1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Providence River
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The Providence River is a tidal river in the U. S. state of Rhode Island. There are no dams along the length, although the Fox Point Hurricane Barrier is located south of downtown to protect the city of Providence from damaging tidal floods. The southern part of the river has been dredged at a cost of $65 million in federal and state funds to benefit nearby marinas, the Dutch called the Providence River the Nassau River. It was the limit of Dutch claims in the colonial era, owing to Adriaen Blocks exploration of Narragansett Bay. It can, therefore, be regarded as the boundary between the English New England colonies and the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The river is formed by the confluence of the Woonasquatucket and Moshassuck rivers in downtown Providence, one half mile downstream, it is joined from the east by the Seekonk River and continues south. The cities of Providence, Cranston, and Warwick lie to the west of the river, while the city of East Providence and the town of Barrington lie to the east. At the narrows between Conimicut Point, in Warwick to the west and Nayatt Point in Barrington to the east, below is a list of all crossings over the Providence River. The list starts at the headwaters and goes downstream. edu Providence River Dredging Project Answer Sheet
Providence River
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Providence River looking south
Providence River
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Point Street Bridge, spanning the Providence River
Providence River
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The city of Providence as seen from the Providence River at its confluence with the Narragansett Bay
Providence River
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Islands
3.
Providence, Rhode Island
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Providence is the capital of and most populous city in the U. S. state of Rhode Island, founded in 1636, and one of the oldest cities in the United States. It is located in Providence County and is the third most populous city in New England, after Boston, Providence has a city population of 179,154, it is also part of the Providence metropolitan area which extends into southern Massachusetts. The Providence metropolitan area has an population of 1,604,291. This can be considered, in turn, to be part of the Greater Boston commuting area, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He named the area in honor of Gods merciful Providence, which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him, the city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River at the head of Narragansett Bay. Providence was one of the first cities in the country to industrialize and became noted for its tool, jewelry. The city was nicknamed the Beehive of Industry, it began rebranding itself as the Creative Capital in 2009 to emphasize its educational resources. The area that is now Providence was first settled in June 1636 by Roger Williams and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States, Williams and his company felt compelled to withdraw from Massachusetts Bay Colony. Providence quickly became a refuge for persecuted religious dissenters, as Williams himself had been exiled from Massachusetts, Providence residents were among the first Patriots to spill blood in the leadup to the American Revolution during the Gaspée Affair of 1772. Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown on May 4,1776. It was also the last of the thirteen colonies to ratify the United States Constitution on May 29,1790, following the war, Providence was the countrys ninth-largest city with 7,614 people. The economy shifted from maritime endeavors to manufacturing, in particular machinery, tools, silverware, jewelry, by the start of the 20th century, Providence boasted some of the largest manufacturing plants in the country, including Brown & Sharpe, Nicholson File, and Gorham Silverware. Providence residents ratified a city charter in 1831 as the population passed 17,000. From its incorporation as a city in 1832 until 1878, the seat of city government was located in the Market House, located in Market Square, the city offices quickly outgrew this building, and the City Council resolved to create a permanent municipal building in 1845. The city offices moved into the City Hall in 1878, during the Civil War, local politics split over slavery as many had ties to Southern cotton. Despite ambivalence concerning the war, the number of military volunteers routinely exceeded quota, by the early 1900s, Providence was one of the wealthiest cities in the United States. Immigrant labor powered one of the nations largest industrial manufacturing centers, Providence was a major manufacturer of industrial products from steam engines to precision tools to silverware, screws, and textiles. From 1975 until 1982, $606 million of local and national Community Development funds were invested throughout the city.4 million ft² Providence Place Mall, despite new investment, poverty remains an entrenched problem as it does in most post-industrial New England cities
Providence, Rhode Island
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From top left:
Downtown Providence skyline and the
Providence River from the
Point Street Bridge,
Federal Hill,
University Hall at
Brown University,
Roger Williams Park, the
First Baptist Church in America,
WaterFire at
Waterplace Park, and the
Rhode Island State House.
Providence, Rhode Island
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First Baptist Church in America, founded 1638, present building occupied in 1776, is the oldest Baptist congregation in America
Providence, Rhode Island
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Providence in the mid-nineteenth century
Providence, Rhode Island
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Market Square was the center of civic life in the 19th Century, and
Market House was home to the city council before
City Hall was built.
4.
