-61. He is widely known as a engineer and an architect. Pier Luigi Nervi was born in Sondrio and attended the Civil Engineering School of Bologna, after graduation, Nervi joined the Society for Concrete Construction. Nervi spent several years in the Italian army during World War I from 1915–1918 and his formal education was quite similar to that experienced by todays civil engineering student in Italy. From 1961-1962 Nervi was the Norton professor at Harvard University, Nervi began practicing civil engineering after 1923, and built several airplane hangars amongst his contracts. Nervi also stressed that intuition should be used as much as mathematics in design and he borrowed from both Roman and Renaissance architecture while applying ribbing and vaulting to improve strength and eliminate columns. He combined simple geometry and prefabrication to innovate design solutions, Pier Luigi Nervi was educated and practised as a ingegnere edile – in Italy, at the time, a building engineer might also be considered an architect. After 1932, his aesthetically pleasing designs were used for major projects and this was due to the booming number of construction projects at the time which used concrete and steel in Europe and the architecture aspect took a step back to the potential of engineering. Nervi successfully made reinforced concrete the main material of the day. Nervi expounded his ideas on building in four books and many learned papers, archeological excavations suggested that he may have some responsibilities for the Flaminio stadium foundations passing through ancient Roman tombs. Most of his structures are in his native Italy. Nervis first project in the United States was the George Washington Bridge Bus Station and he designed the roof which consists of triangle pieces which were cast in place. This building is used today by over 700 buses and their passengers. Stadio Artemio Franchi, Florence Ugolino Golf House, Impruneta, Italy Torino Esposizioni, Turin, Norfolk Scope, Norfolk, VA Pier Luigi Nervi was awarded Gold Medals by the Institution of Structural Engineers, the American Institute of Architects, and the RIBA. He was also awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal of The Franklin Institute in 1957, in 1957, he was awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal
8.
Pirelli
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SpA is a multinational company based in Milan, Italy, formerly listed on the Milan Stock Exchange since 1922. It was acquired in 2015 by ChemChina, the company is one of the largest tyre manufacturers behind Bridgestone, Michelin, Continental and Goodyear. It is present in over 160 countries, has 20 manufacturing sites in 14 countries, Pirelli has been sponsoring sport competitions since 1907 and is the exclusive tyre supplier for the Formula One Championship for 2011–2019 and for the FIM World Superbike Championship. Pirelli is now a pure tyre manufacturing company, in the past it has also launched fashion project and operated in renewable energy and sustainable mobility. Founded in Milan in 1872 by Giovanni Battista Pirelli, the company specialised in rubber and derivative processes. Thereafter, Pirellis activities were focused on the production of tyres and cables. In 2005, Pirelli sold its division to Goldman Sachs. In the 1950s, Alberto Pirelli commissioned the building of a skyscraper, Pirelli Tower, in 1974, Pirelli invented the wide radial tyre, upon a request from the Lancia rally racing team for a tyre strong enough to withstand the power of the new Lancia Stratos. At that time, racing tyres were either slick tyres made with the cross ply technique, or radial tyres, both were unusable for the Lancia Stratos, as the radials were destroyed within 10 km, and the slicks too stiff. Lancia asked Pirelli for a solution, and in 1975 Pirelli created a wide tyre with a reduced sidewall height like a slick, subsequently, Porsche started using the same tyres with the Porsche 911 Turbo. In 1988, Pirelli acquired the Armstrong Rubber Company, which was headquartered in New Haven, Connecticut, in 2002 the company started a range of Pirelli branded clothing, watches and eyewear. In March 2015, it was announced that Pirelli shareholders has accepted a €7.1 billion bid from ChemChina for the company, the transaction was completed and the company was delisted in November 2015. The list of Pirelli main shareholders As of September 2016 The list of Pirelli Board of Directors, the Pirelli Calendar is published annually, and regularly features famous actresses and fashion models. The Pirelli Internetional Award is given annually for the best international multimedia involving the communication of science, power is nothing without control is the well known slogan of Pirelli Tyre Company, and is featured in numerous television and print advertisements. Pirelli is the main sponsor of Italian football club Inter Milan. Pirelli has a history of sponsoring football teams, Pirelli is well known for its long term primary sponsorship of the Italian football team Inter Milan. Pirelli previously appeared as a sponsor on the shirts of the Maltese football club Valletta for a short time, Pirellis sponsorship of football teams is not limited to Europe, South America is a key market and as a result successful clubs have also been sponsored by the tyre company. The Brazilian team Palmeiras, Uruguayan team Peñarol and Argentinian side Vélez Sársfield all had Pirelli as a shirt sponsor, when English Football League One side Burton Albion Football Club built their new stadium in 2005, Pirelli became the title sponsor of the new ground
9.
