1.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
2.
Telephony
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The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone. The term is used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software, and computer network systems. In this context the technology is referred to as Internet telephony. The first telephones were connected directly in pairs, each user had a separate telephone wired to the locations he might wish to reach. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when people wanted to communicate with more than a few people, the inventions of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange via one wire pair, nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines and long distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges. Initially the switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, a switchboard operator, when a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it turned on an indicator on the board in front of the operator who would plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the party by name, later by number. If the called station answered the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit, trunk calls were made with the assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network. In modern times, most telephones are plugged into telephone jacks, the jacks are connected by inside wiring to a drop wire which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, today, telephony uses digital technology in the provisioning of telephone services and systems. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services, the first implementation of this, ISDN, permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service was made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the IP protocol. The integration of software and computer systems is a major development in the evolution of the automated office. The term is used in describing the services of call centers. Its also sometimes used to describe the ability to use your personal computer to initiate, CTI is not a new concept and has been used in the past in large telephone networks, but only dedicated call centers could justify the costs of the required equipment installation. Dialed Number Identification Service on a scale is wide enough for its implementation to bring value to business or residential telephone usage
3.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
4.
Sheffield
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Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, its derives from the River Sheaf. With some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of Sheffield is 569,700, Sheffield is the third largest English district by population. The metropolitan population of Sheffield is 1,569,000, in the 19th century, Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production. Known as the Steel City, many innovations were developed locally, including crucible and stainless steel, Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843, becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893. International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in these industries in the 1970s and 1980s, the 21st century has seen extensive redevelopment in Sheffield along with other British cities. Sheffields gross value added has increased by 60% since 1997, standing at £9.2 billion in 2007, the economy has experienced steady growth averaging around 5% annually, greater than that of the broader region of Yorkshire and the Humber. The city is in the foothills of the Pennines, and the valleys of the River Don and its four tributaries, the Loxley, the Porter Brook, the Rivelin. 61% of Sheffields entire area is space, and a third of the city lies within the Peak District national park. The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have inhabited since at least the late Upper Palaeolithic period. The earliest evidence of occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city. In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes and it is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield. Gradually, Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira, a Celtic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield. The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield, however, date from the half of the first millennium. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, after the Norman conquest, Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements, and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city. By 1296, a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square, from 1570 to 1584, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor. During the 1740s, a form of the steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible
5.
South Yorkshire
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South Yorkshire is a metropolitan county in England. It is the southernmost county in the Yorkshire and the Humber region and had a population of 1.34 million in 2011 and it has an area of 1,552 square kilometres and consists of four metropolitan boroughs, Barnsley, Doncaster, Rotherham and Sheffield. South Yorkshire was created on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972 with Barnsley as its county town. The Sheffield Urban Area is the tenth most populous conurbation in the UK, South Yorkshire lies within the Sheffield City Region with Barnsley also being within the Leeds City Region, reflecting its geographical position midway between Yorkshires two largest cities. South Yorkshire County Council was abolished in 1986 and its boroughs are now effectively unitary authorities. As a ceremonial county, South Yorkshire has a Lord Lieutenant, South Yorkshire was created from 32 local government districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, with small areas from Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire. Although the modern county of South Yorkshire was not created until 1974, prehistoric remains include a Mesolithic house dating to around 8000 BC, found at Deepcar, in the northern part of Sheffield. The region was on the frontier of the Roman Empire during the Roman period, the main settlements of South Yorkshire grew up around the industries of mining and steel manufacturing. The main mining industry was coal which was concentrated to the north, there were also iron deposits which were mined in the area. The rivers running off the Pennines to the west of the county supported the industry that is concentrated in the city of Sheffield. The proximity of the iron and coal made this an ideal place for steel manufacture. Although Christian nonconformism was never as strong in South Yorkshire as in the towns of West Yorkshire, there are still many Methodist and Baptist churches in the area. Also, South Yorkshire has a high number of followers of spiritualism. It is the county that counts as a full region in the Spiritualists National Union. The review was abolished in favour of the Royal Commission on Local Government before it was able to issue a final report, the Royal Commissions 1969 report, known as the Redcliffe-Maud Report, proposed the removal of much of the then existing system of local government. Redcliffe-Mauds recommendations were accepted by the Labour government in February 1970, the Local Government Act 1972 reformed local government in England by creating a system of two-tier metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties and districts throughout the country. The act formally established South Yorkshire on 1 April 1974, although South Yorkshire County Council had been running since elections in 1973, South Yorkshire initially had a two tier structure of local government with a strategic-level county council and four districts providing most services. In 1986, throughout England the metropolitan county councils were abolished, the functions of the county council were devolved to the boroughs, joint-boards covering fire, police and public transport, and to other special joint arrangements
6.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
7.
BT Group
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BT Group plc is a holding company which owns British Telecommunications plc, a British multinational telecommunications services company with head offices in London, United Kingdom. It has operations in around 180 countries, BTs origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network. In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, the Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation. British Telecommunications, trading as British Telecom, was formed in 1980, British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming British Telecommunications plc, with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors. The Government sold its stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993. BT has a listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange. BT controls a number of large subsidiaries, BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016. The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016, BTs origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain. Among them was the first commercial service, the Electric Telegraph Company. As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912. These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom, in January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. John Hudson, with his premises in nearby Shudehill. As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together, the first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester. From 1878, the service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company. In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office, in 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services. Those services all folded within a few years, the exception being Kingston upon Hull. Converting the Post Office into an industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer. In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected, in 1961, more proposals were ignored
8.
Internet service provider
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An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
9.
Public limited company
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A public limited company is a type of public company under the United Kingdom company law, some Commonwealth jurisdictions, and the Republic of Ireland. It is a liability company whose shares may be freely sold and traded to the public, with a minimum share capital of £50,000. Similar companies in the United States are called publicly traded companies, public limited companies will also have a separate legal identity. A PLC can be either an unlisted or listed company on the stock exchanges, in the United Kingdom, a public limited company usually must include the words public limited company or the abbreviation PLC or plc at the end and as part of the legal company name. Welsh companies may choose to end their names with ccc. However, some public limited companies incorporated under special legislation are exempted from bearing any of the identifying suffixes. The term public limited company and the PLC/plc suffix were introduced in 1981, prior to this, all limited companies bore the suffix Limited, which is still used by private limited companies. When a new company incorporates in England and Wales or in Scotland, it must register with Companies House, Formation of a public limited company requires a minimum of one director and one secretary. In England and Wales and in Scotland, the male/female is under 16 years old, some people who are not British citizens are restricted as to what work they may do while in the UK, which may exclude them from being a director. The members must agree to some, or all, of the shares when the company is registered. The memorandum of association must show the names of the people who have agreed to take shares and these people are called the subscribers. There is a share capital for public limited companies, Before it can start business. A quarter of them, £12,500, must be paid up, each allotted share must be paid up to at least one quarter of its nominal value together with the whole of any premium. A company can increase its share capital by passing an ordinary resolution. A copy of the resolution – and notice of the increase on Form 123 – must reach Companies House within 15 days of being passed, no fee is payable to Companies House. A company can decrease its authorised share capital by passing a resolution to cancel shares which have not been taken or agreed to be taken by any person. Notice of the cancellation, on Form 122, must reach Companies House within one month, no fee is payable to Companies House. A company may have as different types of shares as it wishes
10.
