1.
Neo-impressionism
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Neo-Impressionism is a term coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art movement founded by Georges Seurat. Around this time, the peak of France’s modern era emerged, followers of Neo-Impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as landscapes and seashores. Science-based interpretation of lines and colors influenced Neo-Impressionists characterization of their own contemporary art, the Pointillist and Divisionist techniques are often mentioned in this context, because it was the dominant technique in the beginning of the Neo-impressionist movement. Some argue that Neo-Impressionism became the first true movement in painting. The Neo-Impressionists were able to create a movement very quickly in the 19th century, partially due to its connection to anarchism. The movement and the style were an attempt to drive harmonious vision from modern science, anarchist theory, during the emergence of Neo-Impressionism, Seurat and his followers strove to refine the impulsive and intuitive artistic mannerisms of Impressionism. Neo-impressionists used disciplined networks of dots and blocks of color in their desire to instill a sense of organization, in further defining the movement, Seurat incorporated the recent explanation of optic and color perceptions. The development of theory by Michel Eugène Chevreul and others by the late 19th century played a pivotal role in shaping the Neo-Impressionist style. Ogden Rood’s book, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry, acknowledged the different behaviors exhibited by colored light, while the mixture of the former created a white or gray color, that of the latter produced a dark, murky color. As painters, Neo-Impressionists had to deal with colored pigments, so to avoid the dullness, mixing of colors was not necessary. There are a number of alternatives to the term Neo-Impressionism and each has its own nuance and it emphasized the studies of color and light which were central to his artistic style. This term is used today. Divisionism, which is commonly used, is used to describe a mode of Neo-Impressionist painting. It refers to the method of applying individual strokes of complementary, unlike other designations of this era, the term Neo-Impressionism was not given as a criticism. Instead, it embraces Seurats and his followers ideals in their approach to art, note, Pointillism merely describes a later technique based on divisionism in which dots of color instead of blocks of color are applied. Neo-Impressionism was first presented to the public in 1886 at the Salon des Indépendants, the Indépendants remained their main exhibition space for decades with Signac acting as president of the association. But with the success of Neo-Impressionism, its fame spread quickly, in 1886, Seurat and Signac were invited to exhibit in the 8th and final Impressionist exhibition, later with Les XX and La Libre Esthétique in Brussels. In 1892, a group of Neo-Impressionist painters united to show their works in Paris, in the Salons of the Hôtel Brébant,32, the following year they exhibited at 20, rue Laffitte
2.
Georges Seurat
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Georges-Pierre Seurat was a French post-Impressionist painter and draftsman. He is noted for his use of drawing media and for devising the painting techniques known as chromoluminarism and pointillism. His large-scale work, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, altered the direction of art by initiating Neo-impressionism. Seurat was born 2 December 1859 in Paris, at 60 rue de Bondy, the Seurat family moved to 136 boulevard de Magenta in 1862 or 1863. His father, Antoine Chrysostome Seurat, originally from Champagne, was a legal official who had become wealthy from speculating in property. Georges had a brother, Émile Augustin, and a sister, Marie-Berthe and his father lived in Le Raincy and visited his wife and children once a week at boulevard de Magenta. Georges Seurat first studied art at the École Municipale de Sculpture et Dessin, near his familys home in the boulevard Magenta, Seurats studies resulted in a well-considered and fertile theory of contrasts, a theory to which all his work was thereafter subjected. His formal artistic education came to an end in November 1879, after a year at the Brest Military Academy, he returned to Paris where he shared a studio with his friend Aman-Jean, while also renting a small apartment at 16 rue de Chabrol. For the next two years, he worked at mastering the art of monochrome drawing and his first exhibited work, shown at the Salon, of 1883, was a Conté crayon drawing of Aman-Jean. He also studied the works of Eugène Delacroix carefully, making notes on his use of color and he spent 1883 working on his first major painting—a large canvas titled Bathers at Asnières, a monumental work showing young men relaxing by the Seine in a working-class suburb of Paris. Seurat also departed from the Impressionist ideal by preparing for the work with a number of drawings, Bathers at Asnières was rejected by the Paris Salon, and instead he showed it at the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants in May 1884. Seurats new ideas on pointillism were to have a strong influence on Signac. In the summer of 1884, Seurat began work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the painting shows members of each of the social classes participating in various park activities. The tiny juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paint allow the eye to blend colors optically. It took Seurat two years to complete this 10-foot-wide painting, much of which he spent in the park sketching in preparation for the work and it is now in the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting was the inspiration for James Lapine and Stephen Sondheims musical, Seurat concealed his relationship with Madeleine Knobloch, an artists model whom he portrayed in his painting Jeune femme se poudrant. In 1889 she moved in with Seurat in his studio on the 7th floor of 128bis Boulevard de Clichy, when Madeleine became pregnant, the couple moved to a studio at 39 passage de lÉlysée-des-Beaux-Arts. There she gave birth to their son, who was named Pierre-Georges,16 February 1890, Seurat died in Paris in his parents home on 29 March 1891 at the age of 31
3.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
4.
Paul Signac
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Paul Victor Jules Signac was a French Neo-Impressionist painter who, working with Georges Seurat, helped develop the Pointillist style. Paul Signac was born in Paris on 11 November 1863 and he followed a course of training in architecture before deciding at the age of 18 to pursue a career as a painter after attending an exhibit of Monets work. He sailed around the coasts of Europe, painting the landscapes he encountered and he also painted a series of watercolors of French harbor cities in later years. In 1884 he met Claude Monet and Georges Seurat, many of Signacs paintings are of the French coast. He loved to paint the water and he left the capital each summer, to stay in the south of France in the village of Collioure or at St. Tropez, where he bought a house and invited his friends. Paul Signac, Albert Dubois-Pillet, Odilon Redon and Georges Seurat were among the founders of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, the association began in Paris 29 July 1884 with the organization of massive exhibitions, with the device No jury nor awards. The purpose of Société des Artistes Indépendants—based on the principle of abolishing admission jury—is to allow the artists to present their works to public judgement with complete freedom, for the following three decades their annual exhibitions set the trends in art of the early 20th century. At the 1905 Salon des Indépendants, Henri Matisse exhibited the proto-Fauve painting Luxe, Signac purchased the work after the 1905 Salon des Indépendants. In 1908 Signac was elected president of the 24th Salon des Indépendants, in 1886 Signac met Vincent van Gogh in Paris. In 1887 the two regularly went to Asnières-sur-Seine together, where they painted such subjects as river landscapes. Initially, Van Gogh chiefly admired Signac’s loose painting technique, in March 1889, Signac visited Van Gogh at Arles. The next year he made a trip to Italy, seeing Genoa, Florence. In 1888, Signac discovered anarchist ideas by reading Elisee Reclus, Kropotkin and Jean Grave, with his friends Angrand Cross, Maximilien Luce and Camille Pissarro he contributed to Jean Grave’s paper Les Temps Nouveaux. His financial support was considerable, he sent regular cheques and made a gift of his works for five lotteries between 1895 and 1912, from his various ports of call, Signac brought back vibrant, colorful watercolors, sketched rapidly from nature. From these sketches, he painted large canvases that are carefully worked out in small, mosaic-like squares of color, quite different from the tiny. Signac himself experimented with various media, as well as oil paintings and watercolors he made etchings, lithographs, and many pen-and-ink sketches composed of small, laborious dots. The Neo-Impressionists influenced the next generation, Signac inspired Henri Matisse and André Derain in particular, as president of the Société des Artistes Indépendants from 1908 until his death, Signac encouraged younger artists by exhibiting the controversial works of the Fauves and the Cubists. Signac served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, in September 1913, Signac rented a house at Antibes, where he settled with Jeanne Selmersheim-Desgrange, who gave birth to their daughter Ginette on 2 October 1913
5.