Swing bridge
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Small swing bridges as found over canals may be pivoted only at one end, opening as would a gate, but require substantial underground structure to support the pivot. In its closed position, a bridge carrying a road or railway over a river or canal, for example. When a water vessel needs to pass the bridge, road traffic is stopped, as this type requires no counterweights, the complete weight is significantly reduced as compared to other moveable bridges. Where sufficient channel is available to have individual traffic directions on each side, the central support is often mounted upon a berm along the axis of the watercourse, intended to protect the bridge from watercraft collisions when it is opened. This artificial island forms an excellent construction area for building the movable span as the construction will not impede channel traffic, for a symmetrical bridge, the central pier forms a hazard to navigation. Asymmetrical bridges may place the pivot near one side of the channel, where a wide channel is not available, a large portion of the bridge may be over an area that would be easily spanned by other means. A wide channel will be reduced by the pivot and foundation. If struck from the water near the edge of the span, buna River Bridge, in Shkodra, Albania. Puente de la Mujer, an asymmetrical cable-stayed span, the Sale Swing Bridge, Sale, Victoria, Australia. Dunalley Bridge, Dunalley, Tasmania Still in use, Belize City Swing Bridge, Belize City, Belize. Oldest such bridge in Central America and one of the few manually operated swing bridge in world still in operation, the longest swing bridge span is 340 metres, by the El Ferdan Railway Bridge across the Suez Canal. Le pont tournant rue Dieu, across the Canal Saint-Martin in Paris, is a location in the 1938 film Hôtel du Nord. Kalpaka Tilts, Liepāja, connecting the city with the former Russian/Soviet port Karosta, the Abtsewoudsebrug in Delft, close to the Technische Universiteit Delft, is a bridge of this type. 52°0′5. 71″N 4°21′50. 10″E Theres another one on the channel between Ghent and Terneuzen at Sas Van Gent, many inner cities have swing bridges, since these require less street space than other types of bridges. Kopu Bridge, Waihou River, near Thames, New Zealand A swing bridge at the Gatun Locks provides the only road passage over the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal and this is a small bridge that swings out from each side. Another larger swing bridge at the Miraflores Locks is on the Pacific side but is used, having been supplanted by the Bridge of the Americas. Crosskeys Bridge - carries the A17 road over the River Nene in Lincolnshire Folkestone Harbour railway station - railway bridge on the branch line, goole railway swing bridge Glasson Dock swing bridge Hawarden Railway Bridge - rail. Many are manually operated, carrying only farm tracks, but a significant number carry road traffic and are mechanised for boater operation, manchester Ship Canal at Latchford, Stockton Heath and Lower Walton in Warrington, and also slightly further west at Moore
Swing bridge
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BNSF Railway bridge across the Columbia River in Portland, Oregon, showing the swing-span section turning.
Swing bridge
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Swing bridge
Swing bridge
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Swing Bridge for pedestrians, in motion with
yacht approaching, at
Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town.
Swing bridge
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The point at which the Pyrmont Bridge of Sydney swings
5.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
Steel
–
The
steel cable of a
colliery winding tower
Steel
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Steel
–
Iron ore pellets for the production of steel
Steel
–
A Bessemer converter in
Sheffield,
England
6.
Movable bridge
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A moveable bridge, or movable bridge, is a bridge that moves to allow passage for boats or barges. An advantage of making bridges moveable is the lower cost, due to the absence of high piers, the principal disadvantage is that the traffic on the bridge must be halted when it is opened for passages. For seldom-used railroad bridges over busy channels, the bridge may be open and then closed for train passages. For small bridges, bridge movement may be enabled without the need for an engine, some bridges are operated by the users, especially those with a boat, others by a bridgeman, a few remotely using video-cameras and loudspeakers. Generally, the bridges are powered by motors, whether operating winches, gearing. While moveable bridges in their entirety may be long, the length of the moveable portion is restricted by engineering. There are often traffic lights for the road and water traffic, ninety-nine were killed and 100 were injured. Four crewmen, including the engineer and fireman, and 44 passengers died by drowning, september 22,1993 – Mobile, Alabama, US, In heavy fog and low visibility, a disoriented towboat pilot made a wrong turn and entered an un-navigable waterway. The rails kinked but did not break, so no fault was indicated for approaching trains, approximately 8 minutes later, an Amtrak train carrying 220 passengers derailed at the kinked portion of the rails, killing 47 and injuring 103 more. November 23,1996 – Kearny, New Jersey, US, An Amtrak passenger and mail train derailed crossing the Portal Bridge over the Hackensack River. Moveable Bridges in the British Isles NSW moveable bridges
Movable bridge
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Madison Street Bridge, a bascule bridge over the Chicago River in Chicago, IL
Movable bridge
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Types
7.