Storey
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A storey or story is any level part of a building that could be used by people. The plurals are storeys and stories respectively, the terms floor, level, or deck can also be used in this sense, except that one may use ground floor and ground level for the floor closer to what is considered the ground or street level. The words storey and floor also generally exclude levels of the building that have no roof, houses commonly have only one or two floors. Buildings are often classified as low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise according to how many levels they contain, the tallest skyscraper in the world, Burj Khalifa, has 163 floors. As of 2013, the tallest planned skyscraper, Sky City, is planned to have 202 floors, the height of each storey is based on the ceiling height of the rooms plus the thickness of the floors between each pane. Generally this is around 10 feet total, however, it varies widely from just under this figure to well over it, storeys within a building need not be all the same height — often the lobby is more spacious, for example. Additionally, higher levels may be smaller in volume than the ones beneath them, in English, the principal floor or main floor of a house is the floor that contains the chief apartments, it is usually the ground floor, or the floor above. In Italy the main floor of a home is usually above the ground level, the attic or loft is a storey just below the buildings roof, its ceiling is often pitched and/or at a different height than that of other floors. A penthouse is an apartment on the topmost storey of a building. A basement is a storey below the main or ground floor, split-level homes have floors that offset from each other by less than the height of a full storey. A mezzanine, in particular, is typically a floor halfway between the floor and the next higher floor. Homes with a split-level entry have the main floor raised half a storey height above the street entrance level. In Macys Herald Square, there is a one and a floor between the first and second, this can be considered a split level floor. There are also car parks, also known as parking garages. Floor numbering is the scheme used for a buildings floors. There are two major schemes in use across the world, in one system, used in the majority of European countries, the ground floor is the floor literally on the ground and often has no number or is assigned the number 0. Therefore, the floor up is assigned the number 1 and is the first floor. The other system, used primarily in the United States and Canada, counts the bottom floor as the first floor, the existence of two incompatible conventions is a common source of confusion in international communication, sometimes even between communities who speak the same language
10.
Skyscraper
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
11.
Curtain wall (architecture)
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A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, but merely keep the weather out and the occupants in. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of a lightweight material, when glass is used as the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building. The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the other than its own dead load weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the building, curtain-wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is infilled with glass, which provides an architecturally pleasing building. However, parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort, other common infills include, stone veneer, metal panels, louvres, and operable windows or vents. Buildings were constructed with the walls of the building supporting the load of the entire structure. The exterior walls could be non-load-bearing and thus much lighter and more open than the masonry load-bearing walls of the past and this gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born. Oriel Chambers and 16 Cook Street, both built in Liverpool, England, by architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Towards the courtyards they even boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes two of the worlds first buildings to include this structural feature. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space, oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft set over five floors without an elevator which had only recently been invented and was not yet widespread. An early example of a curtain wall used in the classical style is the Kaufhaus Tietz department store on Leipziger Straße, Berlin. Some of the first curtain walls were made with steel mullions, eventually silicone sealants or glazing tape were substituted, using a glass mullion system. Some designs included a cap to hold the glass in place. The first curtain wall installed in New York City, in the Lever House building, was this type of construction, earlier modernist examples are the Bauhaus in Dessau and the Hallidie Building in San Francisco. During the 1970s began the use of aluminium extrusions for mullions. Aluminum offers the advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design
12.