Impressionism
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Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
6.
Art critic
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An art critic is a person who is specialized in analyzing, interpreting and evaluating art. Their written critiques or reviews contribute to art criticism and they are published in newspapers, magazines, books, exhibition brochures and catalogues, some of todays art critics use art blogs and other online platforms in order to connect with a wider audience and expand debate about art. Differently from art history, there is not a training for art critics, art critics come from different backgrounds. Professional art critics are expected to have an eye for art. Typically the art critic views art at exhibitions, galleries, museums or artists studios, very rarely art critics earn their living from writing criticism. The opinions of art critics have the potential to stir debate on art related topics, due to this the viewpoints of art critics writing for art publications and newspapers adds to public discourse concerning art and culture. Art collectors and patrons often rely on the advice of such critics as a way to enhance their appreciation of the art they are viewing. Many now famous and celebrated artists were not recognized by the art critics of their time, an experience-related article is Agnieszka Gratza. Always according to James Elkins in smaller and developing countries, newspaper art criticism normally serves as art history, Art criticism List of art critics History of art criticism Good audio version of symposium on contemporary art criticism entitled Empathy and Criticality, sponsored by the Frieze Foundation
7.
Divisionism
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Divisionism was the characteristic style in Neo-Impressionist painting defined by the separation of colors into individual dots or patches which interacted optically. By requiring the viewer to combine the colors optically instead of mixing pigments, Divisionists believed they were achieving the maximum luminosity scientifically possible. Georges Seurat founded the style around 1884 as chromoluminarism, drawing from his understanding of the theories of Michel Eugène Chevreul, Ogden Rood and Charles Blanc. Divisionism developed along with style, Pointillism, which is defined specifically by the use of dots of paint. Divisionism, along with the Neo-Impressionism movement as a whole, found its beginnings in Georges Seurats masterpiece, Seurat had received classical training at the École des Beaux-Arts, and, as such, his initial works reflected the Barbizon style. Mixing pigments physically is a process with cyan, magenta. On the other hand, if colored light is mixed together, an additive mixture results, the primary colors are the same. g. Direct sunlight, As appropriate, yellow-orange colors representing the sun’s action would be interspersed with the colors to emulate the effect of direct sunlight. Shadow, If lighting is indirect, various other colors, such as blues, reds and purples, can be used to simulate the darkness. Reflected light, An object which is adjacent to another in a painting could cast reflected colors onto it, Contrast, To take advantage of Chevreul’s theory of simultaneous contrast, contrasting colors might be placed in close proximity. Seurat’s theories intrigued many of his contemporaries, as other artists seeking a reaction against Impressionism joined the Neo-Impressionist movement, Paul Signac, in particular, became one of the main proponents of divisionist theory, especially after Seurat’s death in 1891. In fact, Signac’s book, D’Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme, published in 1899, coined the term Divisionism and became widely recognized as the manifesto of Neo-Impressionism. Additionally, through Paul Signac’s advocacy of Divisionism, an influence can be seen in some of the works of Vincent van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger, Robert Delaunay and Pablo Picasso. In 1907 Metzinger and Delaunay were singled out by the critic Louis Vauxcelles as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, both artists had develop a new sub-style that had great significance shortly thereafter within the context of their Cubist works. Piet Mondrian, Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel and Nico van Rijn, in the Netherlands, the Futurists later would adapt the style, in part influenced by Gino Severinis Parisian experience, into their dynamic paintings and sculpture. The influence of Seurat and Signac on some Italian painters became evident in the First Triennale in 1891 in Milan, pellizza da Volpedo applied the technique to social subjects, in this he was joined by Morbelli and Longoni. Among Pelliza’s Divisionist works were Speranze deluse and Il sole nascente and it was, however, in the subject of landscapes that divisionism found strong advocates, including Segantini, Previati, Morbelli, and Carlo Fornara. Further adherents in painting subjects were Plinio Nomellini, Rubaldo Merello, Giuseppe Cominetti, Angelo Barabino, Camillo Innocenti, Enrico Lionne
8.
Henri-Edmond Cross
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Henri-Edmond Cross, born Henri-Edmond-Joseph Delacroix, was a French painter and printmaker. He is most acclaimed as a master of Neo-Impressionism and he played an important role in shaping the second phase of that movement and he was a significant influence on Henri Matisse and many other artists. His work was instrumental in the development of Fauvism, Henri-Edmond-Joseph Delacroix was born in Douai, a commune in the Nord départment in northern France, on 20 May 1856. His parents, with a history of ironmongery, were Alcide Delacroix, a French adventurer. In 1865 the family moved to a location near Lille, a northern French city close to the Belgian border, alcides cousin, Dr. Henri was Durans protégé for a year. His studies continued for a time in Paris in 1875 with François Bonvin before returning to Lille. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1878 he enrolled at the Écoles Académiques de Dessin et dArchitecture and his art education continued, under fellow Douai artist Émile Dupont-Zipcy, after moving to Paris in 1881. Crosss early works, portraits and still lifes, were in the colors of Realism. 1881 was also the year of his first exhibition at the Salon des Artistes Français and he painted many landscapes on an 1883 trip to the Alpes-Maritimes, accompanied by his family. Dr. Soins, who was also along on the trip, was the subject of a painting that Cross exhibited at Nices Exposition Universelle later in the year, during the Mediterranean trip, Cross met Paul Signac, who became a close friend and artistic influence. In 1884 Cross co-founded the Société des Artistes Indépendants, which consisted of artists displeased with the practices of the official Salon, there, he met and became friends with many artists involved in the Neo-Impressionist movement, including Georges Seurat, Albert Dubois-Pillet, and Charles Angrand. Despite his association with the Neo-Impressionists, Cross did not adopt their style for many years and his work continued to manifest influences such as Jules Bastien-Lepage and Édouard Manet, as well as the Impressionists. The change from his early, somber, Realist work was gradual and his color palette became lighter, working in the brighter colors of Impressionism. He also worked en plein air, in the latter part of the 1880s, he painted pure landscapes that showed the influence of Claude Monet and Camille Pissarro. In about 1886, again attempting to differentiate himself from another French artist – this time, Henri Cros – he again changed his name, in 1891 Cross began painting in the Neo-Impressionist style, and exhibited his first large piece using this technique in an Indépendants show. That painting was a divisionist portrait of Madame Hector France, née Irma Clare, robert Rosenblum wrote that the picture is softly charged with a granular, atmospheric glow. Cross had wintered in the south of France from 1883 onward, until, suffering from rheumatism and his works were still exhibited in Paris. Crosss affinity with the Neo-Impressionist movement extended beyond the style to include their political philosophies
9.