Alternative Investment Market
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AIM is a sub-market of the London Stock Exchange that was launched on 19 June 1995. It allows smaller, less-viable companies to float shares with a more flexible system than is applicable to the main market. At launch, AIM comprised only 10 companies valued collectively at £82.2 million, by 2017, over one thousand companies comprise the sub-market, with an average market cap of £80 million per listing. AIM has also started to become an exchange, often due to its low regulatory burden. As of December 2005 over 270 foreign companies had been admitted to the AIM, the FTSE Group maintains three indices for measuring the AIM, which are the FTSE AIM UK50 Index, FTSE AIM100 Index, and FTSE AIM All-Share Index. AIM is an exchange regulated venue featuring an array of principles-based rules for publicly held companies, aside from granting leeway in regard to regulatory compliance, the Exchange also mandates continuous oversight and advice by the issuers underwriter, referred to as a Nominated Adviser. The role of Nomads is central to AIM’s regulatory model, as these play the role of gatekeepers, advisers and regulators of AIM companies. Theoretically, Nomads are liable for damages from tolerating misdemeanors on behalf of their supervised companies, in 2006, the London Stock Exchange launched a review of Nomad activities, resulting in a regulatory handbook for Nomads published by the Financial Services Authority in 2007. Therefore, AIM-listed companies are subject to manipulation by institutional investors. AIM-listed companies usually are required to adhere to the corporate governance requirements of their home jurisdiction. However, the requirements are more onerous than for private companies. Another important element of AIM’s model is the composition of its investor base, although AIM-listed companies are not start-ups, most are small and potentially more risky than a FTSE listing. As a consequence, AIM’s investor base is composed of institutional investors. The following table lists the 10 biggest AIM companies on 17 May 2012, source, File linked from this page. In March 2007, U. S. securities regulator Roel Campos suggested that AIMs rules for share trading have created a market like a casino, Campos reportedly said, Im concerned that 30% of issuers that list on AIM are gone in a year. That feels like a casino to me and I believe that investors will treat it as such, AIM has since issued new rules requiring that listed companies maintain a website. The calibre of participants in the market has also criticised by fund manager John Hempton of Bronte Capital Management. AIM was criticised for allowing Langbar International to be listed and this was due in part because the Nomad failed to carry out due diligence
11.
John Lewis Partnership
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The John Lewis Partnership is an employee-owned UK company which operates John Lewis department stores, Waitrose supermarkets, its banking and financial services, and other retail-related activities. The JLP group is the third largest UK private company by sales in the Sunday Times Top Track 100 for 2016, the chains image is upmarket, and it appeals strongly to middle- and upper-class shoppers. The Partnership also supplies the Ocado web supermarket with Waitrose own-brand foods, John Lewis opened a drapery shop at 132 Oxford Street, London in 1864. Born in Shepton Mallet in Somerset in 1836, he had been apprenticed at 14 to a draper in Wells. He came to London in 1856 and worked as a salesman for Peter Robinson, there he sold silk and woollen cloth and haberdashery. His retailing philosophy was to buy good quality merchandise and sell it at a modest mark up, although he carried a wide range of merchandise, he didn’t bother much about displaying it, and never advertised. His skill lay in sourcing the goods he sold, and most mornings he would go to the City, later he would make trips to Paris to buy silks. Lewis spurned holidays and games, and devoted entirely to the business. He invested the money he made from it in residential and small retail properties and he never held sales, saying that he was intent on building a sound, permanent business. In 1884, aged 48, Lewis married Eliza Baker, a schoolmistress with a university education, a second son, Oswald Lewis, was born in 1887. After Westminster School, both sons joined Lewis in the business, and he gave each of them a share of it on their twenty-first birthdays. There was constant quarrelling between Lewis and his sons, by 1909, Oswald wanted to leave the business, and Lewis senior reluctantly agreed to buy back Oswald’s quarter share of the firm for £50,000. Lewis had several run-ins with Lord Howard de Walden, his Oxford Street landlord, in 1911, de Walden sued him for libel, Lewis was found guilty, but the jury awarded damages of just a farthing. In 1906, Lewis bought a controlling interest in the Sloane Square-based business Peter Jones Limited, Lewis walked from Oxford Street with the £20,000 purchase price in bank notes. He shortened their working day and instituted a system of commission for each department and he held regular meetings at which staff could air any grievances directly with him. In 1916, after a disagreement with his father, Spedan Lewis exchanged his 25 per cent interest in the Oxford Street business for Lewiss shares in Peter Jones Limited and he made improvements in staff conditions, including granting a third weeks paid holiday each year. He had hot and cold running water installed in the staff bedrooms over the shop, in 1918, he started publishing a fortnightly newspaper telling staff how the business was faring. In 1919, he instituted a council, the first decision of which was that staff should be paid weekly instead of four-weekly
12.
Ebuyer
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Ebuyer is an electronic commerce retailer based in Howden, East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is the largest independent online retailer of computer and electrical goods in the United Kingdom, the Ebuyer website is the 210th most visited site in the United Kingdom and has 1.3 million registered customers. Ebuyer has a number of business partnerships in place, most notably with Hewlett Packard. Other partners include Microsoft, Toshiba, Sony and Zoostorm, Ebuyer sponsored The Kingston Communications Stadiums west stand in Hull. Its current Managing Director is Stuart Carlisle, who joined the company in August 2013, in July 2008, Gavin Brent, from Holywell in Flintshire, North Wales admitted stealing goods worth £20,000 from the firm before returning the goods, and demanding full refunds. Brent, whose suspicious transactions were spotted by Ebuyers security team, went on to conduct a campaign against the company. This included menacing Ebuyer staff and an officer from Brents now-defunct blog. During 2005 Ebuyer had significant customer service problems, sheffield Trading Standards received 282 complaints about the company, and the customer service phone number had been removed from its website. After this, the promised to improve its service. Average daily telephone wait times are published, on 28 November 2011, eBuyer ran a £1 promotion via email, offering new deals on the hour until midnight. EBuyer angered customers when their website was unable to handle the extra traffic, when the website did work, many customers were emailed after successfully ordering and paying for items, only to be told they were out of stock. Many customers vented their anger at the company on their Facebook page, in December 2013, eBuyer posted pictures to Facebook of its staff wearing Christmas themed jumpers. However, a Facebook user named Phil spotted that one of the images contained a leaderboard in the background that suggested that staff were rated on the number of returns that they reject. EBuyer responded to accusations by stating that these were RMAs avoided by providing technical advice
13.