Jewelry District (Providence)
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The Jewelry District is a neighborhood of Providence, Rhode Island located just south of Downtown between Interstate 195 and Henderson Street. Interstate 95 lies at the edge of the neighborhood, which includes Davol Square. The neighborhood was home to a number of jewelry manufacturing companies beginning in the 19th century. The area was detached from the rest of downtown with the construction of Interstate 195 in the 1960s, however, a major construction project, known as the Iway is currently under way to relocate Interstate 195 further south, thereby reconnecting the district with Downtown. Contained within the Jewelry District neighborhood is the Providence Jewelry Manufacturing Historic District, the Fox Point Hurricane Barrier is the most prominent feature of this area. The barrier protects Providence from storm surge flooding like that it had endured in the 1938 New England Hurricane, in both storms, downtown flooded to a depth of over eight feet at some locations. Downtown has not suffered substantial flooding since the construction of the barrier, a segment of Interstate 195 that spans the Jewelry District and Fox Point was relocated south, in what the Rhode Island Department of Transportation has dubbed the Iway project. The relocation has resulted in a new Providence River bridge crossing and this recent addition spans the Providence River just south of the Fox Point Hurricane Barrier. Originally constructed in Quonset Point, Rhode Island, the Iway bridge had been floated north up Narragansett Bay for the project. India point park, located at the confluence of the Providence, there are plans to redevelop a former power plant north of Davol Square that is now called the Dynamo House. The new building would be a joint venture between Brown University, Rhode Island College, and University of Rhode Island, collier Point Park is located along the Providence waterfront south of Davol Square. The park is home to a decommissioned Russian submarine, Juliet 484, the submarine had been in use as a museum until the submarine sank in a storm April 17–18,2007. The submarines owners had planned to salvage the submarine and reopen the museum, but were unable to obtain sufficient funds for the project
Jewelry District (Providence)
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Providence neighborhoods with the Jewelry District in red
8.
Wickenden Street
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Wickenden Street in Providence, Rhode Island is a popular destination for students of the areas colleges and schools. The street is surrounded by schools and universities on the East Side of Providences College Hill, including Brown University, RISD, Moses Brown School, & The Wheeler School. The street is named after a rebellious British minister, William Wickenden, Wickenden was one of the first settlers in Providence in the 17th century. The area was home to a large Portuguese-American community starting in the 19th century, in 1885 Bishop Hendricken organized one of the first Portuguese-American churches in the area on the site of a former Wickenden Street skating rink. Some of the houses on the Street are still painted in pastel colors in the Portuguese style, today, Wickenden Street has numerous independent shops, art galleries, a farmers market, and restaurants that are popular among local artists, professors and students. College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island Thayer Street Wickenden Area Merchants Association
Wickenden Street
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Wickenden Street in 2008
Wickenden Street
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Original settlement plots on the East Side of Providence in 1650. Wickenden's strip of farmland (now Wickenden Street) is highlighted. Wickenden Street and other East Side streets received their names after the names of the original plot owner, (e.g. Arnold, Williams, Angell, Waterman)
9.
College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island
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College Hill is a neighborhood in Providence, Rhode Island, and one of six neighborhoods comprising the East Side of Providence and part of the College Hill Historic District. It is roughly bounded by South and North Main Street to the west, Power Street to the south, Governor Street and Arlington Avenue to the east, College Hill is also home to Thayer Street, a shopping strip frequented by students in the Providence area. College Hill is the most affluent neighborhood in Providence, with a family income of nearly three times that of the city as a whole. College Hill has been designated as one of the Great Places in America by the American Planning Association in 2011, College Hill became an example of Historic Preservation planning in 1959. Prior to their development, the area was known as Prospect Hill, after friendly agreement with chief sachems of the Narragansett Canonicus and Miantonomi, and with providence aforethought, Williams and his group set camp. By 1644, Williams along with Chad Brown and the ancient settlement of Providence had taken root at College Hill, by the time of the American Revolution, the foot of the hill was densely populated with wharves, warehouses, shops, public buildings, and residential houses. Benefit Street was home to hotels, including the Golden Ball Inn which hosted such guests as George Washington. In 1770, the college that became Brown University was moved to the old Brown farm, in the nineteenth century, precious metals and jewellery trading drove much business on North Main Street, and RISD was established in 1877. By the 1900s, Brown had begun expanding more aggressively, demolishing nearly 100 houses in the 1950s for a residential quadrangle area, in the post-war years, Providence went into a decline. Many of the more historic centers were in disrepair and were slated for demolition as part of urban renewal projects. The Providence Preservation Society intervened and the area is now home to one of the countrys largest restored collections of 18th and 19th century Victorians, College Hill boasts architectural styles from the 18th century forward, including residences and institutional structures located along tree-lined streets with sidewalks. Some of the elegant homes include the Georgian-style John Brown House built in 1786, both are National Historic Landmarks and museums. College Hill also has churches built in the Baroque, Romanesque, Gothic, Greek Revival. The Fleur De Lys Studio is also part of the collection of buildings on College Hill. This cultural institution is inspired by the half-timbered stucco houses of Chester, the Providence Athenaeum built in 1838 is one of the nation’s oldest libraries and is an example of Greek-Revival architecture. Benefit Street was formerly Back Street in its colonial days, as the area matured, the area was once home to both many wealthy business families in the 1700s, and black Americans in the 1900s. These aged houses were occupied mostly by Providences early minority population and were subdivided into tenements. These units were often dilapidated and without facilities and were targets for demolition under one of the citys proposed urban renewal projects
College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island
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Providence neighborhoods with College Hill in red
College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island
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Halsey House at 140 Prospect Street, built in 1801 by Colonel Thomas Lloyd Halsey. This served as the Ward house in The Case of Charles Dexter Ward.