Andy Warhol
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Andy Warhol was an American artist who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. Born and raised in Pittsburgh, Warhol initially pursued a career as a commercial illustrator. After exhibiting his work in galleries in the late 1950s. He promoted a collection of known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with coining the widely used expression 15 minutes of fame. In the late 1960s, he managed and produced the rock band The Velvet Underground. He authored numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol and Popism and he is also notable as a gay man who lived openly as such before the gay liberation movement. Warhol has been the subject of retrospective exhibitions, books. The Andy Warhol Museum in his city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art. Many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable, the highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled Silver Car Crash, his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold. A2009 article in The Economist described Warhol as the bellwether of the art market, Warhol was born on August 6,1928 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the child of Ondrej Warhola and Julia, whose first child was born in their homeland. His parents were working-class Lemko emigrants from Mikó, located in todays northeastern Slovakia, Warhols father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhols grandparents. Warhols father worked in a coal mine, the family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Byzantine Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church, Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol, the oldest, was born before the family emigrated, Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavols son, James Warhola, became a childrens book illustrator. He became a hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and doctors, often bedridden as a child, he became an outcast at school and bonded with his mother. At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio, Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident, as a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945
10.
Pop art
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Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising. In pop art, material is sometimes removed from its known context, isolated. Pop art employs aspects of culture, such as advertising, comic books. One of its aims is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture and it is also associated with the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada, Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves. Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising, product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of Campbells Soup Cans, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art. The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain, in the United States, pop art was a response by artists, it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to defuse the personal symbolism, in the U. S. some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art. By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony, early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture when viewed from afar. Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism, among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are, Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters. During the 1920s, American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery, the Independent Group, founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. This material of found objects such as advertising, comic characters, magazine covers. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzis I was a Rich Mans Plaything, following Paolozzis seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising. Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts
11.
Palette (painting)
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A palette /ˈpælᵻt/, in the original sense of the word, is a rigid, flat surface on which a painter arranges and mixes paints. A palette is made of wood, plastic, ceramic, or other hard, inert, nonporous material. The most commonly known type of painters palette is made of a wood board designed to be held in the artists hand. Watercolor palettes are made of plastic or porcelain with rectangular or wheel format with built in wells. From the original, literal sense above came a sense by extension, referring to a selection of colors. This second, figurative sense is the one extended in the era to the computing senses of palette. A wet palette is a container with a layer of absorbent material that can be soaked with water. The paint sits on the membrane and is wet by osmosis. The main purpose of the wet palette is to keep acrylic paint, wet palettes are easily made, but can be bought. Color scheme Palette knife Palette, Online Etymology Dictionary Colorpalettes. net, Color Palette Ideas, Color Selection
12.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
13.
RGB color model
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The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
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Primary color
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A set of primary colors is a small, arbitrary set of pigmented physical media, lights or purely abstract elements of a mathematical colorspace model. Distinct colors from a larger gamut can be specified in terms of a mixture of colors which facilitates technological applications such as painting, electronic displays. Any small set of pigments or lights are imperfect physical primary colors in that they cannot be mixed to yield all possible colors that can be perceived by the color vision system. In an additive set of colors, as in coincident projected lights or in electronic visual displays, in a subtractive set of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the colors magenta, yellow and cyan are normally used. See RGB color model, and CMYK color model for more on these sets of primary colors. Primary colors are not a property of light but are related to the color vision system in animals. The human eye normally contains three types of color photoreceptors that are associated with specialized cone cells. Each photoreceptor responds to different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Humans and other species with three types of color photoreceptor are known as trichromats. Color appearance models like CIECAM02 describe color more generally in six dimensions, most placental mammals other than primates have only two types of color photoreceptor and are therefore dichromats while birds and marsupials are tetrachromats with four color photoreceptor types. There is no peer reviewed scholarly work that has confirmed the existence of a functional human tetrachromat though they are suspected to exist. Demonstrating improved spectral discrimination in any animal can be difficult since complex sets of neurons affect color perception in ways that are difficult to interrogate. Before the nature of colorimetry and visual physiology were well understood a number of color models assigned primary colors to different hues. Young originally proposed red, green and violet, and Maxwell changed violet to blue, Helmholtz proposed a slightly red, a vegetation-green, slightly yellowish. In modern understanding, human cells do not correspond precisely to a specific set of primary colors. There are hundreds of available pigments for visual artists to use. A common approach is to use just a palette of pigments that can be physically mixed to any color that the artist desires in the final work. Contemporary classical realists have often advocated that a palette of white, red, yellow
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Prism
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In optics, a prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. At least two of the surfaces must have an angle between them. The exact angles between the surfaces depend on the application, the traditional geometrical shape is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in colloquial use prism usually refers to this type. Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the shape of geometric prisms, prisms can be made from any material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical materials include glass, plastic and fluorite, a dispersive prism can be used to break light up into its constituent spectral colors. Furthermore, prisms can be used to light, or to split light into components with different polarizations. Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another and this speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle. The degree of bending of the lights path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface, the refractive index of many materials varies with the wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon known as dispersion. This causes light of different colors to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at different angles and this can be used to separate a beam of white light into its constituent spectrum of colors. Prisms will generally disperse light over a larger frequency bandwidth than diffraction gratings. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral orders, prisms are sometimes used for the internal reflection at the surfaces rather than for dispersion. If light inside the prism hits one of the surfaces at a steep angle, total internal reflection occurs. This makes a prism a useful substitute for a mirror in some situations, ray angle deviation and dispersion through a prism can be determined by tracing a sample ray through the element and using Snells law at each interface. For the prism shown at right, the angles are given by θ0 ′ = arcsin θ1 = α − θ0 ′ θ1 ′ = arcsin θ2 = θ1 ′ − α. All angles are positive in the shown in the image. For a prism in air n 0 = n 2 ≃1 and this allows the nonlinear equation in the deviation angle δ to be approximated by δ ≈ θ0 − α + = θ0 − α + n α − θ0 = α. The deviation angle depends on wavelength through n, so for a thin prism the deviation angle varies with wavelength according to δ ≈ α, before Isaac Newton, it was believed that white light was colorless, and that the prism itself produced the color. It was only later that Young and Fresnel combined Newtons particle theory with Huygens wave theory to show that color is the manifestation of lights wavelength
