1.
Basque Nationalist Party
–
The Basque Nationalist Party is a Christian democratic and Basque nationalist party. It is both the oldest and largest Basque nationalist political party and it is especially strong in Biscay but has a great sway in the entire Basque Autonomous Community and has a minor presence in Navarre and a marginal one in the French Basque Country. The party has led the Basque regional government for a period spanning since the devolution of Basque autonomy in the early 1980s until 2009. It has also played an important role in the Spanish Congress, in Basque it is called Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea Basque Nationalist Party and in Spanish it is called the Partido Nacionalista Vasco. In Spain it is referred to as PNV whereas its French branch is the Parti Nationaliste Basque. The party typically refers to itself as EAJ-PNV, the current chairman of EAJ-PNV is Andoni Ortuzar. The youth wing of the Basque Nationalist Party is called EGI Euzko Gaztedi Indarra Basque Youth Force, the party also has offices among the Basque diaspora, mainly in Venezuela, Argentina, Mexico, Uruguay, Chile and the United States. Since 1932, EAJ-PNV celebrates on Easter the Aberri Eguna Homeland Day, also, since 1977, the party celebrates Alderdi Eguna Party Day. The partys social offices are called batzokis, of which there are over 200 throughout the world, currently a member of the European Democratic Party, the Basque Nationalist Party was previously a member of the European Free Alliance from 1999 to 2004. Currently, it describes itself as Basque, democratic, participatory, plural and it is a moderate nationalist party which favours greater autonomy, for the Basque nation. In its beginnings, the party established a requirement for its members to prove Basque ancestry by having a number of Basque surnames. In 1921, the Arana movement split into the traditionalist Comunión Nacionalista Vasca, during the single party dictatorship rule of general Miguel Primo de Rivera, the nationalist parties were outlawed and persecuted. However, its activity continued under the guise of mountain and folklore clubs, at the end of 1930, Aberri and CNV reunited under the old name of EAJ-PNV. However, a group formed Acción Nacionalista Vasca. It was on the moderate nationalist left, non-confessional and open to alliances with the republican, the division between autonomism and independentism appeared again during the second Spanish Republic. Headed by Eli Gallastegi, a group of independentists, gathered around the weekly Jagi-Jagi. They rejected the autonomy that PNV was working for, after the coup détat of 18 July 1936, the party felt torn. In the territory seized by the rebels, PNV members faced tough times, during the military uprising in Navarre, the Basque nationalist mayor of Estella-Lizarra Fortunato Aguirre was arrested by the Spanish nationalist rebels, and killed in September
Basque Nationalist Party
–
In 1898, the party opened its second batzoki ("meeting place", a club and bar) in
Barakaldo.
Basque Nationalist Party
–
Basque Nationalist Party Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea (Basque) Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Spanish) Parti Nationaliste Basque (French)
Basque Nationalist Party
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PNV sticker. Text: "Euzkadi´k bear zaitu" (Euzkadi needs you). It is inspired by
Alfred Leete 's British poster for
Kitchener's Army.
Basque Nationalist Party
–
Josu Jon Imaz (in white shirt) and Iñigo Urkullu (in black shirt) in 2007
2.
Sabino Arana
–
Sabino Policarpo Arana Goiri, self-styled as Arana ta Goiritaŕ Sabin, was a Basque writer. He was the founder of the Basque Nationalist Party and father of Basque nationalism and he died in Sukarrieta at the age of 38 after falling ill with Addisons disease during time spent in prison. He had been charged with treason for attempting to send a telegram to President Theodore Roosevelt, one of the consequences of the First Carlist War was the substitution of the Ancien Régime Basque home rule by a limited still relevant autonomy. A majority in Navarre and the rest of the Basque districts supported the pretender to the Spanish crown Carlos V for his support to their institutions, however, they were defeated in 1839, and Navarre, Biscay, Álava and Gipuzkoa were integrated into the Spanish customs system. Basque industrialists profited from privatization of exploitations and the Spanish captive market with the ore and the Bessemer converter. Workers from all of Spain were attracted to the area as labourers for the burgeoning industry, Arana was born in a jauntxo family from Abando, a neighbourhood that had been recently incorporated into the city of Bilbao as the new extension for the growth of the industrial era. Abando was a Basque speaking town, but following the attitudes of the elites in the area of Bilbao during this period, in the aftermath of the Third Carlist War, Arana attended the Jesuit School of Orduña along with his brother Luis. Orduña became a hotspot and meeting point for the pro-fueros, primeval Basque nationalists concerned with the loss of the Basque native institutions, Arana claimed that he had a quasi-religious revelation on Easter,1882, one that he communicated to his brother Luis Arana. From then he devoted himself to the nationalist cause of Biscay and he made a strong effort to establish a codified orthography and grammar for the Basque language, and proposed several neologisms to replace words of Spanish origin. The document is a collection of events, mythical stories and sometimes inaccurate accounts of earlier battles of the ancient people of Biscay. Just as others nationalist ideologies were doing during the period, e. g. Spanish nationalism, Aranas historic accounts distorted and magnified events from Basque history. He considered the 1839 Spanish law upholding home rule as the act putting an end to the Basque own sources of authority and secular Basque independence, as well as a violation of international law. In 1894, he founded the first center for the new nationalist party, Sabino Arana, like many Europeans of his time, believed that the essence of a country was defined by its blood or ethnic composition. Despite his religious integrism and racist views, he is considered by many Basques to be a gadfly that sparked the movement for the revival of the Basques. In that respect, Arana defended the Constitutional foundations of the abolished Basque institutional and legal framework and he was a prolific writer, with over 600 journalism articles, most of them with a propaganda purpose. He liked to shock and provoke, in order to get attention from a society that he deemed unaware of its fate. There are two key aspects of Sabino Aranas political figure, He was not a conservative, he strongly opposed slavery. Another essential part of his ideology was devout Catholicism, however, his Basque nationalism kept him away from Carlism that was the dominant ultra-Catholic and conservative movement in the area and the ideology of his father
Sabino Arana
–
Arana in 1890
Sabino Arana
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Statue in Abando, near Sabin-Etxea.