Dial-up Internet access
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The users computer or router uses an attached modem to encode and decode information into and from audio frequency signals, respectively. In 1979, Tom Truscott and Steve Bellovin, graduate students for Duke University, the USENET was a UNIX based system that used a dial-up connection to transfer data through telephone modems. Dial-up Internet has been around since the 1980s via public providers such as NSFNET-linked universities and was first offered commercially in July 1992 by Sprint. Despite losing ground to broadband since the late-1990s, dial-up may still be used other forms are not available or the cost is too high. Dial-up connections to the Internet require no other than the telephone network. Dial-up requires time to establish a connection and perform configuration for protocol synchronization before data transfers can take place. In locales with telephone connection charges, each connection incurs an incremental cost, if calls are time-metered, the duration of the connection incurs costs. Dial-up access is a transient connection, because either the user, technically inclined users often find a way to disable the auto-disconnect program such that they can remain connected for more days than one. A2008 Pew research center study stated that only 10 percent of US adults still used dial-up Internet access, the study found that the most common reason for retaining dial-up access was high broadband prices. Users cited lack of infrastructure as a less often than stating that they would never upgrade to broadband. According to the United States Federal Communications Commission, 6% used dial-up in 2010, by 2013, that number had fallen to 3%. Broadband internet access via cable, digital line, satellite. Broadband connections typically offer speeds of 700 kbit/s or higher for more than the price of dial-up on average. In addition broadband connections are always on, thus avoiding the need to connect and disconnect at the start, however, many rural areas still remain without high speed Internet despite the eagerness of potential customers. This can be attributed to population, location, or sometimes ISPs lack of interest due to little chance of profitability and high costs to build the required infrastructure. Some dial-up ISPs have responded to the competition by lowering their rates. Dial-up Internet access has undergone a precipitous fall in usage, in contrast to the year 2000 when about 34% of Internet users used dial-up, this dropped to 3% in 2013. Many newer websites also now assume broadband speeds as the norm, modern dial-up modems typically have a maximum theoretical transfer speed of 56 kbit/s, although in most cases, 40–50 kbit/s is the norm
14.
Demon Internet
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Demon Internet is a British Internet Service Provider currently operating as a brand of Vodafone. It was one of the UKs earliest ISPs, offering dial-up Internet access services from 1 June 1992, in 1998 Demon was bought by Scottish Telecom, a wholly owned subsidiary of the private utility company Scottish Power. Scottish Telecom rebranded as Thus plc in October 1999 and floated on the London Stock Exchange, Thus plc fully demerged from Scottish Power in 2002. Thus became part of Cable & Wireless plc, and then part of Cable & Wireless Worldwide following a split of its parent, the company was purchased as part of the acquisition of Cable & Wireless Worldwide by Vodafone Group on 27 July 2012. Demon now operates as a brand of Vodafone, from 1996 to 2006 Demon operated a subsidiary ISP business in the Netherlands. It was sold to KPN in June 2006 and its operations transferred to their XS4ALL subsidiary, the public telephone number of the company, and many of the dialup access numbers, end with 666, a deliberate pun on the name Demon. When Thus plc was formed as a parent of Demon, its randomly allocated company number also ended in 666, Demon Internet was born out of Demon Systems, a bespoke business software development company formed by Cliff Stanford, Grahame Davies and Owen Manderfield. Dismissing the idea that the Demon name might upset those with religious convictions, the original Demon service was hosted using mainly Apricot servers including a gigantic pair of LSI towers named gate and post. When Demon started, WinSock was still a new concept, most PC users had to use KA9Q or NOS - a command line style client - to establish their TCP/IP connection to use ftp, gopher, telnet, etc. The Worldwide Web had not yet arrived, in the early days MS-DOS users were expected to download Internet connection software based on the KA9Q implementation of TCP/IP. Other platforms able to connect to the service included OS/2 Warp, Amiga, Archimedes, Atari, Linux, in 1995 the company acquired Chris Hall and Richard Claytons Turnpike suite for Windows. Its first service was the standard dial-up - full TCP/IP access on a static IP address with a user chosen 4 to 8 character nodename in the. demon. co. uk domain e. g. example. demon. co. uk. This allowed users to receive SMTP mail and other IP traffic direct to their computers and it was possible to operate independently of Demon or to make use of Demons mail, news and IRC servers. Demon was the first ISP to pioneer SDU service priced at £10 a month plus VAT, the low price attracted enough new customers that it was profitable and served to expand Internet usage in the UK. Demon still offers SDU service at the price today but many customers today use ADSL. The book needed a change to Demons mail systems, schofield demanded and got a POP3 mail option added to the Demon service. The book sold 15,000 copies off the first print run, thanks to Demon Systems, Demon Internet always had a strong programming team allowing it to create solutions to emerging issues in-house. All three directors were programmers and Stanford wrote many pieces of software, writing modules to adapt MMDF to Demons purposes
15.
Telewest
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Telewest, formerly Telewest Broadband and Telewest Communications, was a cable Internet, broadband internet, telephone supplier and cable television provider in the United Kingdom. It was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, in February 2007, NTL, Telewest was rebranded as Virgin Media. Telewest originated in Croydon in 1984 under the name Croydon Cable, in 1988, United Cable, of Denver acquired Croydon Cable. Franchises extended the scope in Edinburgh, and the South West. In 1989, United Cable merged with United Artists Cable International. In May 1991, United Artists announced a deal with their largest shareholder TCI, to form the largest cable operator in the US, deal was valued at $142. 5m. A week later, on 8 June the deal was finalized with ITC acquiring the remaining 46% of United Artists, TCI and US West announced a joint venture, and in 1992, the joint venture company became Telewest Communications. In June 1995, Telewest merged with SBC Communications, adding franchises in the Midlands, during this time Telewest founded a consortium called Cable Internet. This consisted of the cable companies in the United Kingdom working together a provide national Internet access service. Telewest purchased the remaining 50% stake in Cable London from NTL in August 1999, in April 2000, Telewest merged with Flextech, and in November extended its cable network with the acquisition of Eurobell, taking the total number of homes passed to 4.9 million. The company later known as Telewest Broadband in a re brand during 2001. In subsequent years Telewest experienced many problems due to huge debts incurred as a result of constructing its cable network and of acquiring other cable companies. In September 2003, Telewest re structured itself, by swapping its unsecured debt for 98. 5% of its shares, the London Stock Exchange then de listed the consolidated shares. Major Telewest shareholders included Huff and Liberty Media, afterwards the company emerged from financial restructuring and completed a merger with NTL in 2006. On its cable network, Telewest provided several residential services including, there were, however, areas that received an analogue service. Telewest was in the process of converting the remaining areas to digital. The digital television service offered a number of different products including true video on demand, a PVR, on Demand, On Demand was the brand name for Telewests video on demand service. The On Demand service launched in 2005, in contrast to Sky Digital which, due to technical limitations, is only able to provide near-VOD services, Teleport is a true VoD system
16.
Modem
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A modem is a network hardware device that modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is attempting to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily, modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second. Modems can also be classified by their rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift keying with two frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols, to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols, news wire services in the 1920s used multiplex devices that satisfied the definition of a modem. However, the function was incidental to the multiplexing function, so they are not commonly included in the history of modems. S. SAGE modems were described by AT&Ts Bell Labs as conforming to their newly published Bell 101 dataset standard, while they ran on dedicated telephone lines, the devices at each end were no different from commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101,110 baud modems. The 201A and 201B Data-Phones were synchronous modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying, the famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also introduced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex service at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines, frequency-shift keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2 gave an important boost to the use of remote low-speed terminals such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR and KSR, AT&T reduced modem costs by introducing the originate-only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems. For many years, the Bell System maintained a monopoly on the use of its phone lines, however, the seminal Hush-a-Phone v. FCC case of 1956 concluded it was within the FCCs jurisdiction to regulate the operation of the Bell System. The FCC found that as long as a device was not electronically attached to the system and this led to a number of devices that mechanically connected to the phone through a standard handset. Since most handsets were supplied by Western Electric and thus of a standard design and this type of connection was used for many devices, such as answering machines. Acoustically coupled Bell 103A-compatible 300 bit/s modems were common during the 1970s, well-known models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-Jacobson, the latter spun off from an in-house project at Stanford Research Institute. An even lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, designed to be built using parts from electronics scrap, in December 1972, Vadic introduced the VA3400, notable for full-duplex operation at 1,200 bit/s over the phone network. Like the 103A, it used different frequency bands for transmit, in November 1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem to compete with Vadic
17.