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Texture (painting)
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Texture in painting is the look and feel of the canvas. It is based on the paint, and its application, or the addition of such as ribbon, metal, wood, lace, leather. The concept of painterliness also has bearing on texture, the texture stimulates two different senses, sight and touch. There are four types of texture in art, actual texture, simulated texture, abstract texture and this is a combination of how the painting looks, and how it feels to the touch. It is associated both with the buildup of paint, such as an impasto effect, or the addition of materials. Creating the visual effect of texture without actually adding texture, for instance, a texture created to look like something other than paint on a flat surface. An example is Cataract 3, painted in 1967 by Bridget Riley, texture that does not directly represent the object it is connected with but the concept of the object is translated in textural patterns. A creative way of adding alternate materials to create an interesting texture, invented texture typically appears in abstract works, as they are entirely non-objective. Texture Ocvirk, Otto G. Robert E. Stinson, Philip R Wigg, Robert Bone, David L Cayton
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Punctualism
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In simpler terms, music that consists of separately formed particles—however complexly these may be composed— punctual music, as opposed to linear, or group-formed, or mass-formed music. Another important factor was maintaining discrete values in all parameters of the music, Punctual dynamics, for example mean that all dynamic degrees are fixed, one point will be linked directly to another on the chosen scale, without any intervening transition or gesture. Line-dynamics, on the hand, involve the transitions from one given amplitude to another, crescendo, decrescendo. This second category can be defined as a glissando, comparable to glissandi of pitch. The almost analytical focus on events, and then the transition between them, brings a stillness to this music far removed from the gestural quality of other pieces. From a purely technical point of view, the term punctual has the sense of a point of intersection of parameters in serial music, herman Sabbe, however, argues that Stockhausen never strictly speaking composed punctually. Eimert foresaw problems because of the term of pointillism in French painting. It would wrongly be assumed that paintings by Seurat and his contemporaries were being transformed into music, pierre Boulez corrected me, Pointilliste, la musique pointilliste. and I said, Non, ponctuelle. That’s not French at all, the word is pointilliste, so I explained, Non, il faut faire attention, or else people might think we are bringing up musical impressionism. Seurat painted little dots, dots upon dots, in colours and sizes. In terms of there is no connection between musical impressionism and pictorial impressionism. That’s why I am using the term musique ponctuelle, both musique ponctuelle and musique pointilliste are still seen today. What had brought this punctual style about, Boulez on Music Today, translated by Susan Bradshaw and Richard Rodney Bennett. Stocktakings from an Apprenticeship, translated by Stephen Walsh, with an introduction by Robert Piencikowski, punktuelle Musik In Zur Terminologie der Musik des 20. Colloquium der Walcker-Stiftung 9. –10.3.1972 in Freiburg/Breisgau, veröffentlichungen der Walcker-Stiftung für orgelwissenschaftliche Forschung 5, edited by Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht, 162–87. In, Wien Modern ’89, edited by Lothar Knessel, 90–97, in, Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik. Second, newly compiled edition, edited by Ludwig Finscher, part 1, kassel & New York, Bärenreiter, Stuttgart, Metzler. Serial Music, Serial Aesthetics, Compositional Theory in Post-war Europe, “Exorcism and Epiphany, Luciano Berio’s Nones”
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Klangfarbenmelodie
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The technique is sometimes compared to pointillism, a neo-impressionist painting technique. The term derives from Arnold Schoenbergs Harmonielehre, where he discusses the creation of timbre structures,3, first movement, according to George Grove, we hear a succession of phrases of three notes, repeated by different instruments one after another. In the 1950s, the concept inspired a number of European composers including Karlheinz Stockhausen to attempt systematization of timbre along serial lines, hocket Klang Melodic fission Grove, George. Reprinted, New York, Dover Publications,1962, the Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, rogers, Michael R. Teaching Approaches in Music Theory, An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Music in the Castle of Heaven, A Portrait of Johann Sebastian Bach, klangfarbenmelodie, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Music in Transition, A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, New York, W. W. Norton & Company. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, swenson, Milton, ed. Annibale Padovano, Cristofano Malvezzi, Jacopo Peri and Annibale Padovano, Ensemble Ricercars, A-R Editions. A streaming MP3 recording of Weberns orchestration of the Ricercar a 6 from Bachs Musical Offering
19.
Vincent van Gogh
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Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings and his suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. Born into a family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling and he turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881 and his younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, in 1886 he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include trees, cypresses, wheat fields. Van Gogh suffered from episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor and he spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris and his depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later, Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his style came to be incorporated by the Fauves. The most comprehensive source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincents thoughts, Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene. Theo kept all of Vincents letters to him, Vincent kept few of the letters he received, after both had died, Theos widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913, the majority were published in 1914, Vincents letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a diary-like intimacy, and read in parts like autobiography
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Maximilien Luce
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Maximilien Luce was a prolific French Neo-impressionist artist, known for his paintings, illustrations, engravings, and graphic art, and also for his anarchist activism. Starting as an engraver, he concentrated on painting, first as an Impressionist, then as a Pointillist. Maximilien-Jules-Constant Luce was born on 13 March 1858 in Paris and his parents, of modest means, were Charles-Désiré Luce, a railway clerk, and Louise-Joséphine Dunas. The family lived in the Montparnasse, a district of Paris. Luce attended school at lEcole communale, beginning in 1864, in 1872, the fourteen-year-old Luce became an apprentice with wood-engraver Henri-Théophile Hildebrand. During his three-year xylography apprenticeship, he took night classes in drawing from instructors Truffet. During this period, Luce started painting in oils and he moved with his family to the southern Paris suburb of Montrouge. His art education continued as he attended drawing classes taught by Diogène Maillard at the Gobelins tapestry factory, Luce began working in the studio of Eugène Froment in 1876, producing woodcut prints for various publications, including LIllustration and Londons The Graphic. He took additional art courses, at lAcadémie Suisse, and also in the studio of portrait painter Carolus-Duran, through Froments studio, Luce became friends with Léo Gausson and Émile-Gustave Cavallo-Péduzzi. These three artists spent time around Lagny-sur-Marne creating Impressionist landscapes, Luce spent four years in the military, starting in 1879, serving in Brittany at Guingamp. The next year, he received a promotion to corporal, and he became friends with Alexandre Millerand, in 1881 he requested the restoration of his lower rank of soldier, second class. Carolus-Duran used his influence to get a transfer for Luce to Paris barracks and his stint in the military came to a close in 1883. The prevalence of the new printing process rendered xylography nearly obsolete as a profession. When the opportunities for employment as an engraver became scarce, Luce shifted his focus to painting full-time in about 1883, Gausson and Cavallo-Péduzzi introduced Luce in about 1884 to the Divisionist technique developed by Georges Seurat. This influenced Luce to begin painting in the Pointillist style, in contrast to Seurats detached manner, Luces paintings were passionate portrayals of contemporary subjects, depicting the violent effects of light. He moved to Montmartre in 1887, Luce joined the Société des Artistes Indépendants and participated in their third spring exhibition, where Paul Signac purchased one of his pieces, La Toilette. Camille Pissarro and critic Félix Fénéon were also impressed by the seven Luce works displayed in the show, Fénéon characterized Luce as a coarse, honest man, with a rough and muscular talent. A New York Times critic declared this Pointillist period to be the pinnacle of Luces artistic career and he described the skillfully executed painting as a lyrical celebration of nature
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Charles Angrand