Sabino Arana
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Sabino Arana imprisoned in Larrinaga for supporting Cuba's independence
Sabino Arana
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Sabin-Etxea in 2007.
3.
Bilbao
–
Bilbao is a city in northern Spain, the largest city in the province of Biscay and in the Basque Country as a whole. Bilbao is the tenth largest city in Spain, with a population of 345,141 As of 2015, Bilbao is also the main urban area in what is defined as the Greater Basque region. Bilbao is situated in the part of Spain, some 16 kilometres south of the Bay of Biscay, where the economic social development is located. Its main urban core is surrounded by two mountain ranges with an average elevation of 400 metres. This was due to its port activity based on the export of iron extracted from the Biscayan quarries, at the same time an extraordinary population explosion prompted the annexation of several adjacent municipalities. The official name of the town is Bilbao, as known in most languages of the world, there is no consensus among historians about the origin of the name. Generally accepted accounts state that prior to the 12th century the independent rulers of the territory, the symbols of their patrimony are the tower and church used in the shield of Bilbao to this day. One possible origin was suggested by the engineer Evaristo de Churruca and he said that it was a Basque custom to name a place after its location. For Bilbao this would be the result of the union of the Basque words for river and cove, the historian José Tussel Gómez argues that it is just a natural evolution of the Spanish words bello vado, beautiful river crossing. On the other hand, according to the writer Esteban Calle Iturrino, the first, where the present Casco Viejo is located, would be called billa, which means stacking in Basque, after the configuration of the buildings. The second, on the bank, where now Bilbao La Vieja is located, would be called vaho. From the union of these two derives the name Bilbao, which was written as Bilvao and Biluao, as documented in its municipal charter. An -ao ending is present in nearby Sestao and Ugao. Titles Bilbao holds the historic category of borough, with the titles of «Very noble and very loyal and it was the Catholic Monarchs who awarded the title «Noble borough» on 20 September 1475. Philip III of Spain, via a letter in 1603 awarded the borough the titles of «Very noble, after the Siege of Bilbao, during the First Carlist War, on 25 December 1836, the title of «Unbeaten» was added. Remains of an ancient settlement were found on the top of Mount Malmasín, burial sites were also found on Mounts Avril and Artxanda, dated 6,000 years old. Some authors identify the old settlement of Bilbao as Amanun Portus, cited by Pliny the Elder, or with Flaviobriga, ancient walls, which date from around the 11th century, have been discovered below the Church of San Antón. On 21 June 1511, Queen Joanna of Castile ordered the creation of the Consulate of Bilbao and this would become the most influential institution of the borough for centuries, and would claim jurisdiction over the estuary, improving its infrastructure
Bilbao
–
Clockwise from top: Panorama from mount
Artxanda,
Church of San Antón,
Bilbao Guggenheim Museum, a
fosterito, and the
Euskalduna Palace
Bilbao
–
First engraving of the city, made by
Franz Hohenberg in 1554 and first published in 1574. Many notable buildings can be seen, like the
Santiago Cathedral, and the
church of San Antón.
Bilbao
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The
Battle of Luchana.
Bilbao
–
Bilbao in the 1950s.
4.
Southern Basque Country
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The Southern Basque Country is a term used to refer to the Basque territories within Spain as a unified whole. In Basque language, natives have referred to the Basque districts as Euskal Herria and it does not exist as a political unit but includes the three provinces and two enclaves of the Basque Autonomous Community in the west, as well as the Chartered Community of Navarre to the east. The Basque districts had managed to retain an independent status within the Crown of Castile up until the period of the War of the Pyrenees. The Basques of each district kept their own defence provision, with men being drafted for the militias exclusively in defence of each specific district, however, voluntary military contribution to the king could go beyond district boundaries in exchange for a sum of money. The four districts kept a strong municipality based governmental structure, as well as customs on their boundaries. Mineral extraction was concerted for communal exploitation, usually undertaken when required by neighbouring inhabitants and/or manufacturers, the foundations of Basque home rule were badly shaken at the turn of the 19th century, followed by the short-lived but watershed Spanish nationalist Constitution of 1812. Since 1866, the four chartered provincial governments made a move towards coordination and cooperation by designing a number of common projects. At San Sebastián, the Spanish General Prim ratified in 1869 his position in favour of the status held by the Southern Basque Country conditioned on their unambiguous attachment to Spain. However, the general was assassinated in the midst of political instability, at the end of it, the fueros were definitely abolished in the Basque Provinces, while Navarres legal status was less affected. It was followed by other unofficial cultural/sport institutions, or the Federation of Basque-Navarrese Savings Banks, since 1982, the four provinces were divided into the Chartered Community of Navarre and the Basque Autonomous Community. g. The movement to re-establish cooperation and common ties is spearheaded by Basque nationalist parties, Basque Country Basque coat of arms Corruption in Navarre
Southern Basque Country
–
The Southern Basque Country depicted on a publicity poster (1950s)
Southern Basque Country
–
The Spanish Basque Country or Hegoalde pictured in deep green as related to the entire
Basque Country. The internal borders are shown of the three provinces which comprise the Basque Autonomous Community (to the west) and Navarre (to the east)
Southern Basque Country
–
Memorial to the Sister Provinces in
Donostia, erected by popular subscription (late 19th century)
5.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
6.