Umbrella company
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An umbrella company is a company that acts as an employer to agency contractors who work under a fixed term contract assignment, usually through a recruitment employment agency in the United Kingdom. Recruitment agencies issue contracts to a company as the agency liability would be reduced. It is estimated that 14% of the UK’s professional contractors are currently managing their business by working through an umbrella company, an umbrella company processes timesheets received from the employee/contractor, then issues an invoice to the client for payment. An umbrella company is an employer and therefore all contractors working with them should sign a Contract of Employment and this contractual arrangement establishes the rights and obligations in such matters as maternity pay, sick pay and employment protection. Contract and Employment law is complicated and there is a body of case law which provides guidance on what constitutes a contract of service. The umbrella company provides payroll on behalf of the contractor and bills the agency for work completed by the contractor, the umbrella company provides all social contribution and tax payments and equivalents and National Insurance returns on behalf of the contractor. The client is effectively the company for whom the contractor works and this may be within any industry and across all levels of employment. The agency, if involved, performs the recruitment process on behalf of the client, some agencies will provide a PAYE scheme as part of their offer. This alleviates the requirement for the company but requires additional capability within the organization including professional accountants. Most agencies elect to utilize an umbrella company, the contractor or employee of the umbrella company completes the actual work, completes a timesheet and submits this along with any expense claims to the umbrella company. All umbrella companies use the same PAYE calculations to ascertain how much tax should be paid, the only difference between umbrella companies will be the margin that they charge and the benefit schemes they run. Some of the most common allowable expenses include, mileage & general travel expenses, hotel and accommodation expenses, food and subsistence is rarely allowed to be claimed, as it is HMRCs opinion that you would eat regardless as to whether you are working or not. The exception to rule is if you were staying away from home as part of the work. The 2008 HM Treasury pre-budget report reported on the consultation on the use of travel expenses in conjunction with being employed via umbrella companies, HMT decided that the legislation would remain as is but suggested additional HMRC policing would be carried out to reduce cases of non-compliance. HMT issued the results of the consultation in December 2008, umbrella companies normally keep a part of the income or charge a margin for processing contractors payroll and for some umbrella companies it will go towards contractors insurances. In France, Belgium and Sweden, it is usually a percentage of the invoiced amount, in the UK, it is mostly a fixed weekly amount. The American professional employer organization PEO offering co-employment for small companies
18.
Leased line
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A leased line is a private bidirectional or symmetric telecommunications line between two or more locations provided in exchange for a monthly rent. Sometimes known as a circuit or data line in the UK. Unlike traditional PSTN lines it does not have a telephone number, leased lines can be used for telephone, data or Internet services. Some are ringdown services, and some connect to a Private branch exchange or Router, typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect geographically distant offices. Unlike dial-up connections, a line is always active. The fee for the connection is a monthly rate. The primary factors affecting the monthly fee are distance between end points and the speed of the circuit, because the connection does not carry anybody elses communications, the carrier can assure a given level of quality. An Internet leased line is an internet connectivity product, normally delivered over fiber. It is also known as a leased line, dedicated line. For example, a T-1 can be leased and provides a maximum speed of 1.544 Mbit/s. The user can channelize the T-1 to separate the 24 DS0 circuits for voice communication, partial the T-1 for data and voice communications, or multiplex the channels into a single data circuit. Leased lines, as opposed to DSL, are being used by companies, leased lines services became digital in the 1970s with the conversion of the Bell backbone network from analog to digital circuits. This allowed AT&T to offer Dataphone Digital Services that started the deployment of ISDN, leased lines were used to connect mainframe computers with terminals and remote sites, via IBM Systems Network Architecture or DECnet. With the extension of services in the 1980s leased lines were used to connect customer premises to Frame Relay or ATM networks. Access data rates increased from the original T1 option up to T3 circuits, leased lines are used to build up private networks, private telephone networks or access the internet or a partner network. Here is a review of the leased line applications in Network designs over time, note that other Layer 3 protocols were used such as Novell IPX on enterprise networks until TCP/IP became ubiquitous in the 2000s. Today, point to point data circuits are typically provisioned as either TDM, Ethernet, Terminating a leased line with two PBX allowed customers to by-pass PSTN for inter-site telephony. This allowed the customers to manage their own dial plan as well as to make significant savings if enough voice traffic was carried across the line, as demand grew on data network telcos started to build more advanced networks using packet switching on top of their infrastructure
19.
Colocation centre
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A colocation centre or carrier hotel, is a type of data centre where equipment, space, and bandwidth are available for rental to retail customers. Many colocation providers sell to a range of customers, ranging from large enterprises to small companies. Typically, the customer owns the IT equipment and the facility provides power, customers retain control over the design and usage of their equipment, but daily management of the data center and facility are overseen by the multi-tenant colocation provider. Cabinets – A cabinet is a unit that holds a server rack. In a multi-tenant data center, servers within cabinets share raised-floor space with other tenants, in addition to sharing power, cages – A cage is dedicated server space within a traditional raised-floor data center, it is surrounded by mesh walls and entered through a locking door. Cages share power and cooling infrastructure with other data center tenants, suites – A suite is a dedicated, private server space within a traditional raised-floor data center, it is fully enclosed by solid partitions and entered through a locking door. Suites may share power and cooling infrastructure with other data center tenants, modules – data center modules are purpose-engineered modules and components to offer scalable data center capacity. They typically use standardized components, which make them easily added, integrated or retrofitted into existing data centers, and cheaper and easier to build. In a colocation environment, the center module is a data center within a data center, with its own steel walls and security protocol. Colocation facilities have many special characteristics, Fire protection systems, including passive and active elements. Smoke detectors are installed to provide early warning of a developing fire by detecting particles generated by smouldering components prior to the development of flame. This allows investigation, interruption of power, and manual fire suppression using hand held fire extinguishers before the fire grows to a large size, a fire sprinkler system is often provided to control a full scale fire if it develops. Clean agent fire suppression systems are sometimes installed to suppress a fire earlier than the fire sprinkler system. 19-inch racks for data equipment and servers, 23-inch racks for telecommunications equipment, cabinets and cages for physical access control over tenants equipment. Overhead or underfloor cable rack and fibreguide, power cables usually on separate rack from data, air conditioning is used to control the temperature and humidity in the space. ASHRAE recommends a range and humidity range for optimal electronic equipment conditions versus environmental issues. The electrical power used by the equipment is converted to heat. Unless the heat is removed, the ambient temperature will rise, by controlling the space air temperature, the server components at the board level are kept within the manufacturers specified temperature/humidity range
20.