Mole Antonelliana
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The Mole Antonelliana is a major landmark building in Turin, Italy, named after its architect, Alessandro Antonelli. A mole in Italian is a building of monumental proportions, construction began in 1863, soon after Italian unification, and was completed in 1889, after the architects death. Originally conceived of as a synagogue, it now houses the Museo Nazionale del Cinema, a representation of the building is featured on the obverse of the Italian 2 cent euro coin. The building was conceived and constructed as a synagogue, the community, with a budget of 250,000 lire and the intention of having a building worthy of a capital city, hired Antonio Antonelli. Antonelli had recently added a 121-metre-high dome and spire to the seventeenth-century Basilica of San Gaudenzio in Novara, the relationship between Antonelli and the Jewish community was not happy. He proposed a series of modifications which raised the height to 167.5 meters. Such changes, in addition to costs and construction time than were originally anticipated, did not please the Jewish community and construction was halted in 1869. With the removal of the Italian capital to Florence in 1864, the community shrank, in 1876, the Jewish community, which had spent 692,000 lire for a building that was still far from finished, announced that it was withdrawing from the project. The people of Turin, who had watched the synagogue rise skyward, demanded that the city take over the project, an exchange was arranged between the Jewish community and the city of Turin for a piece of land on which a handsome Moorish Revival synagogue was quickly built. The Mole was dedicated to Victor Emmanuel II, Antonelli again began construction, which took the height to 146,153, and finally 167.5 meters. From 1908 to 1938, the city used it to house its Museum of the Risorgimento, the Mole Antonelliana is the tallest unreinforced brick building in the world. On 23 May 1953 a violent cloudburst, accompanied by a tornado, destroyed the uppermost 47 metres of the pinnacle, since 2000, the building has housed the Museo Nazionale del Cinema. The building also lent its name to one of Italian footballs oldest tournaments, on one side of the four-faced dome, the first Fibonacci numbers are written with red neon lights, they are part of the artistic work Il volo dei Numeri by Mario Merz. The Mole was featured in the leg of the American reality competition show The Amazing Race 20. The building was used extensively in the 2004 Italian film Dopo Mezzanotte, website of the National Museum of Film The History of the Mole on the Piedmont Regional Site Logos of Turin 2006 Winter Olympics and Turin candidacy
13.
MetLife Building
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The MetLife Building is a 59-story skyscraper at 200 Park Avenue at East 45th Street above Grand Central Terminal in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Built in 1960–63 as the Pan Am Building, the then-headquarters of Pan American World Airways, it was designed by Emery Roth & Sons, Pietro Belluschi and Walter Gropius in the International style. The worlds largest commercial space by square footage at its opening. When it opened on March 7,1963, the Pan Am Building was the largest commercial space in the world by square footage. It was initially an unpopular sight due to its lack of proportion and huge scale—it dwarfed the New York Central Building to the north, the building was surpassed in size by the World Trade Center in 1970–71 as well as 55 Water Street in 1972. Pan Am originally occupied 15 floors of the building and it remained Pan Ams headquarters even after Metropolitan Life Insurance Company bought the building in 1981. By 1991, Pan Ams presence had dwindled to four floors, shortly afterwards, the airline ceased operations. On Thursday September 3,1992, MetLife announced that it would remove Pan Am signage from the building. Robert G. Schwartz, the chairman, chief executive, and president of MetLife, at the time MetLife was headquartered in the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower. In 2005, MetLife sold the building for $1.72 billion, the buyer was a joint venture of Tishman Speyer Properties, the New York City Employees Retirement System, and the New York City Teachers Retirement System. In 2015, it was revealed that billionaire Donald Bren, the owner of the Newport Beach, California-based Irvine Company, while Tishman Speyer remains the managing partner of the property, the companys stake in the MetLife Building has been reduced to less than 3 percent. For a short part of time, they also offered service to Teterboro Airport. Service to JFK resumed in early 1977 using Sikorsky S-61s, one of the five 20-foot blades broke off and flew into a crowd of passengers waiting to board. Three men were killed instantly and another died later in a hospital, the blade sailed over the side of the building and killed a female pedestrian on the corner of Madison Avenue and 43rd Street. Two other people were seriously injured, helicopter service was quickly suspended, and has never resumed. The building was the site of the suicide of Eli M. Black on February 3,1975, the CEO of United Brands Company used his briefcase to shatter an external window and then jumped out of the 44th-story window to his death on Park Avenue. The building remains one of the citys most recognizable skyscrapers and it has been popular with tenants, not least because of its location next to Grand Central Terminal. In 1987, a poll conducted by the lifestyle periodical New York indicated that the tower was the building that New Yorkers would most like to see demolished, perhaps contributing to the hatred of the building is the fact that it is so visible
14.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
15.
Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
16.
Italian economic miracle
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As summed up by one historian, by the end of the 1970s, social security coverage had been made comprehensive and relatively generous. The material standard of living had improved for the great majority of the population. In addition, the creation in 1957 of the European Common Market, of which Italy was among the members, provided more investments. The above-mentioned highly favorable historical backgrounds, combined with the presence of a large and cheap stock of labour force, the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5. 8% per year between 1951–63, and 5. 0% per year between 1964-73. Italian rates of growth were second only, but very close, to the German rates, in Europe, in 1963, US President John F. The impact of the miracle on Italian society was huge. Fast economic expansion induced massive inflows of migrants from rural Southern Italy to the cities of the North. Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the industrial triangle. Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities. The needs of an economy and society created a great demand for new transport. A concomitant boom of the real market, increasingly under pressure by strong demographic growth and internal migrations. Vast neighborhoods of low-income apartments and social housing were built in the outskirts of cities, leading over the years to severe problems of congestion, urban decay. At the same time, the doubling of Italian GDP between 1950 and 1962 had a impact on society and culture. From 1951 to 1971, average per capita income in real terms trebled, in 1955, for instance, only 3% of households owned refrigerators and 1% washing machines, while by 1975 the respective figures were 94% and 76%. In addition, 66% of all homes had come to possess cars, in 1954 the national public broadcasting RAI began a regular television service. Economic history of Italy Economic miracle Post–World War II economic expansion Years of Lead, rivista di storia economica 19#2 pp, 139-180, in English Rota, Mauro. Credit and growth, reconsidering Italian industrial policy during the Golden Age, European Review of Economic History 17#4 pp, 431-451. Tolliday, Steven W. Introduction, enterprise and state in the Italianeconomic miracle, enterprise and Society 1#2 pp, 241-248
17.
Military history of Italy during World War II
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In 1943 Benito Mussolini was ousted and arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III, provoking a civil war. Balkan and Mediterranean hegemony was predicated by ancient Roman dominance in the same regions, there were designs for a protectorate over Albania and for the annexation of Dalmatia, as well as economic and military control of Yugoslavia and Greece. The regime also sought to establish protective patron–client relationships with Austria, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria, in 1935, Italy initiated the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, a nineteenth-century colonial campaign waged out of due time. The campaign gave rise to talk on raising a native Ethiopian army to help conquer Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The war also marked a shift towards a more aggressive Italian foreign policy and also exposed vulnerabilities of the British and this in turn created the opportunity Mussolini needed to begin to realize his imperial goals. In 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out, from the beginning, Italy played an important role in the conflict. Their military contribution was so vast, that it played a role in the victory of the rebel forces led by Francisco Franco. Mussolini referred to this treaty as the creation of a Berlin-Rome Axis, the aftermath of the treaty saw the increasing ties between Italy and Germany, and Mussolini falling under Adolf Hitlers influence from which he never escaped. In October 1938, in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement, the French refused the demands, believing the true Italian intention was the territorial acquisition of Nice, Corsica, Tunisia, and Djibouti. On 30 November 1938, Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano addressed the Chamber of Deputies on the aspirations of the Italian people and was met with shouts of Nice. Later that day, Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council on the subject of what he called the immediate goals of Fascist dynamism. These were Albania, Tunisia, Corsica, a part of France, the Ticino, a canton of Switzerland, and all French territory east of the River Var, including Nice. Beginning in 1939 Mussolini often voiced his contention that Italy required uncontested access to the worlds oceans, on 4 February 1939, Mussolini addressed the Grand Council in a closed session. He delivered a speech on international affairs and the goals of his foreign policy. He began by claiming that the freedom of a country is proportional to the strength of its navy and this was followed by the familiar lament that Italy was a prisoner in the Mediterranean. He called Corsica, Tunisia, Malta, and Cyprus the bars of this prison, to break British control, her bases on Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta, and in Egypt would have to be neutralized. Fascist foreign policy took for granted that the democracies—Britain and France—would someday need to be faced down, through armed conquest Italian North Africa and Italian East Africa—separated by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan—would be linked, and the Mediterranean prison destroyed. Then, Italy would be able to either to the Indian Ocean through the Sudan and Abyssinia
18.