Sahrawi people
–
As with most Saharan peoples living in the Sahara, the Sahrawi culture is mixed. Sahrawis are composed of tribes and are largely speakers of the Hassaniya dialect of Arabic. The Arabic word Ṣaḥrāwī صحراوي literally means Inhabitant of the Desert, the word Sahrawi is derived from the Arabic word Ṣaḥrā, meaning desert. The men are called a Sahrawi, and the women are called a Sahrawiya, the new faith was spread by Berbers themselves, and Arab immigration in the first centuries of Islamic expansion was minimal. It is not known when the camel was introduced to the region and this was the case with the Berber Almoravid dynasty of Morocco and Andalusia, and several emirates in Mauritania. In the 11th century, the Arab bedouin tribes of the Beni Hilal, in the early 13th century, the Yemeni Maqil tribes migrated westwards across the entirety of Arabia and northern Africa, to finally settle around present-day Morocco. They were badly received by the Zenata Berber descendants of the Merinid dynasty and this tribe entered the domains of the Sanhaja, and over the following centuries imposed itself upon them, intermixing with the population in the process. The modern ethnic group is thus mainly Berber with Arabs as an ethnicity whose cultural volume is bigger than its genetic one. The people inhabits the westernmost Sahara desert, in the area of modern Mauritania, Morocco, Western Sahara, as with most Saharan peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining Berber, Arab, and other influences, including black African ethnic and cultural characteristics. The latter were primarily acquired through mixing with Wolouf, Soninke and other populations of the southern Sahel, an important divider is whether the tribal confederations fell under French or Spanish colonial rule. France conquered most of North and West Africa largely during the late 19th century and this included Algeria and Mauritania, and, from 1912, Morocco. But Western Sahara and scattered parts of Morocco fell to Spain. The Sahrawi-Moorish areas, then still undefined as to exact territorial boundaries, proved troublesome for the colonizers, the political loyalty of these populations were first and foremost to their respective tribes, and supratribal allegiances and alliances would shift rapidly and unexpectedly. Centuries of intratribal warfare and raids for loot guaranteed that the populations were well armed and versed in guerrilla-style warfare and it was not until the 1930s that Spain was able to finally subdue the interior of present-day Western Sahara, and then only with strong French military assistance. Mauritanias raiding Moors had been brought under control in the decades, partly through skilful exploitation by the French of traditional rivalries. The last major Reguibat raid took place in 1934, after which the Spanish authorities occupied Smara, the Sahrawi-Moorish tribes remained largely nomadic until the early to mid-20th century, when Franco-Spanish rivalries managed to impose rigid, if arbitrary, borders on the previously fluid Sahara. Little attention was paid to existing tribal confederations and zones of influence, the populations in Algeria were subjected to direct French rule, which was organized to enable the massive settlement of French and European immigrants. In southern Morocco, France upheld indirect rule through the sultanate in some areas, Spanish Sahara was treated first as a colony, and later as an overseas province, with gradually tightening political conditions, and, in later years, a rapid influx of Spanish settlers
Sahrawi people
–
Sahrawi man
Sahrawi people
–
Group of Saharawi women.
Sahrawi people
–
Saharawi woman.
7.
Ali Salem Tamek
–
Ali Salem Tamek is a Sahrawi independence activist, human rights defender and trade unionist. Ali Salem Tamek was born in Assa, southern Morocco and he has emerged as one of the most outspoken Sahrawi dissidents under Moroccan rule. He is vice president of the Collective of Sahrawi Human Rights Defenders and he was active in Moroccan trade unions and leftist Moroccan spheres. He has been jailed five times for nationalist activities, fired from his job, and for a long period of time had his passport confiscated. On September 13,1993, he was detained for the first time, along with other Sahrawis, on the Moroccan-Algerian border in the region of Tata and he was condemned to one year in prison and a fine of 10,000 dirhams. On November 24,1997 he was detained again in the Dakhla region, since 1997, he worked as a local administration functionary in Tuesgui, but in April 2002 he was forcibly moved to Meknes,1,300 km. away from his home. This led to him being referred to by Amnesty International as a prisoner of conscience, due to the precarious conditions of detention in Moroccan jails, his health had worsened. He has been the target of campaigns in the Moroccan press. His wife, Aicha Ramdan, reported in 2005 that in 2003 she had been raped by five policemen in front of her 3-year-old daughter, while visiting her husband in Agadir prison. She declared that one of them was Brahim Tamek, cousin of her husband and she had asked for political asylum in Spain. The Moroccan authorities had refused to recognize the name the family has given to their first daughter, the name means revolution in Arabic. For that reason, the family was illegally deprived of the allowance that the Moroccan law gives. The magazine Maroc Hebdo International put him in its July 2005 cover with the heading Public Enemy Nº1, the European parliament called for his immediate release in a resolution on October 27. On December 14, Ali Salem Tamek was sentenced to 8 months in prison by a Moroccan court in El-Aaiún and he was released again by a general royal pardon in April 2006. Tamek completed final secondary-school examinations in 2007 in Morocco, but wasnt allowed by the Moroccan authorities to study law and journalism. On October 8,2009, he was arrested six other Sahrawi human rights activists at Casablanca Airport, after returning from visiting family members at the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf. The judge accused them of threatening state security, and sent the case to a military court and they were declared prisoners of conscience by Amnesty International. Tamek, Brahim Dahhane, and Ahmed Nasiri were freed on 23 April 2011, on June 10,2005 he was awarded with the III Juan Antonio González Caraballo Solidarity Prize, in a ceremony in Seville
Ali Salem Tamek
–
Ali Salem Tamek in
Ait Meloul Prison (Agadir, Morocco, 2005).
8.