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Charles Angrand was a French artist who gained renown for his Neo-Impressionist paintings and drawings. He was an important member of the Parisian avant-garde art scene in the late 1880s, Charles Théophile Angrand was born in Criquetot-sur-Ouville, Normandy, France, to schoolmaster Charles P. Angrand and his wife Marie. He received artistic training in Rouen at Académie de Peinture et de Dessin and his first visit to Paris was in 1875, to see a retrospective of the work of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot at École des Beaux-Arts. Corot was an influence on Angrands early work, after being denied entry into École des Beaux-Arts, he moved to Paris in 1882, where he began teaching mathematics at Collège Chaptal. His living quarters were near Café dAthènes, Café Guerbois, Le Chat Noir, Angrand joined the artistic world of the Parisian avant-garde, becoming friends with such luminaries as Georges Seurat, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Signac, Maximilien Luce, and Henri-Edmond Cross. His avant-garde artistic and literary contacts influenced him, and in 1884 he co-founded Société des Artistes Indépendants, along with Seurat, Signac, Odilon Redon, through his interactions with Seurat, Signac, and others in the mid-1880s, his style evolved towards Neo-Impressionism. From 1887 his paintings were Neo-Impressionist and his drawings incorporated Seurats tenebrist style, Angrand had the ability to distil poetry from the most banal suburban scene. In 1887 he met van Gogh, who proposed a painting exchange, Van Gogh was influenced by Angrands thick brushstrokes and Japanese-inspired compositional asymmetry. Also in 1887, LAccident, his first Divisionist painting, was exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants, Angrand joined Seurat in plein air painting on La Grande Jatte island. Angrands implementation of Pointillist techniques differed from that of some of its leading proponents and he painted with a more muted palette than Seurat and Signac, who used bright contrasting colours. His monochrome conté crayon drawings such as his self-portrait above, which demonstrate his delicate handling of light. It would be impossible to imagine a use of white. These are the most beautiful drawings, poems of light, of composition and execution. Angrand exhibited his work in Paris at Les Indépendants, Galerie Druet, Galérie Durand-Ruel, and Bernheim-Jeune and his work appeared in Brussels in an 1891 show with Les XX. In the early 1890s, he abandoned painting, instead creating conté drawings and pastels of subjects including rural scenes and depictions of mother and child, in 1896 he moved to Saint-Laurent-en-Caux, in Upper Normandy. He began painting again around 1906, emulating the styles and colours of Signac, Angrand developed his own unique methods of Divisionism, with larger brushstrokes. As this resulted in rougher optical blending than small dots, he compensated by using intense colours. Some of his landscapes from this period are almost nonrepresentational, before World War I, he lived for a year in Dieppe
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Chuck Close
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Charles Thomas Chuck Close is an American painter and artist and photographer who achieved fame as a photorealist, through his massive-scale portraits. Close often paints abstract portraits of himself and others, which hang in collections internationally, although a catastrophic spinal artery collapse in 1988 left him severely paralyzed, he has continued to paint and produce work that remains sought after by museums and collectors. Close also creates photo portraits using a large format camera. Chuck Close was born in Monroe, Washington and his father, Leslie Durward Close, died when Chuck was eleven years old. His mothers name was Mildred Wagner Close, Close suffered, as a child, from a neuromuscular condition that made it difficult to lift his feet and a bout with nephritis that kept him out of school for most of sixth grade. Even when in school, he did poorly, as result of dyslexia, most of his early works are very large portraits based on photographs of family and friends, often other artists. Chuck suffers from prosopagnosia and has suggested that this condition is what first inspired him to do portraits, I saw this Jackson Pollock drip painting with aluminum paint, tar, gravel and all that stuff. It was so far removed from what I thought art was, however, within 2 or 3 days, I was dripping paint all over my old paintings. In a way Ive been chasing that experience ever since, Close attended Everett Community College in 1958–60. Notable Snohomish County resident, author John Patric, was an intellectual influence on Chuck Close. In 1962, Close received his B. A. from the University of Washington in Seattle. In 1961 he won a scholarship to the Yale Summer School of Music and Art, and the following year entered the graduate degree program at Yale University. Among Closes classmates at Yale were Brice Marden, Vija Celmins, Janet Fish, Richard Serra, Nancy Graves, Jennifer Bartlett, Robert Mangold, after Yale, he studied at Academy of Fine Arts Vienna for a while on a Fulbright grant. When he returned to the US, he worked as an art teacher at the University of Massachusetts, Close came to New York City in 1967 and established himself in SoHo. His early airbrush techniques inspired the development of the ink jet printer, Close had been known for his skillful brushwork as a graduate student at Yale University. There, he emulated Willem de Kooning and seemed destined to become an abstract expressionist. I threw away my tools, Close said, I chose to do things I had no facility with. The choice not to do something is in a way more positive than the choice to do something
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Albert Dubois-Pillet
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Albert Dubois-Pillet was a French Neo-impressionist painter and a career army officer. He was instrumental in the founding of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, louis-Auguste-Albert Dubois was born on 28 October 1846 in Paris. Shortly thereafter, his family moved to Toulouse, where he was raised, in 1867, he graduated from lEcole Impériale Militaire in Saint-Cyr and began his career as a military officer. He remained in the army for the rest of his life, from 1870 to 1871, he served in the Franco-Prussian War, during which the Germans captured him and held him in Westphalia, Prussia as a prisoner of war. After his release, he resumed a post in the Versailles army, throughout the 1870s he was stationed at several different provincial posts. He received an appointment in 1879 or 1880 to la Légion de la Garde Républicaine in Paris, although self-taught, with no formal art education, he proved to be a talented artist. The official Paris Salon accepted one of his still lifes in 1877, however, after his arrival in Paris, he created paintings which were somewhat more experimental, and his submissions were rejected by The Salons from 1880 to 1883. In the book, artist Claude Lantier, distraught over his sons death, the Tuilleries Exhibition was a one-time event with a goal similar to that of 1863s Salon des Refusés which showed works that had been rejected by the Salon. Dubois-Pillet envisioned a permanent alternative to the official Salon and he met with some of the other exhibitors, and he, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and Odilon Redon became the founding fathers of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. Dubois-Pillet structured the organization and, within less than a week, wrote and published its statutes, the society was officially formed on 29 July 1884, and their first exhibition, which opened on 1 December 1884, included work by Dubois-Pillet. He used his connections to secure desirable venues and terms for their exhibitions, was the organizer of the group until 1888. Around 1885, probably influenced by his friendships with Seurat and others, he began experimenting with Divisionist techniques, by the next year, his works were fully Neo-impressionist. With Signac, he used pen and ink to create pointillist drawings, Dubois-Pillets studio-apartment served as the unofficial Neo-impressionist headquarters during the movements early years. Some of his pointillist work is composed with photographic precision, in 1886 he was ordered by the army to discontinue his participation in exhibiting his art, and to dissociate himself from Les Indépendants. Dubois-Pillet paid little attention to these orders and his only solo exhibition during his lifetime was in 1888, at the offices of French symbolist journal Revue Indépendante. Some of his pointillist drawings were published in La Vie moderne in 1887, Dubois-Pillet and Louis Hayet were the two Neo-impressionists who were most focused on the theoretical aspects and scientific basis of their art. How to apply his theory in practice wasnt entirely clear, the models identity is unknown, exhibition curators tended to, at best, identify subjects by the initial of their last name. The Musée dArt Moderne de Saint-Etienne refers to her as Madame P. in late 1889, Dubois-Pillet was transferred by the army to a post as commander of the gendarmerie in Le Puy-en-Velay, a south central French commune
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Pseudonym
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A pseudonym or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name. Historically, they have taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms. Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones, actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds. A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, the term is derived from the Greek ψευδώνυμον, literally false name, from ψεῦδος, lie, falsehood and ὄνομα, name. A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the name of another person and this may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a front name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship, sometimes people change their name in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name, in many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a persons new legal name. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam, likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland and he adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations to hide their identity, a pen name, or nom de plume, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, the Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books, anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell, emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot, Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used pen names. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter ODonnell and Christopher Wood. A pen name may be used if a real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, in some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name
25.