2002 Pirelli Tower airplane crash
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On April 18,2002 at 17,48, a Rockwell Commander 112 crashed into the upper floors of the Pirelli Tower in Milan, Italy, for reasons still unclear. The crash killed the pilot and two others in the building, sixty more people sustained injuries in the building and on the ground. The crash raised fears of a terrorist attack because of the similarities with the September 11 attacks, a subsequent investigation ruled out terrorism as a motive. The plane, piloted by 65-year-old Luigi Fasulo, took off from Magadino Airport in Switzerland eighteen minutes before the crash, later as the plane flew over Milan, Italy the pilot radioed to the control tower at Linate Airport that there was a problem with the retractable landing gear. The tower was arranging an emergency landing, suddenly the pilot left, leaving another aircraft saying, No, they told you to land, not me. Minutes later, at 17,48 local time, the plane crashed into the Pirelli Tower. The vibration of the crash caused shop windows to break and littered the surroundings with debris, the pilot and two lawyers present inside the building died. Between thirty and forty people were taken to the hospital with moderate injuries, immediately after the crash, the nearby Milan central railway station, metro station and the Linate airport were shut down. Italian officials conducted an investigation after the crash, the cause of the crash was never exactly determined, but the most plausible reason is an accident or a suicide. The pilot was in fact victim of a scam that brought him close to bankruptcy, the crash aroused fears of another terrorist attack since it occurred seven months after the September 11th attacks. Because of this, stock markets around the United States and Europe fell sharply, the fears abated when investigators concluded that the crash was not an act of terrorism. 1945 Empire State Building Crash 2002 Tampa airplane crash October 11,2006 New York City plane crash
19.
Rockwell Commander 112
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The Rockwell Commander 112 is an American four-seat single-engined general aviation aircraft designed and built by North American Rockwell starting in 1972. In 1976 they introduced the turbocharged 112TC and a version mounting a larger engine, a total of approximately 1,000 examples of all models were produced before the production line shut down in 1980. The rights to the design were sold to Commander Aircraft 1988 and they improved the interior and made other minor upgrades to the Commander 114B series, released in 1992. Approximately 200 examples were produced before they shut down in 2002, another attempt to begin production was made by Commander Premier who planned a Commander 115 series, however, as of 2016, financial issues had delayed production indefinitely. The 111 was marketed at $17,950 and 112 at $22,100, only two prototype Commander 111s were built, the company decided that only the Commander 112 would go into production. The design had a look and considerable interior room that set it apart from older designs like the Piper Cherokee. As one reviewer put it, The design had made to follow the newly released FAR Part 23 standards for light aircraft. The resulting design boasted considerable strength, a fact that Rockwell marketed heavily, unfortunately, this also had an impact on performance, and in spite of its clean lines the 112 was slightly slower than similar aircraft like the Piper Arrow. A prototype Commander 112 crashed after the tail failed during testing and this delayed the delivery of the first production aircraft until late in 1972. It also led to changes that increased the weight of the aircraft. This resulted it is being seriously underpowered, the 112 prototype was powered by a 180 hp Lycoming O-360 engine, even with this engine there is widespread agreement that the aircraft was underpowered. Another annoyance was that the fibreglass composite doors did not fit well, after 123 production aircraft had been built a number of improvements were made to the 112 in 1974, producing the 112A. The doors were fixed by replacing them with new units, which added still more weight. The 112TC had an improved cruise speed of 160 knots when flying at higher altitudes, as high as 20,000 feet. However, the low performance made this useful only on long trips where the climb time was not a serious issue. In 1977 the wing span stretch of the TC model was applied to the base 112 to produce the 112B and this allowed the 112Bs maximum takeoff weight to rise to 2,800 pounds, giving it a respectable useful load of 1,000 pounds. Production of the 112B ended in 1979, while the 112TC was further upgraded with a 50 pounds maximum weight increase, the major change was a complete makeover of the avionics suite with a three-axis autopilot, producing the 112TCA Alpine. This offered little more performance than the original 112TC, and was more expensive than similar offerings from other companies, a smaller set of upgrades, notably a three-bladed propeller and a slightly raised maximum takeoff weight of 3,250 pounds, produced the 114A Gran Turismo
20.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
21.