Agadir
–
It is at a distance of 508 km to the south of Casablanca. It is the capital of the Agadir-Ida Ou Tanane Prefecture and of the Souss-Massa economic region, a majority of its inhabitants speak Shilha/Tashelhit, a Berber language of the Atlas branch, as their first language. The city of Agadir together with the cities of Inezgane. According to the 2004 census, there were 346,106 inhabitants in that year, Agadir is governed by Tariq Kabagge and its one of the major urban centres of Morocco, the seventh-largest conurbation of the country after Casablanca, Rabat, Fès, Marrakech, Meknes and Tangier. The population density is quite high, three languages are spoken in the city, Tashelhit, Moroccan Arabic, and French. The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1960, it has completely rebuilt with mandatory seismic standards. It is now the largest seaside resort in Morocco, where foreign tourists, since 2010 it has been well served by low-cost flights and a motorway from Tangier. The city attracts all walks of life, it has had a growth rate of over 6% per year in housing demand while housing production barely exceeds 3. 4%. The mild winter climate and good beaches have made it a winter sun destination for northern Europeans. The name Agadir is a common Berber noun agadir meaning wall, enclosure, fortified building and this noun is attested in most Berber languages, and may be a loanword from Phoenician-Punic, a Semitic language spoken in North-Africa until the fifth century CE. There are many towns in Morocco called Agadir. The city of Agadirs full name in Tashelhit is Agadir n Yighir, literally the fortress of the cape, in Moroccan Arabic, an inhabitant is a gadiri, plural gadiriyin, feminine gadiriya, plural gadiriyat. History is virtually silent on Agadir before the 12th century, in the 2nd century AD, the historian Polybius referred to North Africa on the Atlantic, a place called cap Rhysaddir, that may have been located near Agadir but its location is still under debate. At the end of the period, Agadir was a town of some notoriety. The name itself, Agadir el-arba, was attested to for the first time in 1510, quickly, the Portuguese were exposed to the hostility of the tribes of the region. From 1530, they were blockaded in Santa Cruz, Portuguese weakness showed itself on 12 March 1541 when Sherif Saâdien Mohammed ash-Sheikh captured the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer. Six hundred Portuguese survivors were taken prisoner, including the governor, Guterre de Monroy, the captives were redeemed by the holy men mostly from Portugal. Dona Mecia, whose husband was killed during the battle, became the wife of Sheikh Mohammed ash-Sheikh, in the same year, Mohammed ash-Sheikh released the Governor Guterre de Monroy, whom he had befriended
Agadir
–
View of Agadir
Agadir
–
Fog in Agadir
Agadir
–
The Fishing Port seen from the Casbah
Agadir
–
Hill of the old Casbah
9.
Internment
–
Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The term is used for the confinement of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects. Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement, use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities. Interned persons may be held in prisons or in known as internment camps. In certain contexts, these may also be known either officially or pejoratively, internment also refers to a neutral countrys practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war under the Hague Convention of 1907. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, article 9 states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. The United States set up camps for Cherokee and other Native Americans in the 1830s. From 1863 to 1868, the U. S, military persecuted and imprisoned 9,500 Navajo and 500 Mescalero Apache. Living under armed guards, more than 3,500 Navajo and Mescalero Apache men, women, the term concentration camp saw wider use during the Second Boer War, when the British operated such camps in South Africa for interning Boers. They built 45 tented camps for Boer internees and 64 for black Africans, of the 28,000 Boer men captured as prisoners of war, the British sent 25,630 overseas. The vast majority of Boers remaining in the camps were women and children. Some of them managed to go into exile or went off to join the armies of the Allies in order to fight against the Axis powers, while others ended up in Nazi concentration camps. During the 20th century, the internment of civilians by the state reached its most notorious excesses with the establishment of the Nazi concentration camps. The Nazi concentration camp system was notable for its size, with as many as 15,000 camps. Moreover, Nazi Germany established six camps, specifically designed to kill millions
Internment
–
Boer women and children in a British-run concentration camp in South Africa (1900–1902)
Internment
–
Ten thousand inmates were kept in
El Agheila, an
Italian concentration camps in Libya during the Italian colonization of Libya
Internment
–
Jewish slave laborers in the
Buchenwald concentration camp near
Weimar, 16 April 1945. Second row, seventh from left is
Elie Wiesel.
10.
Politics
–
Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
Politics
–
Political views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the
Inglehart –
Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the
World Values Survey.
11.
Political offense
–
In criminology, a political crime or political offence is an offence involving overt acts or omissions, which prejudice the interests of the state, its government, or the political system. It is to be distinguished from state crime, in which it is the states that both their own criminal laws or public international law. States will define as political crimes any behaviour perceived as a threat, real or imagined, to the states survival, at one extreme, crimes such as treason, sedition, and terrorism are political because they represent a direct challenge to the government in power. Espionage is usually considered a criminal act, but offenders do not have to aim to overthrow the government or to depose its leaders to be acting in a way perceived as political. g. By burning the flag in public. But the scope of such crimes can be less direct. Any interference with the media of communication or the sets of meanings embedded in the communications themselves may be perceived as a threat to the authority of the state. Moreover, even an offence against non-governmental institutions, persons, or practices may be deemed political and this code requires that police behave in a courteous and fair manner, that they treat all citizens in a respectable and decent manner, and that they never use unnecessary force. When they do, it is argued that this constitutes a crime and, if it is institutionalised, then over time, the use of unnecessary force become a state crime. Marxist criminologists argue that most political crime arises from the efforts of the state to reproduce the structures of inequality, racism, sexism, thus, states will protect property rights and reduce the rights of trade unions to represent the interests of the poor. Marxists do not dispute that, for a society to function efficiently, but they consider that, in all societies, one class, usually characterised as the ruling class, gains far more than other classes. Marxists agree with functionalists that socialisation plays a role in promoting conformity. However, unlike the latter, they are critical of the ideas, values. Modern Marxists point to education and the media as socialising agencies, which delude or mystify the working class into conforming to a social order, thus, all controls which directly or indirectly explit the criminal law to control access to the discourses are political crimes. Miller says that one of the characteristics of power in modern history has been the rationalisation and bureaucratisation of law. Legal codification, or at least debates over the merits of legal codification, in particular, the rationalisation of criminal law standardised not just the concept of crime, but was adopted as the means to eliminate the deviant as a threat to a modern, uniform, moral standard. In this, the religious establishment began to play a new role in defining evil in which threats to the political or social norm became as dangerous as threats to religious orthodoxy, thus, political speech became one of the most likely activities to be criminalised. The freedom of association and to meet may also be criminalised if the purpose is to express political views
Political offense
–
Criminology and
penology
12.