Georges Lemmen
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Georges Lemmen was a Belgian neo-impressionist painter. He was a member of Les XX from 1888 and his works include The Beach at Heist, Aline Marechal and Vase of Flowers. Yvonne Serruys studied in his workshop in Brussels from 1892 to 1894, P. & V. Berko, Dictionary of Belgian painters born between 1750 &1875, Knokke 1981, p.418. Pointillism Georges Seurat History of painting Western painting Post-Impressionism http, //www. abcgallery. com/P/pointillism/lemmen. html
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Camille Pissarro
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Camille Pissarro was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas. His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54, in 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the pivotal figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Cézanne said he was a father for me, a man to consult and a little like the good Lord, and he was also one of Gauguins masters. Renoir referred to his work as revolutionary, through his portrayals of the common man. Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions and he acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, including Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick and his father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from the island of St. Thomas and his father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas small Jewish community because she was married to Fredericks uncle. In subsequent years his four children were forced to attend the primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas Protestant church, when Camille was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris, while a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas. However, his father preferred he work in his business, giving him a job working as a cargo clerk and he took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practise drawing during breaks and after work. When he turned twenty-one, Danish artist Fritz Melbye, then living on St. Thomas, inspired Pissarro to take on painting as a profession, becoming his teacher. Pissarro then chose to leave his family and job and live in Venezuela and he drew everything he could, including landscapes, village scenes, and numerous sketches, enough to fill up multiple sketchbooks. In 1855 he moved back to Paris where he working as assistant to Anton Melbye. In Paris he worked as assistant to Danish painter Anton Melbye and he also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him, Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot
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Hippolyte Petitjean
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Hippolyte Petitjean was a French Post-Impressionist painter who practiced the technique of pointillism. When he was 13, Petitjean began his art studies at the Ecole de dessin in Mâcon, the town gave him a grant to continue at the École des Beaux-Arts where he studied under Alexandre Cabanel and Pierre Puvis de Chavannes. He was later influenced by Georges Seurat whom he met in Paris in 1884, after Seurat encouraged him to join the Neo-Impressionists, he was also influenced by Paul Signac and Camille Pissarro. He adopted the pointillist technique until 1894 when he started to combine it with more feathery strokes, in 1910, he returned to Neo-Impressionism with a series of decorative watercolours of landscapes and people set off by widely spaced rounded spots of pure colour. Petitjean exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1891 and thereafter at Le Brac de Bouteville together with the symbolists and impressionists and he also exhibited in Brussels in 1893 and 1898, Berlin in 1898, Weimar in 1903, and Wiesbaden in 1921. Jeune femme assise, oil on canvas,73 x 60.5 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Le Pont Neuf, watercolour and gouache on paper,250 x 190 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New-York. Barque sur un étang, watercolour on paper,30 x 48 cm, Musée Thyssen-Bornemisza, la Danse du printemps, oil on canvas,54 x 105 cm, Musée des Ursulines, Mâcon. Baigneuse, oil on canvas,55 x 38 cm, Musée dOrsay, artworks by Hippolyte Petitjean, The Athenaeum
28.
Jan Toorop
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Johannes Theodorus Jan Toorop was a Dutch-Indonesian painter, who worked in various styles, including Symbolism, Art Nouveau, and Pointillism. His early work was influenced by the Amsterdam Impressionism movement, johannes Theodorus Toorop was born on 20 December 1858 in Purworejo on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies. His father was Christoffel Theodorus Toorop, a servant. He was the third of five children and lived on the island of Bangka near Sumatra until he was nine years old and he was then sent to school in Batavia on Java. In 1869 he left Indonesia for the Netherlands, where he studied in Delft, in 1880 he became a student at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam. From 1882 to 1886 he lived in Brussels where he joined Les XX, Toorop worked in various styles during these years, such as Realism, Impressionism Neo-Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. After his marriage to an Annie Hall, a British woman, in 1886, during this period he developed his unique Symbolist style, with dynamic, unpredictable lines based on Javanese motifs, highly stylised willowy figures, and curvilinear designs. In the late 19th century Toorop lived for 20 years in a house on the market in the seaside town Domburg, Walcheren. He worked with a group of artists, including Marinus Zwart. There was no joint endeavor or common style among them, each followed his individual personality, but they sought their inspiration in the Zeeland Light, in the dunes, forests, beaches and the characteristic Zeeland population. Toorop was the center of this group, thereafter he turned to Art Nouveau styles, in which a similar play of lines is used for decorative purposes, without any apparent symbolic meaning. In 1905, he converted to Catholicism and began producing religious works and he also created book illustrations, posters, and stained glass designs. Throughout his life Toorop also produced portraits, in format and as paintings. Toorop died on 3 March 1928 in The Hague in the Netherlands and his daughter Charley Toorop was also a painter, as was his grandson Edgar Fernhout. Among the public collections holding works by Jan Toorop are, Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, Netherlands Kröller-Müller Museum Victorine Hefting,18 February-9 April,1989, Haags Gemeentemuseum, The Hague. Forew. by Robert de Haas, transl. by Patricia Wardle, ISBN 90-6730-071-3 Jan Toorop Research Center
29.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
30.