Insight Enterprises
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Insight Enterprises Inc. is an Arizona-based publicly traded global technology company that focuses on business-to-business and information technology capabilities for enterprises. The company is listed on the Fortune 500 and has offices in 22 countries with operations in 200 countries and territories, hard Drives International was founded in 1988 by Eric and Tim Crown. Initially a mail order business selling computer storage, the company expanded into a storefront when credit card companies wouldnt service startup mail order firms, in 1991, the company changed its name to Insight Enterprises, and distribution included a full line of computers and accessories. The company held its public offering in January 1995. Insight became a company when it acquired TC Computers, based in Montreal, Canada. The acquisition expanded Insights operations to Europe, Insight acquired Action Computer Supplies Holdings PLC, a U. K. -based direct marketer, in October 2001 for approximately $150 million in stock. In April 2002, the company acquired Comark for $150 million, increasing Insights ability to work with clients of all sizes, calence LLC, a technology company that focused on Cisco networking and advanced communications, was acquired by Insight in April 2008 for $125 million. Insight acquired U. K. -based Minx Ltd. a European network integrator with Cisco Gold Partner accreditation, in July 2008 for $1.5 million, ensynch, an information technology company founded in 2000, was acquired by Insight in September 2011. Insight acquired Inmac Gmbh, a hardware reseller based in Germany. In June 2015, Insight underwent a rebranding which aimed to emphasize the company focus on customer relations. The company launched a new website in July 2015 as part of the shift in company focus, in October 2015, Insight acquired BlueMetal, an interactive design and technology architecture firm based in Boston. Also in 2015, Insight raised $200,000 in its campaign for its Noble Cause division. Through Noble Cause, Insight gives to local charities including the Make-a-Wish Foundation, the Boys & Girls Clubs of America, in 2016, BlueMetal partnered with INDYCAR, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Microsoft to produce an analytics focused app during the Indianapolis 500. Insight opened an additional sales center at the Meadows Office and Technological Park in Conway, Insight announced the acquisition of Ignia, an Australian-based business technology consulting company, in September 2016. The $258 million deal closed in the first quarter of 2017, in 2013, Insight received the Transformational Licensing Solution Partner of the Year award from Microsoft. The company was featured on the InformationWeek 500 list in 2013, Insight was featured on the Fortune 500 list for its seventh year in 2015. That year it was recognized as Dells National Solution Providers of the Year. BlueMetal website Datalink website Ignia website Insight Enterprises website
21.
Asymmetric digital subscriber line
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ADSL differs from the less common symmetric digital subscriber line. In ADSL, Bandwidth and bit rate are said to be asymmetric, providers usually market ADSL as a service for consumers for Internet access for primarily downloading content from the Internet, but not serving content accessed by others. ADSL works by using the spectrum above the band used by voice telephone calls. With a DSL filter, often called splitter, the bands are isolated. Data carried by the ADSL are typically routed over the companys data network. There are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in places the most common type offered to home users. On the technical side, there is likely to be more crosstalk from other circuits at the DSLAM end than at the customer premises. Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop and it therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end. Since the typical user in fact does prefer a higher download speed. The marketing reasons for a connection are that, firstly. For example, in web browsing, a user will visit a number of web sites and will need to download the data that comprises the web pages from the site, images, text. File sharing applications are an exception to this situation. Secondly internet service providers, seeking to avoid overloading of their connections, have traditionally tried to limit uses such as file sharing which generate a lot of uploads. Currently, most ADSL communication is full-duplex, full-duplex ADSL communication is usually achieved on a wire pair by either frequency-division duplex, echo-cancelling duplex, or time-division duplex. FDD uses two separate bands, referred to as the upstream and downstream bands. The upstream band is used for communication from the end user to the central office. The downstream band is used for communicating from the office to the end user. With commonly deployed ADSL over POTS, the band from 26.075 kHz to 137.825 kHz is used for upstream communication, under the usual DMT scheme, each of these is further divided into smaller frequency channels of 4.3125 kHz
22.
Fiber to the x
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Fiber to the x is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances. FTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fibre deployment, arranged into two groups, FTTP/FTTH/FTTB and FTTC/N, the telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are, FTTP, This term is used either as a term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses. FTTH, Fiber reaches the boundary of the space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point Ethernet are architectures that deliver services over FTTH networks directly from an operators central office. FTTD, Fiber connection is installed from the computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the users desk. FTTO, Fiber connection is installed from the main computer room/core switch to a special mini-switch located at the user´s workstation or service points and this mini-switch provides Ethernet services to end user devices via standard twisted pair patch cords. The switches are located all over the building, but managed from one central point. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of technologies, FTTF This is very similar to FTTB. In a fiber to the front yard scenario, each fiber node serves a single subscriber and this allows for multi-gigabit speeds using XG-fast technology. The fiber node may be reverse-powered by the subscriber modem, FTTN is often an interim step toward full FTTH and is typically used to deliver advanced triple-play telecommunications services. FTTC is occasionally ambiguously called FTTP, leading to confusion with the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system, the FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN. While fiber optic cables can carry data at speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines. For example, the form of gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling. However,1 Gbit/s ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometres, therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the segments can use standard ethernet or coaxial cable. Google Fiber provides speed of 1 Gbit/s, still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e. g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s
23.
BT Smart Hub
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The BT Home Hub is a family of wireless residential gateway router modems distributed by BT for use with their own products and services as well as wholesale resellers i. e. LLUs. The latest versions of the Home Hub support the Wi-Fi 802. 11ac standard, all models of the Home Hub prior to the Home Hub 3 support VoIP Internet telephony via BT’s Broadband Talk service and are compatible with DECT telephone handsets. The BT Home Hub works with the now defunct BT Fusion service, the BT Home Hub 1.0,1.5 and 2.0 devices connect to the Internet using a standard ADSL connection. The BT Home Hub 3 and 4 models support PPPoA for ADSL and PPPoE for VDSL2, version 5 of the Home Hub, released in August 2013, includes a VDSL2 modem for fibre-optic connections. New firmware is pushed out to the Home Hubs automatically by BT, the Home Hub 5 was followed in mid-2016 by the Smart Hub, a further development of the Home Hub sometimes referred to as Home Hub 6. It has more WiFi antennas than its predecessor, and a USB3.0 rather than USB2.0 port, prior to release of the Home Hub, BT offered a product based on the 2Wire 1800HG, and manufactured by 2Wire. This was described as the BT Wireless Hub 1800HG, or in documentation as the BT Wireless Home Hub 1800. This provided one USB connection, four ethernet ports and Wi-Fi 802. 11b or 802. 11g wireless connection, a total of ten devices in any combination of these was supported. Consequently, the Home Hub 1.0 can be flashed with some such as that for the 7G. The Home Hub 1.5 firmware, whilst not hardware locked as previously claimed, does have extra locks in the bootloader which can now be circumvented, There are two versions of the BT Home Hub 2.0, the A and the B model. The hardware contained within the Home Hub 2. 0A was manufactured by Thomson SpeedTouch and this model is electronically identical to the Thomson SpeedTouch TG797n. The hardware contained within the BT Home Hub 2. 0B was manufactured by Siemens Gigaset division in Germany, the middleware was developed by Jungo, a subsidiary of NDS, and is based on their openRGTM product. Some Home Hub 2.0 units were made by Hon Hai Precision Ind. Co. Ltd. In the standard firmwares, telnet shell access is available in versions on the BT Home Hub 1.0 with appropriate user permissions. This is identical to the shell used in the SpeedTouch range of routers and provides an almost identical software feature set. This is not the case in the versions, as full telnet access is available. There are two versions of the BT Home Hub 3, the A and the B model, the hardware contained within the Home Hub 3A was manufactured by Siemens Gigaset division and is based on a Lantiq XWAYTM ARX168 chipset supporting ADSL2+. The Home Hub 3B was manufactured by Huawei and also supports ADSL2+, the Home Hub 3B is powered by a highly integrated Broadcom BCM6361 System-on-a-chip
24.