Prisoner of conscience
–
Prisoner of conscience is a term coined by Peter Benenson in a 28 May 1961 article for the London Observer newspaper. Most often associated with the human rights organisation Amnesty International, the term can refer to anyone imprisoned because of their race, sexual orientation, religion and it also refers to those who have been imprisoned and/or persecuted for the non-violent expression of their conscientiously held beliefs. The article The Forgotten Prisoners by Peter Benenson, published in The Observer 28 May 1961, launched the campaign Appeal for Amnesty 1961, any person who is physically restrained from expressing any opinion which he honestly holds and which does not advocate or condone personal violence. We also exclude those people who have conspired with a government to overthrow their own. In early 1962, the campaign had received public support to become a permanent organization and was renamed Amnesty International. Under British law, Amnesty International was classed as a political organisation, to work around this, the Fund for the Persecuted was established in 1962 to receive donations to support prisoners and their families. Amnesty International has, since its founding, pressured governments to release those persons it considers to be prisoners of conscience, below is an incomplete list of individuals that Amnesty International considers to be prisoners of conscience, organized by country. Amnesty International resources about prisoners of conscience Prisoners of Conscience Appeal Fund
Prisoner of conscience
–
Aung San Suu Kyi was an
Amnesty International -recognized prisoner of conscience from 1989 to 1995, from 2000 to 2002, and from 2003 to 2010.
13.
Amnesty International
–
Amnesty International is a non-governmental organisation focused on human rights that claims to have over 7 million members and supporters around the world. The stated objective of the organisation is to research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights. Amnesty International was founded in London in 1961, following the publication of the article The Forgotten Prisoners in The Observer on 28 May 1961, Amnesty draws attention to human rights abuses and campaigns for compliance with international laws and standards. It works to public opinion to put pressure on governments that let abuse take place. Amnesty considers capital punishment to be the ultimate, irreversible denial of human rights, the organisation was awarded the 1977 Nobel Peace Prize for its campaign against torture, and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1978. Amnesty International was founded in London in July 1961 by English labour lawyer Peter Benenson, researchers have never traced the alleged newspaper article in question. In 1960, Portugal was ruled by the Estado Novo government of António de Oliveira Salazar, the government was authoritarian in nature and strongly anti-communist, suppressing enemies of the state as anti-Portuguese. The newspaper reader feels a sense of impotence. Yet if these feelings of disgust could be united into common action, Benenson worked with friend Eric Baker. It marked the launch of Appeal for Amnesty,1961, the aim of which was to mobilise public opinion, quickly and widely, in defence of these individuals, the Appeal for Amnesty was reprinted by a large number of international newspapers. In the same year, Benenson had a published, Persecution 1961. In July 1961 the leadership had decided that the appeal would form the basis of a permanent organisation, Amnesty, Benenson ensured that all three major political parties were represented, enlisting members of parliament from the Labour Party, the Conservative Party, and the Liberal Party. On 30 September 1962, it was officially named Amnesty International, between the Appeal for Amnesty,1961 and September 1962 the organisation had been known simply as Amnesty. From the very beginning, research and campaigning were present in Amnesty Internationals work, a library was established for information about prisoners of conscience and a network of local groups, called THREES groups, was started. Each group worked on behalf of three prisoners, one each of the then three main ideological regions of the world, communist, capitalist and developing. The international movement was starting to agree on its principles and techniques. In 1967 Peter Benenson resigned after an independent inquiry did not support his claims that AI had been infiltrated by British agents, later he claimed that the Central Intelligence Agency had become involved in Amnesty. Leading Amnesty International in the 1970s were key figures Seán MacBride, Amnesty International believed that the reasons underlying torture of prisoners by governments, were either to acquire and obtain information or to quell opposition by the use of terror, or both
Amnesty International
–
1986
Faroe postage stamp celebrating Amnesty's 25th anniversary – Painting by 11-year-old Rannvá Kunoy
Amnesty International
–
The Amnesty Canadian headquarters in
Ottawa.
14.
Prisoners of conscience
–
Prisoner of conscience is a term coined by Peter Benenson in a 28 May 1961 article for the London Observer newspaper. Most often associated with the human rights organisation Amnesty International, the term can refer to anyone imprisoned because of their race, sexual orientation, religion and it also refers to those who have been imprisoned and/or persecuted for the non-violent expression of their conscientiously held beliefs. The article The Forgotten Prisoners by Peter Benenson, published in The Observer 28 May 1961, launched the campaign Appeal for Amnesty 1961, any person who is physically restrained from expressing any opinion which he honestly holds and which does not advocate or condone personal violence. We also exclude those people who have conspired with a government to overthrow their own. In early 1962, the campaign had received public support to become a permanent organization and was renamed Amnesty International. Under British law, Amnesty International was classed as a political organisation, to work around this, the Fund for the Persecuted was established in 1962 to receive donations to support prisoners and their families. Amnesty International has, since its founding, pressured governments to release those persons it considers to be prisoners of conscience, below is an incomplete list of individuals that Amnesty International considers to be prisoners of conscience, organized by country. Amnesty International resources about prisoners of conscience Prisoners of Conscience Appeal Fund
Prisoners of conscience
–
Aung San Suu Kyi was an
Amnesty International -recognized prisoner of conscience from 1989 to 1995, from 2000 to 2002, and from 2003 to 2010.
15.
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
–
The Assembly held its first session in Strasbourg on 10 August 1949, making it one of the oldest international assemblies in Europe. In general the Assembly meets four times per year in Strasbourg at the Palace of Europe for week-long plenary sessions, the nine permanent committees of the Assembly meet all year long to prepare reports and draft resolutions in their respective fields of expertise. The Assembly sets its own agenda, but its debates and reports are primarily focused on defending human rights, promoting democracy, protecting minorities and upholding the rule of law. Judges of the European Court of Human Rights are elected by PACE from a list of three candidates nominated by member state which has ratified the European Convention on Human Rights. As a result, around one third of the current bench of 47 judges are women, the Assembly has a total of 636 members –318 principal members and 318 substitutes – who are appointed or elected by the parliaments of each member state. Delegations must reflect the balance in the parliament, so contain members of both ruling parties and oppositions. The population of each country determines its number of representatives and number of votes and this is in contrast to the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Europes executive body, where each country has one vote. The special guest status of the National Assembly of Belarus was suspended on 13 January 1997, parliaments with Partner for Democracy status pledge to work towards certain basic values of the Council of Europe, and agree to occasional assessments of their progress. In return, they are able to send delegations to take part in the work of the Assembly and its committees, the Assembly has five political groups. The official languages of the Council of Europe are English and French, in 2015 he was re-elected for a second five-year term, which began in February 2016. However, the Russian delegation remained members of the Assembly, the sanction applied throughout the remainder of the 2014 session and was renewed for a full year in January 2015, lapsing in January 2016. It did so again in January 2017, leaving empty seats in the Assembly for a further year, the sanctions applied only to Russian parliamentarians in PACE, the Council of Europes parliamentary body. Russia continues to be a member of the Council of Europe, and retains full rights in the organisations other bodies, including its statutory executive body. According to the report, said member states also hire lobbyists to fend off criticism of their human rights records, German news magazine Der Spiegel had earlier revealed details about the strategies of Azerbaijan’s government to influence the voting behaviour of selected members of the Parliamentary Assembly. Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Le Conseil de lEurope, Jean-Louis Burban, publisher PUF, collection « Que sais-je. », n°885
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
–
The
hemicycle of the PACE at the
Palace of Europe
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
–
The emblem of the PACE
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
16.