Dallas Museum of Art
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The Dallas Museum of Art is a major art museum located in the Arts District of downtown Dallas, Texas, along Woodall Rodgers Freeway between St. Paul and Harwood. In 1984, the museum moved from its previous location in Fair Park to the Arts District, the new building was designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes, the 2007 winner of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal. The museum collection is made up of more than 24,000 objects and it is also defined by its dynamic exhibition policy and award-winning educational programs. The Mildred R. and Frederick M. Mayer Library contains over 50,000 volumes available to curators, with 159,000 square feet of exhibition spaces, it is one of the largest art museums in the United States. The museums history began with the establishment in 1903 of the Dallas Art Association, frank Reaugh, a Texas artist, saw in the new library the opportunity to display works of art. This idea was championed by May Dickson Exall, who was the first president of the Dallas Public Library. ”The museum’s collections started growing from this moment on and it soon became necessary to find a new permanent home. The museum, renamed the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts in 1932, relocated to a new art deco facility within Fair Park in 1936 and this new facility was designed by a consortium of Dallas architects in consultation with Paul Cret of Philadelphia. It is still possible to visit this building, in 1943, Jerry Bywaters became the director of the museum, a position he held for the next twenty-one years. Artist, art critic, and teacher, Bywaters gave a sense of identity and community to the museum, under Bywaters tenure, impressionist, abstract, and contemporary masterpieces were acquired and the Texas identity of the museum was emphasized. This identity is represented by works by Alexandre Hogue, Olin Herman Travis, Bywaters himself. In 1963, the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts merged with the Dallas Museum of Contemporary Art, rueppel became the director of the newly merged Museum. In 1965, the museum held an exhibition called The Art of Piet Mondrian and one entitled Sculpture, by the late 1970s, the greatly enlarged permanent collection and the ambitious exhibition program fostered a need for a new museum facility. Under Harry Parker’s direction, the museum was able to once again, to its current venue. The $54 million facility, designed by New York architect Edward Larrabee Barnes, was financed by a 1979 City bond election, the project was galvanized by the slogan “A Great City Deserves a Great Museum, ” and the new building opened in January 1984. The museums collections include more than 24,000 works of art from around the world ranging from ancient to modern times and they are conceived as a celebration of the human power of creation. Objects in the museum’s African collection come from West Africa and Central Africa, the objects date primarily from the 16th to the 20th centuries, although the earliest object is a Nok terracotta bust from Nigeria that dates from somewhere between 200 BC to 200 AD. Some works in the collection were created as symbols of leadership and status, the American art collection includes paintings, sculptures, and works on paper from the United States from the colonial period to World War II, and art from Mexico, and Canada. One of the most important pieces in the collection is The Icebergs by Frederic Edwin Church and this painting had long been referred to as a lost masterpiece
31.
National Gallery in Prague
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The National Gallery in Prague is a state-owned art gallery in Prague, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. The collections of the gallery are not housed in a single building, the largest of the gallery sites is the Veletržní Palác, which houses the National Gallerys collection of modern art. It is one the largest museums in Central Europe, the institution, which received the title Society of Patriotic Friends of the Arts, established the Academy of Fine Arts and the Picture Gallery. In 1918 the Picture Gallery became a collection of newly formed Czechoslovakia. In 1995 a new gallery dedicated to modern art opened in the refurbished Veletržní Palác and it is one of the first and largest functionalism building in Prague, built in 1925-1928. St. Georges Convent was formerly used to display Art of the Middle Ages in Bohemia and Central Europe, Baroque art, and 19th-century art of Bohemia. Picasso, who has a room to himself in the gallery, has two self-portraits there, and two of his nudes in addition to more abstract work. Along with the Black Madonna House and the Museum Kampa, the Trade fair palace collection is one of the most notable collections of Czech Cubism in Prague and it houses the largest collection of National Gallery art. Since 2012 The Slav Epic has been on display here
32.
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
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The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, located in the Houston Museum District, Houston, is one of the largest museums in the United States. The permanent collection of the museum more than 6,000 years of history with approximately 64,000 works from six continents. The museum benefits the Houston community through programs, publications and media presentations, each year,1.25 million people benefit from museums programs, workshops and resource centers. Of that total, more than 500,000 people participate in the community outreach programs, the MFAHs permanent collection totals 63,718 pieces in 270,000 square feet of exhibition space, placing it among the larger art museums in the United States. The museums collections and programs are housed in seven facilities, the main buildings have 130,000 square feet of exhibition space. Caroline Wiess Law Building – the original building was designed in phases by architect William Ward Watkin. The original Caroline Wiess Law building was constructed in 1924 and the east and west wing were added in 1926, the Robert Lee Blaffer Memorial Wing was designed by Kenneth Franzheim and opened to the public in 1953. The new construction included significant structural improvements to several existing galleries—most notably, two subsequent additions, Cullinan Hall and the Brown Pavilion, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe were built in 1958 and 1974 respectively. This section of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston campus is the only Mies-designed museum in the United States, the museum Trustees elected to name the building after Audrey Jones Beck in honor of the large collection she had donated to the museum several decades prior. The new building will occupy a two-acre museum-owned site that is currently a parking lot, the new MFAH building will be integrated with the adjacent Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden and an expanded Glassell School of Art. It will also include 25 galleries for traveling exhibitions, educational areas, a library, lecture halls, a theater, the museum expects the project to cost $250 million to $350 million with the design process taking about two years, followed by five years of construction. The Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden – was designed by US-born artist and landscape architect Isamu Noguchi, the garden itself is a sculpture that unites the pathways between the Caroline Wiess Law Building and the Glassell School of Art. Glassell School of Art – founded in 1979 and designed by architect S. I, morris, the Glassell School of Art offers programs under the Studio School for Adults. The Glassell School of Art serves as the wing of the MFAH, with a variety of classes, workshops, and educational opportunities for students diverse in age, interests, experience. In 2014, Steven Holl designed a new L-shaped building for the school, the school offers classes at the Studio School for Adults and the Glassell Junior School, as well as Community Bridge Programs, special programs for youths, and the Core Artist-in-Residence Program. The MFAH is the museum facility in the United States that has a special building dedicated solely to art classes for children. Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens – features one of the nations finest collections of American decorative art, the Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens, former home of Life Trustee Ima Hogg, was designed by architect John F. Staub in 1927. Miss Hogg donated the property to the MFAH in 1957, followed, in 1962, by the donation of its collection of paintings, furniture, ceramics, glass, metals, Bayou Bend was officially dedicated and opened to the public in 1966
33.