YouView
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YouView is a hybrid TV platform in the United Kingdom, developed by a partnership of three telecommunications operators and four broadcasters. It was formed from a project originally titled Project Canvas, which was rebranded as YouView in September 2010, the service was due to launch by the end of that year, but was delayed until 4 July 2012. At its launch, YouViews then-Chairman Alan Sugar stated his ambition for the service to replace Freeview devices, no contract is required, and there is no subscription charge. Catch-up and on-demand content is delivered over the Internet, which may be chargeable by the Internet service provider or subject to limits and fair usage clauses. BT and TalkTalk have each partnered with YouView, allowing BT subsidiaries BT TV & Plusnet TV and TalkTalk TV customers to access the service, along with BTs, both companies provide customers with their own branded YouView set-top box. The YouView hardware is a Digital Terrestrial Television HD box that provides viewing and recording of all channels available on digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom. There is no access to some streamed channels in the 225-256 range on Freeview, additional content is provided over a broadband Internet connection and can be accessed via the YouView menu and EPG via the search function. There are currently nine free catch up TV players available, providing access to TV programming, the free on-demand players available are BBC iPlayer, ITV Hub, All 4, My5, STV Player, Milkshake. The content on ITV Hub varies by region, STV Player is only available in STV Group regions. There are an additional three pay TV on-demand players, Netflix, Now TV and Sky Store from Sky, subscribers to BT Infinity can access additional live IPTV channels via the EPG and on-demand content through the BT TV Player. The customer will receive a YouView+ box or a YouView box or a YouView Ultra HD box depending on the subscription type taken. A free YouView box is provided to TalkTalk Plus or Essentials customers taking out a term contract. Content that TalkTalk provides, such as film rentals & box sets, are available from the TalkTalk Player application within the YouView menu bar. In the TalkTalk Player, there are boosts that customers can buy for a minimum of 1 month and customers can watch and these boosts range from Sky premium channels, sports, TV box sets, films and foreign language channels. TalkTalk use their own brand of Huawei boxes, with the TalkTalk logo on the front, a control with a direct button on the TalkTalk Player. Essentials customers cannot record, but can still pause live TV, unlike BT, you dont need a fibre package. Project Canvas was initially announced on 11 December 2008 as a partnership between the BBC, BT and ITV plc, Project Canvas differed from Kangaroo, however, in that it was a proposed TV platform rather than a video-on-demand service. On 30 July 2009, Project Canvas announced that Five had signed up to the project, on 9 July 2010, Five announced that it would not pursue further involvement in Project Canvas, pending a review of its digital investment strategy
25.
EE Limited
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EE is a British mobile network operator, Internet service provider and a division of BT Group. It was established in 2010 as a 50,50 joint venture between Deutsche Telekom and Orange S. A. through the merger of their respective T-Mobile and Orange businesses in the UK. It is the largest mobile operator in the UK, with around 30 million customers. EE is headquartered in Hatfield in the United Kingdom and also has offices in Bristol, Darlington, Greenock, North Tyneside, Plymouth, Leeds. In addition to telephone services, EE also provides an IPTV service through its EE TV Box. As of 23 November 2016, EEs 4G & 2G networks combined coverage reaches more than 99% of the UK population, Deutsche Telekom and France Télécom announced plans to merge their respective UK ventures T-Mobile UK and Orange UK on 8 September 2009. The initial planning suggested a joint revenue of around £7.7 billion for 2008 with savings via synergies expected to total around over £445 million annually from 2014 onwards, the two companies also announced an expected investment of £600 to £800 million in integration costs. The initial press release outlined a primarily clear vision for the two brands citing that the T-Mobile UK and Orange UK brands will be maintained separately for 18 months, the merger was cleared by the European Commission on 1 March 2010. The joint venture was announced as completed on 1 April 2010, the companies network sharing plans were released to customers on 11 October 2010. The switch-on was rolled out utilising an opt-in page on each brands website, however, the rollout did not initially include automatic network roaming mid-call or the two brands 3G services. On 18 July 2011, Tom Alexander announced unexpectedly that he would step down as CEO, Alexander had joined Orange in 2008 and had led the company since its formation on 1 July 2010. Alexander said that he would remain with the company throughout the remainder of 2011, on 2 November 2011 Everything Everywhere announced plans to cut a further 550 back office staff, with its sites in Bristol, Darlington, Hatfield, and Paddington affected. In April 2012, the T-Mobile network in Northern Ireland was switched off, however, later most T-Mobile sites were turned back on as EE has a mast sharing agreement with 3. Further speculation commenced on 7 September 2012 when the company announced details of a conference on the morning of 11 September 2012. Other commentators suggested that the HTC One XL would be the first handset to launch utilising Everything Everywheres 4G network. The handsets that the initially launched on EE are the iPhone 5, HTC One XL, Samsung Galaxy S III, Samsung Galaxy Note II, Huawei Ascend P1, Nokia Lumia 920. The company also announced that they would be using two 4G mobile broadband devices manufactured by Huawei - the E589 Mobile Wi-Fi device and E392 mobile broadband dongle, the brand was described by EE as The Super Fast Brand. It was also confirmed that all ex-Orange and ex-T-Mobile shops would be re-branded EE overnight, the companys legal name changed to EE Limited on 2 September 2013
26.
BT Wholesale and Ventures
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BT Wholesale is a division of United Kingdom telecommunications company BT Group that provides data, voice, hosted communication, managed network and IT services. They are responsible for the leasing of PSTN lines, broadband services. Wholesale Broadband Connect is BT Wholesales up-to-24 Mbit/s ADSL offering in the UK, WBC replaces the now-retired ADSL Max product. WBC is defined in SIN472, ADSL2+ has been available in the UK from Internet Service Providers since 2005, through Local Loop Unbundling. The roll out of WBC by BT will enable the majority of the UK population to access to ADSL2+ services. IPstream is the most highly used wholesale broadband Internet service in the UK, BT Wholesale sells the service to ISPs and IPTV providers, who use it to provide ADSL services to customers over Openreach telephone lines. BT has operational control of the network for such as load balancing. Transit of data to and from the internet, along with services such as email servers, are the responsibility of the ISP. IPStream is widely used by ISPs because it is cheaper to set up and this is balanced by the fact that usage costs for ISPs are higher using IPstream than their own network. Datastream is the system where ISPs in the UK use BT equipment. BT Wholesale pays Openreach for access to the loop and the exchange. The alternative to IPStream is local loop unbundling, in which the ISP obtains these facilities from Openreach directly, similar services are offered in other countries where there is a single dominant telecommunications provider, such as wholesale DSL from Telstra in Australia. IPstream has largely retired by BT in favour of its Wholesale Broadband Connect. BT Wholesale Kitz WBC Page SamKnows 21CN Pages SamKnows 21CN Broadband Pages
27.