European Convention on Human Rights
–
The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Drafted in 1950 by the newly formed Council of Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention, the Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights have been violated under the Convention by a party can take a case to the Court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the States concerned and they are obliged to execute them, the compensations imposed under ECHR can be rather large, in 2014 Russia agreed to pay in excess of $2 billion in damages to former shareholders of Yukos. The Convention has several protocols, which amend the convention framework, the European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness of Human Rights in Europe. The development of a system of human rights protection operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. Second, the Convention was a response to the growth of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and designed to protect the member states of the Council of Europe from communist subversion. The Convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after the Second World War in response to an issued by Europeans from all walks of life who had gathered at the Hague Congress. British MP and lawyer Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, the Chair of the Assemblys Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members, as a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand how international justice could be effectively applied. After extensive debates, the Assembly sent its proposal to the Councils Committee of Ministers. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system, the Convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the Convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights. Statements of principle are, from a point of view, not determinative. As amended by Protocol 11, the Convention consists of three parts, the main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II sets up the Court and its rules of operation, Section III contains various concluding provisions. Article 1 simply binds the parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention within their jurisdiction
European Convention on Human Rights
–
Ukrainian stamp, commemorating 60 years of European Convention on Human Rights
European Convention on Human Rights
–
Parties to the convention
17.
Armed resistance
–
The task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state, and its citizens, and the prosecution of war against another state. The profession of soldiering as part of a military is older than recorded history itself, some of the most enduring images of the classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the points of Pharaoh Ramses IIs reign. A thousand years later, the first emperor of unified China, Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might, he was buried with an army of terracotta soldiers. The Romans were dedicated to military matters, leaving to posterity many treatises and writings, as well as a number of lavishly carved triumphal arches. Issue, Possibly cognate with Thousand, cf. Latin and Romance language root word mil-) The first recorded use of the military in English. It comes from the Latin militaris through French, but is of uncertain etymology, the word is now identified as denoting someone that is skilled in use of weapons, or engaged in military service, or in warfare. As a noun, the military usually refers generally to an armed forces, or sometimes, more specifically. In general, it refers to the physicality of armed forces, their personnel, equipment, as an adjective, military originally referred only to soldiers and soldiering, but it soon broadened to apply to land forces in general, and anything to do with their profession. The names of both the Royal Military Academy and United States Military Academy reflect this, as such, it now connotes any activity performed by armed force personnel. Military history is considered to be the history of all conflicts. Military history has a number of facets, one main facet is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes, so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create a sense of tradition, which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively, human knowledge about the military is largely based on both recorded and oral history of military conflicts, their participating armies and navies and, more recently, air forces. In the whole history of humanity, every nation had different needs for military forces, how these needs are determined forms the basis of their composition, equipment, and use of facilities. It also determines what military does in terms of peacetime, All military forces, whether large or small, are military organizations that have official state, and world recognition as such. Organisations with similar features are paramilitary, civil defense, militia and these commonalities of the states military define them. Another role of military personnel is to ensure a continuous replacement of departing servicemen and women through recruitment
Armed resistance
–
Soldiers from
the Canadian Grenadier Guards in the
Kandahar Province of Afghanistan
Armed resistance
–
CF-18 Hornet launches a laser-guided bomb
Armed resistance
–
The
Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military transport of the
Japan Air Self-Defence Force.
Armed resistance
–
Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of the
I Canadian Corps in
Utrecht as the
Canadian Army liberates the Netherlands from Nazi occupation
18.
Guerrilla warfare
–
The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance
Guerrilla warfare
–
Spanish guerrilla resistance to the French invasion in 1808
Guerrilla warfare
–
Boer guerrillas during the
Second Boer War in South Africa
Guerrilla warfare
–
Female Soviet partisans operating under
Sydir Kovpak in
German-occupied Ukraine
Guerrilla warfare
–
Mass shootings of
Vendée royalist rebels in western France, 1793
19.
Terrorism
–
Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
Terrorism
–
United Airlines Flight 175, which had been taken over by hijackers, hits the South Tower of the former
World Trade Center on
September 11, 2001, in
New York City,
United States.
Terrorism
–
Mass killings in the
Vendée during the
Reign of Terror in France, 1793
Terrorism
–
Attack at the
Bologna railway station on 2 August 1980 by the neo-fascist group
Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari. With 85 deaths, it is the deadliest massacre in the
history of Italy as a Republic.
Terrorism
–
The
Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple
car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.
20.
Anarchism
–
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
Anarchism
–
William Godwin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".
Anarchism
–
A sympathetic engraving by
Walter Crane of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the
Haymarket affair. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international May Day observances.
Anarchism
–
Italian-American anarchist
Luigi Galleani. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'
21.