Jean Metzinger
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Jean Dominique Antony Metzinger was a major 20th-century French painter, theorist, writer, critic and poet, who along with Albert Gleizes wrote a theoretical work on Cubism. His earliest works, from 1900 to 1904, were influenced by the Neo-impressionism of Georges Seurat, between 1904 and 1907 Metzinger worked in the Divisionist and Fauvist styles with a strong Cézannian component, leading to some of the first proto-Cubist works. From 1908 Metzinger experimented with the faceting of form, a style that would become known as Cubism. His early involvement in Cubism saw him both as an influential artist and an important theorist of the movement. The idea of moving around an object in order to see it from different view-points is treated, for the first time, in Metzingers Note sur la Peinture, before the emergence of Cubism, painters worked from the limiting factor of a single view-point. Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote the first major treatise on Cubism in 1912, Metzinger was a founding member of the Section dOr group of artists. During the First World War Metzinger furthered his role as a leading Cubist with his co-founding of the phase of the movement. He recognized the importance of mathematics in art, through a radical geometrization of form as an underlying basis for his wartime compositions. As post-war reconstruction began, a series of exhibitions at Léonce Rosenbergs Galerie de LEffort Moderne were to highlight order, the collective phenomenon of Cubism—now in its advanced revisionist form—became part of a widely discussed development in French culture, with Metzinger at its helm. In terms of the separation of culture and life, this period emerges as the most important in the history of Modernism, for Metzinger, the classical vision had been an incomplete representation of real things, based on an incomplete set of laws, postulates and theorems. He believed the world was dynamic and changing in time, that it appeared different depending on the point of view of the observer, each of these viewpoints were equally valid according to underlying symmetries inherent in nature. Jean Metzinger came from a prominent military family and his great-grandfather, Nicolas Metzinger, Captain in the 1st Horse Artillery Regiment, and Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, had served under Napoleon Bonaparte. A street in the Sixième arrondissement of Nantes was named after Jeans grandfather, Jeans younger brother Maurice would become a musician, excelling as a cellist. By 1900 Jean was a student at Académie Cours Cambronne in Nantes, working under Hippolyte Touront, Metzinger, however, was interested in the current trends in painting. Metzinger sent three paintings to the Salon des Indépendants in 1903, and subsequently moved to Paris with the proceeds from their sale, from the age of 20, Metzinger supported himself as a professional painter. He would show four times at Weills gallery,17 January-1 February 1913, March 1913, June 1914. It is at Berthe Weills that he would meet Max Jacob for the first time, Berthe Weill was also the first Parisian art dealer to sell works of Picasso. Along with Picasso and Metzinger, she helped discover Matisse, Derain, Amedeo Modigliani, in 1904 Metzinger exhibited six paintings in the Divisionist style at the Salon des Indépendants and the Salon d’Automne
34.
Femme au Chapeau
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Femme au Chapeau or Woman with a Hat is an oil painting created circa 1906 by the French artist and theorist Jean Metzinger. The work is executed in a highly personal Divisionist style with a marked Proto-Cubist component during the height of Fauvism, Femme au Chapeau exhibits a presentiment of Metzingers subsequent interest in the faceting of form associated with Cubism. The painting now forms part of the collection of the Korban Art Foundation, Femme au Chapeau is an oil painting on canvas with dimensions 44.8 x 36.8 cm, signed J. Metzinger. However, the contains a variety of geometrized shapes, including the actual brushstrokes. While the face of the sitter is treated with natural colors, unlike other Fauve works of the same period by Henri Matisse, André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck or Kees van Dongen, Metzingers composition is strongly Cézannian. The vertical format and background creates a flattening of spatial perspective, reminiscent of Cézannes multiple viewpoints, his search for order, discipline. However, the brushstrokes and overall appearance are not at all Cézannian or Fauve in nature, the following year Metzinger and Delaunay shared an exhibition at Berthe Weills gallery. They were singled out by Louis Vauxcelles as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, in 1905, Matisse, Metzinger and Delaunay experimented with the technique of Divisionism, elaborating on the Neo-Impressionist principles of Georges Seurat, Henri-Edmond Cross and Paul Signac. Rather than using small pointillist patches of color, they began to employ larger brushstrokes of mixed color. Signac and Cross evolved similarly, working in close contact with Matisse in Saint-Tropez during the summer of 1904, in Collioure the following year, Matisse painted his first fauve works alongside Derain. In Femme au Chapeau, Metzinger pushed his Divisionist style further, the size of his cubes and the brightness of his color increase, without however tending toward a purely Fauve appearance. In contrast the Fauves, Metzingers interest mathematics and geometry imbues his pairings with a sense of order, symmetry and these characteristics inherent in Femme au Chapeau differ from Matisses version of the subject. It is hard to explain it, but it may perhaps be illustrated by analogy with literature, music does not attempt to imitate natures sounds, but it does interpret and embody emotions awakened by nature through a convention of its own, in a way to be aesthetically pleasing. In some such way, we, taking our hint from Nature and this is an intended effect, which Metzinger contrasts by rendering these forms in a divisionist technique, which softens and refines the overall impact of the picture. Metzinger stated, I ask of divided brushwork not the objective rendering of light, following his youthful foray into divisionism, Metzinger turned briefly to a robust, Gauguinesque manner in rendering the figure, using strong outlines and flat areas of color. Then, in 1910, he involved in the early development of Cubism. He painted exquisite compositions of cloud and cliff and sea, he painted women, acquired from the above by Mr. and Mrs. Sidney F. Brody,20 September 1955. Sale, Christies, New York, Rockefeller Plaza,4 May 2010, Lot 27
35.
Robert Delaunay
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Robert Delaunay was a French artist who, with his wife Sonia Delaunay and others, cofounded the Orphism art movement, noted for its use of strong colours and geometric shapes. His later works were abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key influence related to use of colour and a clear love of experimentation with both depth and tone. Robert Delaunay was born in Paris, the son of George Delaunay, while he was a child, Delaunays parents divorced, and he was raised by his mothers sister Marie and her husband Charles Damour, in La Ronchère near Bourges. When he failed his exam and said he wanted to become a painter. At age 19, he left Ronsin to focus entirely on painting and contributed six works to the Salon des Indépendants in 1904. He traveled to Brittany, where he was influenced by the group of Pont-Aven, and, in 1906, he contributed works he painted in Brittany to the 22nd Salon des Indépendants, where he met Henri Rousseau. Delaunay formed a friendship at this time with Jean Metzinger. The two of them were singled out by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles in 1907 as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, Robert Herbert writes, Metzingers Neo-Impressionist period was somewhat longer than that of his close friend Delaunay. The height of his Neo-Impressionist work was in 1906 and 1907, piet Mondrian developed a similar mosaic-like Divisionist technique circa 1909. The Futurists later would incorporate the style, under the influence of Gino Severinis Parisian works, into their dynamic paintings, Delaunay is most closely identified with Orphism. From 1912 to 1914, he painted nonfigurative paintings based on the characteristics of brilliant colors that were so dynamic they would function as the form. Apollinaire was strongly influenced by Delaunay’s theories of color and often quoted from them to explain Orphism, Delaunay’s fixations with color as the expressive and structural means were sustained with his study of color. He believes painting is a visual art that depends on intellectual elements. The contrasts and harmonies of color produce in the eye simultaneous movements, vision becomes the subject of painting. His early paintings are deeply rooted in Neoimpressionism, night Scene for example has vigorous activity with the use of lively brushstrokes in bright colors against a dark background. It doesn’t define solid object but the areas that surround them, spectral colors of Neoimpressionism were later abandoned, the Eiffel Tower series, were fragmentation of solid objects and their merging with space was learned. Influences in this series were Cézanne, Analytical Cubism, and Futurism, in the Eiffel Tower the interpenetration of tangible objects and surrounding space is accompanies by intense movement of geometric plans that are more dynamic than static equilibrium of Cubist forms
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