1.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Thiruvananthapuram District is the southernmost district of the coastal state of Kerala. It is the largest city in Kerala and it came into existence in the year 1957. The headquarters is the city of Thiruvananthapuram which is also the city of Kerala. The district has an area of 2,192 square kilometres and a population of 3,307,284 and it is the densest district in Kerala with 1,509 inhabitants per square kilometre. It is divided into six taluks, Thiruvananthapuram, Chirayinkeezhu, Neyyattinkara, Nedumangadu, Varkala, the urban bodies in the district are the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation, Varkala, Neyyattinkara, Attingal and Nedumangad municipalities. Thiruvananthapuram district is situated between north latitudes 8°17 and 8°54 and east longitudes 76°41 and 77°17, the southern-most extremity, Kaliyikkavila, is 56 kilometres away from Kanyakumari, the Lands End of mainland India. The district has three rivers, several freshwater lakes and more than 300 ponds. The eastern region is forested, northern regions are mostly under rubber cultivation, built up areas and rice fields complete the land use. The district has the name as its headquarters city, Thiruvananthapuram. The city gets its name from the word Thiru-anantha-puram, meaning the Abode of Lord Anantha, the name derives from the deity of the Hindu temple at the center of the Thiruvananthapuram city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu reclines, the district was officially referred to as Trivandrum in English until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. Thiruvananthapuram city and several places in the district loom large in ancient tradition. The place had earlier been frequented by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch and it was from here that the English gradually extended their domain to other parts of Travancore. Modern history begins with Marthanda Varma,1729 CE–1758 CE, who is regarded as the Father of modern Travancore. Thiruvananthapuram was known as a center of intellectual and artistic activities in those days. The temple of Vishnu reclining on Anantha, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple, along with the presiding deity of Padmanabha, this temple has temples inside it, dedicated to Lord Krishna, Lord Narasimha, Lord Ganesha, and Lord Ayyappa. The temple was built by King Marthanda Varma of the Travancore royal family when, in 1745, he shifted the Travancore capital from Padmanabhapuram, King Marthanda Varma started reigning as Sree Padmanabhadasa, the Slave of Sree Padmanabha. The vast temple complex, with its tall Gopuram decorated with detailed carvings reflected in the temple tank, is today a center of attraction for the pious, the tourist
4.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
5.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
6.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
7.
Western Ghats
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Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the edge of the Deccan Plateau. These hills cover 160,000 km2 and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India, the Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m, at least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau, geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar, after the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of limestone, iron ore. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north and it traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The northern portion of the coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, the range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi, the highest peak in Western Ghats, following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats, The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani, majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months
8.
Hill station
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A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley. The term was used mostly in colonial Asia, but also in Africa, for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat, up where temperatures are cooler. In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres, Hill stations in India were established for a variety of reasons. Other factors included anxieties about the dangers of life in India, the hill stations were meant to reproduce the home country, illustrated in Lord Lyttons statement about Ootacamund, in the 1870s, such beautiful English rain, such delicious English mud. Shimla was officially made the capital of India in the 1860s and hill stations served as vital centers of political and military power. Dane Kennedy, following Monika Bührlein, identifies three stages in the evolution of hill stations in India, high refuge, high refuge to hill station, the first settlements started in the 1820s, primarily as sanitoria. In the 1840s and 1850s, there was a wave of new stations, with the main impetus being places to rest. In the second half of the 19th century, there was a period of consolidation with few new hill stations, in the final phase, hill stations reached their zenith in the late nineteenth century. The political importance of the stations was underscored by the inauguration of large. The Great Hill Stations of Asia, the Magic Mountains, Hill Stations and the British Raj. Berkeley, University of California Press,1996, booknotes interview with Barbara Crossette on The Great Hill Stations of Asia, August 23,1998
9.