Action Directe (gang)
–
Action directe was a French revolutionary group which committed a series of assassinations and violent attacks in France between 1979 and 1987. Members of Action directe considered themselves libertarian communist who had formed a guerrilla organization. The French government banned the group, Action directe was set up in 1977 by two other groups, GARI, and NAPAP, as the military-political co-ordination of the autonomous movement. In 1979, it was transformed into a guerrilla organization and carried out violent attacks under the banner of anti-imperialism. The group was banned by the French government in 1984, in August 1985, Action directe allied itself with the German Red Army Faction. They carried out robberies or proletarian expropriation actions, and assassinations, killing Engineer General René Audran and they were also accused of Georges Besses 1986 killing, a murder allegedly justified because he was the then head of the French automaker Renault. However, they denied it during their trial, besse was also former president of Eurodif nuclear company, in which Iran had a 10% share. They also claimed joint responsibility for the 1985 bomb attack carried out by the Red Army Faction at Rhein-Main Air Base in Frankfurt, on 21 February 1987, the main Action directe members, Jean-Marc Rouillan, Nathalie Ménigon, Joëlle Aubron, and Georges Cipriani, were arrested. They were later sentenced to life imprisonment, régis Schleicher had already been arrested in 1984. Joëlle Aubron was released in June 2004 for health reasons and died from a cancer that had metastasized towards her brain on 1 March 2006. There is a campaign by some sections of the French far-left that the Action directe members still imprisoned. In December 2007, Rouillan was allowed a state of semi-liberty, the British TV mini-series Red Fox, made in 1991 and starring John Hurt, Jane Birkin and Brian Cox, was set in France and tells of a British businessman kidnapped by a member of Action directe. In Tom Clancys book Patriot Games protagonist Jack Ryan identifies a training camp used by the group which is raided by French special forces. It is also mentioned by Harrison Fords character in the 1992 film of the same name. In Clancys book Rainbow Six, members of Action directe assault a fictionalized Euro Disney called Worldpark, apparently the inspiration for the name came during training for the route, as it appeared to him that the training is a terror act on his fingers. Autonomism Elisabeth Van Dyck Commando Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Factions Michael Y, dartnell, Action Directe, Ultra Left Terrorism in France 1979–1987, Frank Cass Publishers 1995, ISBN 0-7146-4212-6 France, Government must apply international standards to Action directe four
Action Directe (gang)
–
Action directe
22.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
23.
Armed struggle
–
War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
Armed struggle
–
The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the
National Museum in
Warsaw showing ruins of Warsaw's Napoleon Square in the aftermath of
World War II.
Armed struggle
–
Mural of War (1896), by
Gari Melchers
Armed struggle
–
Ruins of
Guernica (1937). The
Spanish Civil War was one of Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.
Armed struggle
–
Japanese
samurai attacking a
Mongol ship, 13th century
24.
Freedom Fighter
–
It may seek to achieve its objectives through either the use of nonviolent resistance, or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. The term resistance is used to designate a movement considered legitimate. Organizations and individuals critical of foreign intervention and supporting forms of organized movement tend to favor the term, when such a resistance movement uses violence, those favorably disposed to it may also speak of freedom fighters. More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes. This phraseology contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant, ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment. The modern usage of the term Resistance originates from the self-designation of many movements during World War II, the term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using the term resistance to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be an anachronism. However, such movements existed prior to World War II, and there have been many after it – for example in struggles against colonialism, Resistance has become a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country. Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government and this frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny. Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in a struggle for liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism, Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi German resistance movement in this period, so, resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination will not provide us a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what we categorize as “power. ”In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. The reason is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance and he compared this accident with a similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York,1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken, There are many forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called globalization
Freedom Fighter
–
Mujahideen loyal to Yunus Khalis, in October 1987
25.
Treason
–
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
Treason
–
A 17th century illustration of
Guy Fawkes. Guy Fawkes tried to assassinate
James I of England. He failed and was convicted of treason and sentenced to be
hanged, drawn and quartered.
Treason
–
5 January 1895 - The treason conviction of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus.
Treason
–
Engraving depicting the execution of
Sir Thomas Armstrong in 1684, who was
hanged, drawn and quartered.
Treason
–
The
Indische Legion attached to the
German Army was created in 1941, mainly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army.
26.
Espionage
–
Espionage is the obtaining of information considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage can be committed by an individual or a spy ring, in the service of a government or a company, the practice is inherently clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome and in many cases illegal and punishable by law. Espionage is a subset of intelligence gathering, which includes espionage as well as information gathering from public sources, Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term is associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage, one of the most effective ways to gather data and information about the enemy is by infiltrating the enemys ranks. This is the job of the spy, Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of enemy forces. They can also find dissidents within the forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to steal technology, counterintelligence operatives can feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets, and preventing attempts at subversion. Nearly every country has strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often severe. However, the benefits that can be gained through espionage are generally great enough that most governments, events involving espionage are well documented throughout history. The Old Testament of the Christian Bible, which is based primarily on the Hebrew Bible, speaks about Joshua and Caleb, the ancient writings of Chinese and Indian military strategists such as Sun-Tzu and Chanakya contain information on deception and subversion. Chanakyas student Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire in India, made use of assassinations, spies and secret agents, the ancient Egyptians had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the Hebrews used spies as well, as in the story of Rahab. Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols relied heavily on espionage in their conquests in Asia and Europe. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence, aztecs used Pochtecas, people in charge of commerce, as spies and diplomats, and had diplomatic immunity. Many modern espionage methods were established by Francis Walsingham in Elizabethan England, in 1585, Mary, Queen of Scots was placed in the custody of Sir Amias Paulet, who was instructed to open and read all of Marys clandestine correspondence. In a successful attempt to expose her, Walsingham arranged a single exception, Mary was misled into thinking these secret letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsinghams agents. He succeeded in intercepting letters that indicated a conspiracy to displace Elizabeth I with Mary, in foreign intelligence, Walsinghams extensive network of intelligencers, who passed on general news as well as secrets, spanned Europe and the Mediterranean. While foreign intelligence was a part of the principal secretarys activities, Walsingham brought to it flair and ambition
Espionage
–
A bamboo version of
The Art of War, written by
Sun-Tzu and containing advice on espionage tactics.
Espionage
–
Political cartoon depicting the Afghan
Emir Sher Ali with his "friends" the
Russian Bear and
British Lion (1878). The
Great Game saw the rise of systematic espionage and surveillance throughout the region by both powers.
Espionage
–
Seal of the
Evidenzbureau, military intelligence service of the
Austrian Empire.