College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island
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Benefit Street, the heart of College Hill
College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island
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Governor Stephen Hopkins House, built 1708, home of Brown's first chancellor. The house is adjacent to the campus on colonial-era Benefit Street, and near Brown's School of Public Health, visible on the right of the photo
10.
Bridge
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A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old English word brycg, of the same meaning. The word can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The word for the game of the same name has a different origin. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support, some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age, it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence, several intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese. The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans, the Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, the Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost. In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams, a Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal administration in India and this bridge is also historically significant as it is the worlds oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar Bridge, rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th century there were innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716, a major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn, with the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a tensile strength, much larger bridges were built. In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded bridge in the world
Bridge
–
The
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in
Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span.
Bridge
–
The double-decked
George Washington Bridge, connecting
New York City to
Bergen County,
New Jersey, USA, is the world's busiest bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually.
Bridge
–
The
Siosepol bridge over
Zayandeh River is an example of
Safavid dynasty (1502–1722) bridge design.
Esfahan,
Iran
Bridge
–
Grand Coulee Dam
11.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
Granite
–
Granite containing
potassium feldspar,
plagioclase feldspar,
quartz, and
biotite and/or
amphibole
Granite
–
Close-up of granite exposed in
Chennai,
India
Granite
–
The
Cheesewring, a granite
tor
Granite
–
A granite peak at
Huangshan, China
12.
Abutments
–
In engineering, abutment refers to the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam whereon the structures superstructure rests or contacts. Multi-span bridges require piers to support ends of spans unsupported by abutments, Dam abutments are generally either side of a valley or gorge but may be artificial in order to support arch dams such as Kurobe Dam in Japan. The term may refer to the structure supporting one side of an arch. Also the impost or abacus of a column in classical architecture may serve as an abutment to an arch, the word derives from the verb abut, meaning to touch by means of a mutual border. An abutment may be used for the following, To transfer loads from a superstructure to its foundation elements, to resist and/or transfer self weight, lateral loads and wind loads. To support one end of an approach. Every time I drive down the road I wanna’ jerk the wheel into a Goddamn bridge abutment, in the film The Big Lebowski The Dudes car was stolen and later located by the police. The officer who found it told The Dude It was discovered last night in Van Nuys lodged against an abutment, to which The Dude responded Oh man, lodged where. Ohio Department of Transportation Fixed Bridge Abutments
Abutments
–
Cream-colored concrete abutment gives vertical support to the small
red rail bridge, and to the earthen fill of the bridge approach embankment
Abutments
–
Kurobe Dam rests on artificial concrete abutments
Abutments
–
Abutment for a large steel arch bridge
13.