Locarno
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It has a population of about 16,000, and about 56,000 for the agglomeration of the same name including Ascona besides other municipalities. The town of Locarno is located on the part of Maggias delta. It is the 74th largest city in Switzerland by population and the third largest in the Ticino canton, after Lugano, the official language of Locarno is Italian. The town is known for hosting the Locarno International Film Festival which takes place every year in August and involves open-air screenings at the main square and it is also known for the Locarno Treaties, a series of European territorial agreements negotiated here in October 1925. In January 2004, the Italian historian Marino Vigano speculated that Locarnos castle may have designed by Leonardo da Vinci. In 1934 in the vicinity of todays Via S. Jorio, some of the urns were directly buried, while others were placed in boxes of uncut stone. The urns contained, in addition to burned bones, bronze ornaments, similar urns were also discovered in the district of S. Antonio, which was probably also a small cemetery. The ceramic and bronze objects date from the Canegrate culture, however, no traces of the settlement have been discovered. In 1935, a necropolis was discovered at Solduno. The over 200 graves cover nearly a thousand years, from the La Tène culture to the 3rd century AD, many of the La Tène era grave goods are Celtic style Fibulae or brooches. These objects demonstrate a cultural influence from regions north of the Alps, however, the ceramic objects are indigenous to Golasecca culture which spread into Ticino and Lombardy. Between 1946 and 1949, a number of Roman era tombs were discovered on the terrace between the churches of Santa Maria in Selva and San Giovanni Battista in Solduno, the Roman city that became Locarno was therefore between the vicus of Muralto and this cemetery. Unfortunately, intensive construction and agricultural activity have destroyed most traces of the ancient city, in 1995 and 1997,57 graves were found in Via Valle Maggia. Nineteen were from the Roman period, which confirms that even in the 3rd century AD cremation, among other significant finds, a number of glass items were discovered. The Roman necropolis was used from the end of the prehistoric La Tène era until the middle of the 3rd century AD, the extensive Romanization of Locarno wiped out much of the local culture and replaced it with ancient Roman elements. However, it appears there was no Roman ruling class which could have dominated the local population. The capitanei were a group of prominent noble families who emerged in the early Middle Ages, the term is first mentioned in a document granting market rights to the town by the Emperor Frederick I in 1164. This title was reserved only the direct vassals of the kings fief
22.
Linate Airport
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Milan Linate Airport is the secondary international airport of Milan, the second-largest city of Italy, behind Malpensa Airport. It served 9,689,635 passengers in 2015 and is used as a base by Alitalia and Alitalia CityLiner. The airport was built next to Idroscalo of Milan in the 1930s when Taliedo Airport, Linate was completely rebuilt in the 1950s and again in the 1980s. Its name comes from the village where it is located in the town of Peschiera Borromeo. Its official name is Airport Enrico Forlanini, after the Italian inventor, Linate airport buildings are located in the Segrate Municipality, and the field is located for a large part in the Peschiera Borromeo Municipality. That year,2001, also saw an accident at Linate with many illegal and non-ICAO-regulation practices. Linate Airport features one passenger terminal building. The ground level contains the check-in and separate baggage reclaim facilities as well as service counters, the first floor features the main departure area with several shops, restaurants and service facilities. The second floor is used for office space, the terminal building features five aircraft stands, all of which are equipped with jet-bridges. Several more parking positions are available on the apron which are reached from several bus-boarding gates, the following airlines operate scheduled services to and from Linate Airport, The airport is located at Viale Enrico Forlanini next to its intersection with autostrada A51. A51 is part of the citys highway ring, so the airport can be reached from any direction, taxis and car hire are available. Linate Airport can be reached by bus service 73 from Piazza San Babila in Milan city centre as well as by coach services from other places within the city. Coaches from and to Monza, Brescia and Milan Malpensa Airport are also run and this collision later resulted in criminal legal proceedings against 11 staff including an air traffic controller, flight safety officials and management officials from the airport. All 114 people on aircraft were killed, as well as four people on the ground. The Linate Airport disaster remains the deadliest air disaster ever in Italian history, on 15 June 2005, a light aircraft safely landed on taxiway T after its pilot had mistaken it for runway 36R. Following that incident, a safety recommendation was issued and it suggested the use of different numbers to help differentiate between runways. This change was enacted at the beginning of July 2007, when 18R/36L became 17/35, media related to Milan Linate Airport at Wikimedia Commons Official website Accident history for LIN at Aviation Safety Network
23.