Espionage
–
William Melville helped establish the first independent intelligence agency, the
British Secret Service, and was appointed as its first chief.
27.
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
–
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima is the 11th Panchen Lama of Tibetan Buddhism as recognised by the Dalai Lama and various other Tibetan Buddhist leaders. He was born in Lhari County, Tibet, on 14 May 1995, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was named the 11th Panchen Lama by the 14th Dalai Lama. After his selection, he was taken into custody by authorities of the Peoples Republic of China and has not been seen in public since 17 May 1995. Another child, Gyancain Norbu, was named as Panchen Lama by the Peoples Republic of China. After the Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th incarnation of the Panchen Lama on 14 May, according to the Tibetan Government in Exile, he was replaced by Sengchen Lobsang Gyaltsen, so chosen because he was more likely to agree with the party line. Sengchen had been an opponent of both the Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama. The new search committee ignored the Dalai Lamas 14 May announcement, in selecting a name, lottery numbers were drawn from a Golden Urn, a procedure used in Tibet by the Chinese emperor in 1793. The Tibetan method involves using possessions of the former Lama to identify his reincarnation, Chinese authorities announced Gyancain Norbu as the search committees choice on 11 November 1995. Since his selection, the whereabouts of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima have been unknown, officials state that his whereabouts are kept undisclosed to protect him. Human rights organizations termed him the youngest political prisoner in the world, no foreign party has been allowed to visit him. Those who say Nyima is the 11th Panchen Lama call upon the Chinese authorities to prove that he is safe, the Committee on the Rights of the Child requested to be told of Nyimas whereabouts on 28 May 1996. Xinhua declined, responding that Nyima was at risk of being kidnapped by separatists, the Committee requested a visit with Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, supported by a campaign of more than 400 celebrities and associations petitioning for the visit, including six Nobel Prize winners. According to statements by the Chinese government from 1998, he was leading a normal life. He is currently in upper school, he measures 165 cm in height and is easy-going by nature. He studies hard and his results are very good. He likes Chinese traditional culture and has taken up calligraphy. His parents are both State employees, and his brothers and sisters are either working or at university. The allegation that he disappeared together with his parents and that his whereabouts remain unknown is not true
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
–
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima The 11th Panchen Lama (Disputed)
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
–
Literature used in the search for The 11th Panchen Lama, Gendhun Choekyi Nyima.
28.
Criminal law
–
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety and it includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, the first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians, another important early code was the Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law. Only fragments of the criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e. g. those of Solon. In Roman law, Gaiuss Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest, the first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England. The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements, capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life, government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a convicted of a crime. Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the law by punishments, retribution, deterrence. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each, retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal, Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to balance the scales. People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, thus, one who murders may be executed himself
Criminal law
–
The
Old Bailey in
London (in 1808) was the venue for more than 100,000 criminal trials between 1674 and 1834, including all death penalty cases.
Criminal law
–
An English court room in 1886, with
Lord Chief Justice Coleridge presiding
Criminal law
–
International Criminal Court in
The Hague
29.
Show trial
–
A show trial is a public trial in which the judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the defendant. The actual trial has as its goal to present the accusation. Show trials tend to be rather than correctional justice and also conducted for propagandistic purposes. The term was first recorded in the 1930s, during this time, many thousands of people classified as elements of the bourgeois like wealthy landlords were rounded up, given show trials, with some receiving executions. Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as counterrevolutionaries in Communist China, after the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, show trials were given to rioters and counter-revolutionaries involved in the protests and subsequent military massacre. Chinese writer and dissident Ma Jian argued that Gu Kailai, the wife of purged Communist Chinese leader Bo Xilai, was given a trial in 2012. Show trials were a significant part of Joseph Stalins regime, the Moscow Trials of the Great Purge period in the Soviet Union are characteristic. The authorities staged the actual trials meticulously, if defendants refused to cooperate — i. e. to admit guilt for their alleged and mostly fabricated crimes — they did not go on public trial, but suffered execution nonetheless. This happened, for example during the prosecution of the so-called Labour Peasant Party, a party invented by the NKVD, some solid public evidence of what really happened during the Moscow Trials came to the West through the Dewey Commission. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, more became available. This discredited the New York Times reporter Walter Duranty, who claimed at the time that these trials were actually fair. According to declassified Soviet archives, with documents dating to 1937 and 1938, the NKVD arrested more than one, in August 2015 Ukrainian director Oleg Sentsov was sentenced by a Russian military court to 20 years in prison after show trial in Russia’s Rostov-on-Don. His co-defendant, the activist and anti-fascist Alexander Kolchenko, was sentenced to 10 years, in addition to rank-and-file member purges, prominent communists were purged, with some subjected to public show trials. These were more likely to be instigated, and sometimes orchestrated, by the Kremlin or even Stalin himself, such high-ranking party show trials included those of Koçi Xoxe in Albania and Traicho Kostov in Bulgaria, who were purged and arrested. After Kostov was executed, Bulgarian leaders sent Stalin a telegram thanking him for the help, in Romania, Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu, Ana Pauker and Vasile Luca were arrested, with Pătrăşcanu being executed. The Czechoslovak Communist party subsequently arrested Slánský himself, Vladimír Clementis, Ladislav Novomeský, the higher-ranking the party member, generally the more harsh the torture that was inflicted upon him. The trials themselves were shows, with each participant having to learn a script, in the Slánský trial, when the judge skipped one of the scripted questions, the better-rehearsed Slánský answered the one which should have been asked. The Cadaver Trial was a trial over Catholic Pope Formosus held in 897
Show trial
–
People's Court in Nazi Germany. Trial of
Adolf Reichwein, 1944
Show trial
–
Captain
Witold Pilecki, former prisoner at Auschwitz during a show trial made by communist authorities in Poland in 1948
30.
Human rights
–
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
Human rights
–
The
Cyrus Cylinder, created by king
Cyrus the Great, is sometimes argued to be the world's first charter of human rights.
Human rights
–
The Bill of Rights (1688 or 1689)
Human rights
–
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the
National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789.
Human rights
–
The
UN General Assembly