Tiscali
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Tiscali s. p. a. is an Italian telecommunications company, based in Cagliari, Sardinia, that provides internet and telecommunications services to its domestic market. It previously had operations in other European nations through its acquisition of many smaller European Internet Service Providers in the late 1990s, Tiscali was created in January 1998 in Cagliari by Renato Soru, following the deregulation of Italian telephone system. The company owes its name to a Sardinian mountain at which remains of an ancient village were found, from March 1999 onward, Tiscali offered Tiscali Free Net, a subscription-free Internet service where customers only had to pay for the time they were online. This pushed other Italian providers to repeal their fixed subscription fees, on October 1999, the company went though an initial public offering to be traded on the Italian stock exchange at a share price of 46 Euros. 3,098,000 shares were offered to investors of which 2,658,000 shares were created through a capital increase, Soru made 20,240,000 Euros on the IPO. In 2012, the price per share had plummeted to 0.04 Euros, between 2001 and 2003, shares were also traded on the French stock exchange. Each of Tiscalis regional companies offer services, which may include broadband internet access. Between 2007 and 2008, Tiscali briefly operated an IPTV service in Italy and its UK television service, Tiscali TV was acquired by TalkTalk in 2009. In May 2009, its IP/MPLS backbone counted 90 Points of Presence and extended over 17 European countries and across the United States and its Autonomous System was a core ASN in the global Internet routing table, as well as the largest IPv6 backbone outside Asia. The network was sold to the Italian private equity firm BS Private Equity SpA on 27 May 2009, and renamed Tinet. Tiscali ran similar web portals for each of its countries, which features such as webmail, reviews, news, videos, dating, chat, radio, TV guide, streaming TV channels. Tiscali published a web browser of the same name which was distributed with its dial-up Internet packages. It was produced by UltraBrowser and used the core of Microsofts Internet Explorer to display web pages, the software has not been included in installation packages since Tiscalis corporate rebranding in 2004. Tiscali offered dial-up Internet access in Finland under service name Surfeu, Tiscali Campus in Cagliari has 1,000 employees. The center includes a development division for Internet technologies where researchers like Antonio Tuzzi, Luca Manunza, beginning in 2004, Tiscali sold off many of its regional sub-companies to native telecommunications operators in order to focus more on prime target areas. On 16 August 2004, Tiscali sold its Austrian branch, Tiscali Österreich GmbH, on 20 August 2004, Tiscali sold its South African branch, Tiscali, to MWEB Holdings Ltd. On 23 August 2004, Tiscali sold its Norwegian branch, Tiscali AS, on 30 August 2004, Tiscali sold its Swedish counterpart, Tiscali AB, to Spray Network AB, then a subsidiary of Lycos. On 16 September 2004, Tiscali sold its Swiss counterpart, Tiscali AG, on 19 October 2004, Tiscali sold its South African mobile telephone network, Tiscali Mobile, to Vodacom
28.
ISP
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An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
29.
Contract
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A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions
30.
Arbor Networks
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The companys products are used to protect networks from denial-of-service attacks, botnets, computer worms, and efforts to disable network routers. The company was founded in 2000 when founders Farnam Jahanian and Rob Malan spun out research from the University of Michigan and they were joined by students Jonathan Arnold, Matthew Smart, and Jonathan Poland to make the founding team. The company raised $11 million in a round of venture capital, in January 2008, Arbor acquired Ellacoya Networks, a company which provides broadband traffic shaping products. The acquisition was expected to increase the total market for Arbor to $750 million in 2008. In March 2009, Arbor worked with 100 ISPs to create a new monitoring system. In October 2009, the company estimated that Google paid almost nothing for YouTubes bandwidth, on August 31,2010, Tektronix Communications announced that it has completed its acquisition of Arbor Networks. Upon completion of the acquisition, Arbor Networks joins Danaher Corporations portfolio of communications and enterprise companies, on September 3,2013, Arbor Networks announced that it has acquired privately held Packetloop, a leader in Security Analytics based in Sydney, Australia. Arbor has strategic partnerships with Cisco, IBM, and Juniper Networks, in addition to its headquarters in Burlington, Massachusetts, the company also has offices in Ann Arbor, Michigan, London, and Singapore. Wired stated that due to the popularity of Arbors software among ISPs, Arbor is now part of NetScout Systems as part of the acquisition of Fluke, Tektronix Communications and VSS in 2015 from Danaher
31.
Juniper Networks
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Juniper Networks is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Sunnyvale, California that develops and markets networking products. Its products include routers, switches, network management software, network security products, the company was founded in 1996 by Pradeep Sindhu. It received several rounds of funding from venture capitalists and telecommunications companies before going public in 1999, Juniper grew to $673 million in annual revenues by 2000. By 2001 it had a 37% share of the core routers market and it grew to $4 billion in revenues by 2004 and $4.63 billion in 2014. Juniper appointed Kevin Johnson as CEO in 2008, Shaygan Kheradpir in 2013, Juniper Networks originally focused on core routers, which are used by internet service providers to perform IP address lookups and direct internet traffic. Through the acquisition of Unisphere in 2002, the company entered the market for edge routers, Juniper Networks entered the IT security market with its own JProtect security toolkit in 2003 before acquiring security company NetScreen Technologies the following year. It entered the segment in the early 2000s, which accounted for one-third of revenues by 2005. As of 2014, Juniper has been focused on developing new software-defined networking products, however, in 2016, the company encountered some controversy under suspicion allegedly putting backdoors into its ScreenOS products. Pradeep Sindhu, a scientist with Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center, conceived the idea for Juniper Networks while on vacation in 1995, at the time most routers used for Internet traffic were intended for phone calls and had dedicated circuits for each caller. Sindhu wanted to create packet-based routers that were optimized for Internet traffic and he was joined by engineers Bjorn Liencres from Sun Microsystems and Dennis Ferguson from MCI Communications. Sindhu started Juniper Networks with $2 million in seed funding, which was followed by $12 million in funding in the companys first year of operations. About seven months after the founding, Scott Kriens was appointed CEO to manage the business. By February 1997, Juniper had raised $8 million in venture funding, Juniper also received $2.5 million from Qwest and other investments from AT&T. Juniper Networks had $3.8 million in annual revenue in 1998. By the following year, its product, the M40 router, was being used by 50 telecommunications companies. Juniper Networks signed agreements with Alcatel and Ericsson to distribute the M40 internationally, a European headquarters was established in the United Kingdom and an Asia-Pacific headquarters in Hong Kong. A subsidiary was created in Japan and offices were established in Korea in 1999, Juniper Networkss market share for core routers grew from 6% in 1998 to 17. 5% one year later, and 20% by April 2000. Juniper Networks filed for a public offering in April 1999. The stock set a record in first-day trading in the sector by increasing 191% to a market capitalization of $4.9 billion
32.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
33.