Fox Point Hurricane Barrier
–
The Fox Point Hurricane Barrier is a 3, 000-foot long tidal flood barrier spanning the Providence River in Providence, Rhode Island, located 750 feet upstream from Fox Point. It was constructed between 1960 and 1966 to protect the downtown area of the city from damaging storm surge and floods associated with hurricanes. Since colonial times, the port of Providence, located at the head of Narragansett Bay, has been a part of the citys economy. Ocean-going ships regularly dock along the waterfront just south of downtown. During the 19th century, the city became a leader in industrial output. The downtown area is located in a natural basin with an elevation of only 8–12 feet above mean sea level. In September 1938, the Great New England Hurricane slammed the coast of Southern New England, killing 250 people in the region, downtown Providence, a bustling center of commerce was entirely submerged under water, causing about $120 million in damage in the city alone. Again in 1954, the area was hit by Hurricane Carol, causing a storm surge as high as 8 feet in some areas, local, state and federal officials decided to take action to prevent future devastation. Construction of the barrier was authorized in 1958 under the Flood Control Act, the $16 million wall has never seen a Category 5 hurricane, but has successfully protected the city in every instance since its construction. Constructed between 1960 and 1966 at a cost of $14 million, the barrier was the first of its type to be approved for construction in the United States. The main feature of the barrier is a group of three large movable gates which span the river, allowing boats to pass through during normal periods. Each of the three Tainter gates is 40 feet wide and weighs 53 tons with an outer portion facing the tide. It takes about 30 minutes to each gate. The relatively narrow gates prohibit large ships from passing into the inner harbor as they did in the 19th century. However, modern ocean-going vessels now dock at the Port of Providence, the inner harbor is now generally occupied by only small pleasure craft during the summer months. The original dike located along the shore has been removed and replaced with vertical concrete walls as part of the construction of the new embankment for the Interstate 195 relocation. Three sets of huge steel gates are located under the newly constructed portion of Interstate 195, east of the Providence River Bridge, at South Water, South Main. On the west shore, vehicular gates are located at Allens Avenue as well as on the property of the Manchester Street Power Plant, the gates are normally in the open position to allow traffic to pass through, but are closed to provide a continuous barrier during emergency events
Fox Point Hurricane Barrier
–
Fox Point Hurricane Barrier Gates with Providence River Bridge directly behind
Fox Point Hurricane Barrier
–
Providence River with Fox Point Hurricane Barrier. The Providence River bridge is just downstream, but not connected to the barrier. The Manchester Street Power Station is on the right.
14.
Providence Journal
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The Providence Journal, nicknamed the ProJo, is a daily newspaper serving the metropolitan area of Providence, Rhode Island and is the largest newspaper in Rhode Island. The newspaper was first published in 1829 and is the oldest continuously-published daily newspaper in the United States, the newspaper has won four Pulitzer Prizes. The papers history has reflected the waxing and waning of newspaper popularity throughout the United States, by 1829, demand for more timely news caused Miller to combine his existing publications into the Providence Daily Journal, published six days per week. The first edition of the Providence Daily Journal appeared July 1,1829, in the next few decades the paper was sold to new owners several times, until by 1863 it was owned by George Danielson and Henry B. The latter would go on to serve as Governor of Rhode Island, editor George W. Danielson joined the paper on January 1,1863, and served as editor until his death in 1884. Danielson immediately launched an edition, called the Evening Bulletin. By July 1871, the Journal had grown enough that it moved to larger quarters at the Barton Block. During the Danielson and Anthony years, the paper was known for its support of the Republican Party. After Danielsons death, the paper became less partisan, and by 1888 declared its political independence, in 1877, Danielson hired Charles Henry Dow, a young journalist with an interest in history. At the Journal, Dow developed an index which summarized stories of historic interest. It is possible this was an inspiration for Dows later development of his stock index at the Wall Street Journal. While at the Journal Dow wrote a series on The History of Steam Navigation between New York and Providence, Dow also traveled to Colorado to report on the Colorado Silver Boom and the Leadville miners strike, these stories were published in May and June 1879. In 1885, a Sunday edition was added, making the publication schedule seven days per week, in 1872 the first diner in America, a horse-drawn wagon serving hot food, was founded to serve the employees of the Providence Journal. Before American entry into World War I, Journal publisher and Australian immigrant John R. Rathom attempted to stir up sentiment in favor of the war against the Central Powers. He frequently published exposés of German subversive activities in the United States, by 1920, it was revealed that Rathoms information was supplied by British intelligence agents. Still, Rathom remained editor until his death in 1923, the Journal dropped Daily from its name and became The Providence Journal in 1920. In 1992, the Bulletin was discontinued and its name was appended onto that of the morning paper, starting in 1925, the Journal became the first in the country to expand coverage statewide. It had news bureaus throughout Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts, a trend that had been inaugurated in 1925 by then-managing editor Sevellon Brown, in 1937, the only competing Providence-based daily, the Star-Tribune, went bankrupt and was sold
Providence Journal
Providence Journal
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The July 27, 2005 front page of The Providence Journal