Architecture of Italy
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Italy has a very broad and diverse architectural style, which cannot be simply classified by period or region, due to Italys division into several city-states until 1861. However, this has created a diverse and eclectic range in architectural designs. Italy has an total of 100,000 monuments of all varieties. Now Italy is in the forefront of modernist and sustainable design with Architects like Renzo Piano, Italian architecture has also widely influenced the architecture of the world. Along with pre-historic architecture, the first people in Italy to truly begin a sequence of designs were the Greeks, in Northern and Central Italy, it was the Etruscans who led the way in architecture in that time. Etruscan buildings were made from brick and wood, thus few Etruscan architectural sites are now in evidence in Italy, with the exception of a few in Volterra, the Etruscans strongly influenced Roman architecture, as they too used to build temples, fora, public streets and aqueducts. The heavy pillars and porches created by the Etruscans, and their city gates were also a significant influence on Roman architecture. In Southern Italy, from the 8th century BC, the Greek colonists who created what was known as Magna Graecia used to build their buildings in their own style. The Greeks built bigger, better and more technologically advanced houses that people in the Iron and Bronze Age, yet, by the 4th century BC, the Hellenistic Age, less concentration was put on constructing temples, more rather the Greeks spent more time building theatres. The theatres were semi-circular and had an auditorium and a stage and they used to be built only on hills, unlike the Romans who would artificially construct the audiences seats. The Greek temples were known for containing bulky stone or marble pillars, today, there are several remains of Greek architecture in Italy, notably in Calabria, Apulia and Sicily. An example could be the remains of Agrigento, Sicily, which are currently UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture around the 2nd century BC for their own purposes, creating a new architectural style. The two styles that are considered one body of classical architecture. Social elements such as wealth and high densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to go discover new solutions of their own. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all and they were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis. Italy was widely affected by the Early Christian age, with Rome being the new seat of the pope, after the Justinian reconquest of Italy, several buildings, palaces and churches were built in the Roman-Byzantine style. The Christian concept of a Basilica was invented in Rome and they were known for being long, rectangular buildings, which were built in an almost ancient Roman style, often rich in mosaics and decorations
24.
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
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The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat is an international body in the field of tall buildings and sustainable urban design. Its stated mission is to study and report on all aspects of the planning, design, the Council was founded at Lehigh University in 1969 by Lynn S. Beedle, where its office remained until October 2003 when it moved to the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. The CTBUH ranks the height of buildings using three different methods, Height to architectural top, This is the criterion under which the CTBUH ranks the height of buildings. Heights are measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the top of the building, inclusive of spires but excluding items such as flagpoles and antennae. Highest occupied floor, Height to the level of the highest floor that is occupied by residents. Height to tip, Height to the highest point of the building, including antennae, flagpoles, a category measuring to the top of the roof was removed from the ranking criteria in November 2009. This became the CTBUH official definition of a building’s completion, the CTBUH maintains an extensive database of the tallest buildings in the world, organized by various categories. Buildings under construction are included, although not ranked until completion. The CTBUH also produces an annual list of the ten tallest buildings completed in that particular year. Second on the 2008 list was the 363-metre Almas Tower in Dubai, third was the Minsheng Bank Building in Wuhan which stands at 331 metres, whilst fourth was The Address Downtown Burj Dubai. All in all, six of the ten tallest buildings completed in 2008 are located in Asia, the CTBUH also hosts annual conferences and a World Congress every three to five years. The most recent World Congress was held in Shanghai between 19 and 21 September 2012, the next World Congress will be held in Shanghai between 16 and 19 September 2014. The CTBUH also bestows Tall Building Awards each year, with four awards to the Americas, Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Among these four regional awards, one is given the Best Tall Building Award Overall, there are also two lifetime achievement awards. Starting in 2010, these awards are presented at a symposium, in 2012 the CTBUH added two new awards for Innovation and Performance. In addition to the newsletter and daily updated global news archive. The Journal includes peer-reviewed technical papers, in-depth project case studies, book reviews, interviews with prominent persons in the building industry. The CTBUH also publishes guidebooks, reference manuals, and monographs related to the building industry
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