Peer-to-peer file sharing
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Peer-to-peer file sharing is the distribution and sharing of digital media using peer-to-peer networking technology. The nodes of such networks are end-user computers and distribution servers, several factors contributed to the widespread adoption and facilitation of peer-to-peer file sharing. These included increasing Internet bandwidth, the digitization of physical media. Users were able to either one or more files from one computer to another across the Internet through various file transfer systems. The central index server indexed the users and their shared content, when someone searched for a file, the server searched all available copies of that file and presented them to the user. The files would be transferred directly between the two private computers, a limitation was that only music files could be shared. Because this process occurred on a server, however, Napster was held liable for copyright infringement. It later reopened as a pay service, after Napster was shut down, the most popular peer-to-peer services were Gnutella and Kazaa. These services also allowed users to download files other than music, Napster and eDonkey2000, which both used a central server-based model, may be classified as the first generation of P2P systems. These systems relied on the operation of the respective central servers, the third generation of filesharing networks are the so-called darknets, including networks like Freenet, which provide user anonymity in addition to the independence from central servers. The BitTorrent protocol represents a special case, in principle, it is a filesharing protocol of the first generation, relying on central servers called trackers to coordinate users. However, it does not form a network in the traditional sense, instead new, separate networks of coordinating users are created for every set of files, called a torrent. This allows BitTorrent to encompass certain aspects of a network of the second generation as well. Users create a file containing the metadata of the files they want to share. Peer-to-peer file sharing is also efficient in terms of cost, the system administration overhead is smaller because the user is the provider and usually the provider is the administrator as well. Hence each network can be monitored by the users themselves, at the same time, large servers sometimes require more storage and this increases the cost since the storage has to be rented or bought exclusively for a server. However, usually peer-to-peer file sharing does not require a dedicated server, there is still ongoing discussion about the economic impact of P2P file sharing. This trades off efficiency for longer-term incentive effects for the recording industry, however, it is efficient within the normal meaning of the term in economics in a way that it would not have been had Jack and Jane used subsidized computers or network connections
34.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
35.
IPv6
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IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4, every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, by 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3. 4×1038 addresses, the actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than 7. 9×1028 times as many as IPv4, the two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts, IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, the use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol, IPv6 was first formally described in Internet standard document RFC2460, published in December 1998. In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in IPv4 and it simplifies aspects of address assignment, network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points, Network security was a design requirement of the IPv6 architecture, and included the original specification of IPsec. IPv6 does not specify interoperability features with IPv4, but essentially creates a parallel, exchanging traffic between the two networks requires translator gateways employing one of several transition mechanisms, such as NAT64, or a tunneling protocol like 6to4, 6in4, or Teredo. Internet Protocol Version 4 was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol and it is currently described by IETF publication RFC791, which replaced an earlier definition. IPv4 included a system that used numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in quad-dotted notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPAs networking concepts, during the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority to the five regional Internet registries. However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing block remains, after that, only blocks of 1024 addresses will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry. This leaves African Network Information Center as the sole regional internet registry that is using the normal protocol for distributing IPv4 addresses
36.
World IPv6 Day and World IPv6 Launch Day
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World IPv6 Day was announced on January 12,2011 with five anchoring companies, Facebook, Google, Yahoo, Akamai Technologies, and Limelight Networks. The event started at 00,00 UTC on June 8,2011, the main motivation for the event was to evaluate the real world effects of the IPv6 brokenness as seen by various synthetic tests. To this end, during World IPv6 Day major web companies, although Internet service providers have been encouraged to participate, they were not expected to deploy anything active on that day, just increase their readiness to handle support issues. The concept was discussed at the 2010 Google IPv6 Conference. Many companies and organizations participated in the experiment, including the largest search engines, social networking websites, there were more than 400 participants in the original World IPv6 Day. Major carriers measured the percentage of IPv6 traffic of all Internet traffic as increasing from 0.024 to 0.041 with respect to native, most IPv6 traffic in consumer access networks was to Google sites. Demonstrating the need for content sites to adopt IPv6 for success, early results indicated that the day passed according to plan and without significant problems for the participants. Cisco and Google reported no significant issues during the test, Facebook called the results encouraging, and decided to leave their developer site IPv6-enabled as a result. But the consensus was that work needed to be done before IPv6 could consistently be applied. The participants will continue to perform detailed analyses of the data, many participants find it worthwhile to continue to maintain dual-stacks. The event was billed as this time, its for real, according to Alain Fiocco of Cisco, content that currently receives roughly 30% of global World Wide Web IPv4 pageviews should now have become available via IPv6 after World IPv6 Launch Day. IPv6 traffic on AMS-IX rose by 50% on the launch day, IPv6 traffic on AMS-IX was measured by ether type distribution as 0.4 percent, while IPv4 was measured as 99.6 percent on average in both daily and weekly graphs. IPv6 deployment IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting Internet Society – World IPv6 Day Internet Society – World IPv6 Launch After World IPv6 Day, – Engineers from Cisco, Google, Hurricane Electric, and Yahoo. Discuss the deployment work done for World IPv6 Day and share the experience learned
37.
Freeview (UK)
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Freeview is the United Kingdoms digital terrestrial television platform. It is operated by DTV Services Ltd, a joint venture between the BBC, ITV, Channel 4, Sky and transmitter operator Arqiva, the service provides consumer access via an aerial to the six DTT multiplexes covering the United Kingdom. In April 2014 it had some 60 DVB-T TV channels,26 digital radio channels,10 HD channels, six services,11 streamed channels. A number of new HD channels launched in 2014, from a new group of multiplexes awarded to Arqiva, the new HD channels were launched in selected areas on 10 December 2013 with a further roll-out during 2014. DTV Services delivery of television and radio is labelled Freeview. Reception of Freeview requires a Freeview tuner, either in a separate box or built into the TV set. Since 2008 all new TV sets sold in the United Kingdom have a built-in Freeview tuner, Freeview HD requires a HDTV-capable tuner. Digital video recorders with a built-in Freeview tuner are labelled Freeview+, depending on model, DVRs and HDTV sets with a Freeview tuner may offer standard Freeview or Freeview HD. DMOL, a company owned by the operators of the six DTT multiplexes is responsible for platform management and policy, including the electronic programme guide. The founding members of DTV Services, who trade as Freeview, were the BBC, Crown Castle UK, on 11 October 2006, ITV plc and Channel 4 became equal shareholders. Since then, the Freeview model has been copied in Australia, with the launch of Freeview other channels were broadcast free-to-air, such as, Sky Travel, UK History, Sky News, Sky Sports News, The Hits and TMF were available from the start. BBC Four and the interactive BBC streams were moved to multiplex B, under the initial plans, the two multiplexes operated by Crown Castle would carry eight channels altogether. The seventh stream became shared by UK Bright Ideas and Ftn which launched in February 2003, the eighth stream was left unused until April 2004 when the shopping channel Ideal World launched on Freeview. There are now 14 streams carried by the two multiplexes, with Multiplex C carrying 6 streams, and Multiplex D carrying 8 and it has recently been announced that more streams are now available on the multiplexes, and that bidding is under way. The Freeview service underwent an upgrade on 30 September 2009. The changes, meant to ensure reception of Channel 5. The Freeview website crashed and the centre was inundated as a result of the problems. The change involved an update to the NIT, which some receivers could not accommodate, many thousands of people could not receive some channels