Thiruvananthapuram
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Thiruvananthapuram, formerly known as Trivandrum, is the capital and the largest city of the Indian state of Kerala. It is located on the west coast of India near the south of the mainland. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the Evergreen city of India, Thiruvananthapuram was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The city was ruled by the Ays and was captured by the rulers of Venad in tenth century A. D, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and made Thiruvananthapuram the capital in 1745. It remained as a state ruled by Travancore under the loose governance of the British before joining the Indian Union in 1948. With nearly 80% of the software exports, Thiruvananthapuram is a major IT hub with the Technopark. Indias first and only magic academy, Magic Academy Research Centre run by Merlin award-winning magician Gopinath Muthukad is situated in Thiruvananthapuram, the city is home to animation companies like Toonz India Ltd and Tata Elxsi Ltd. The Kinfra Film and Video Park is one of the most advanced film and it is consistently ranked among the best cities to live in Kerala as well as India. The city was referred to as Trivandrum until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name Thiruvananthapuram. Thiruvananthapuram is an ancient region with trading traditions dating back to 1000 BCE, the city was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The early rulers of the city were the Ays and after their fall in the 10th century, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and Thiruvananthapuram was made the capital in 1745 after shifting the capital from Padmanabhapuram in Tamil Nadu. In the mid-19th century, the city was under the reign of Swathi Thirunal, an observatory was established in 1837 with the Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library and the University College established in 1873. Several colleges were established by Moolam Thirunal, sree Moolam Assembly, established in 1904, was the first democratically elected legislative council in any Indian state. After Indian Independence in 1947, Travancore chose to join the Indian union, in 1949, Thiruvananthapuram became the capital of Travancore-Cochin, the state formed by the integration of Travancore with the Kingdom of Cochin. The king of Travancore, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma, became the Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1 July 1949 until 31 October 1956, when the state of Kerala was formed on 1 November 1956, Thiruvananthapuram became its capital. The city has a population of 752,490 according to the 2011 census, the sex ratio is 1,032 females for every 1,000 males. In October 2010, the number of wards was increased from 86 to 100 post expansion of city limits by adding Sreekaryam, Vattiyoorkavu, Kudappanakunnu, hindus comprise 68. 5% of the population, Christians about 16. 7% and Muslims form 13. 7%. The major languages spoken are Malayalam and English, in Palayam in the city centre, there is a mosque, a temple and a Christian church next to each other as neighbours, establishing the communal harmony of Keralites
10.
Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in the southwest, connecting the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, other important ports include in India, Kandla Port, and Mormugao in Goa. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra, Masirah Island, Astola Island, the Arabian Seas surface area is about 3,862,000 km2. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km, the biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian coast, the countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several cities on the seas coast including Mumbai, Surat, Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Aden, Muscat, Keti Bandar, Salalah, Duqm. International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden. A line joining Ràs al Hadd, East point of Arabia, a line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll, to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea, by the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through country and risk of bandits. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria, Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. The Port of Karachi is Pakistans largest and busiest seaport, handling about 60% of the nations cargo and it is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar, close to the main business district and several industrial areas. The geographic position of the places it in close proximity to major shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. The history of the port is intertwined with that of the city of Karachi, several ancient ports have been attributed in the area including Krokola, Morontobara, Barbarikon (the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Debal. It warns sailors about whirlpools and advises them to safety in Kaurashi harbour if they found themselves drifting dangerously
11.
Hairpin turn
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The hairpin turns are commonly seen in mountaineous area, and often appear continuously. Such turns in ramps and trails may be called switchbacks in American English, in British English switchback is more likely to refer to a heavily undulating road—a use extended from the rollercoaster and the other type of switchback railway. Hairpin turns are often built when a route climbs up or down a slope, so that it can travel mostly across the slope with only moderate steepness. Highways of this style are generally less costly to build. On occasion, the road may loop completely, using a tunnel or bridge to cross itself at a different elevation, when this routing geometry is used for a rail line, it is called a spiral, or spiral loop. In trail building, an alternative to switchbacks is the stairway, the Geiranger road from Geirangerfjord to the mountain pass won the gold medal on the world exhibition, Paris 1900, the original design included a 270° spiral. Norwegian National Road 7 through Måbødalen has a spiral partly within tunnels, the road from Frangokastello to Kallikratis in Crete has 27 tight bends. Due to mountainous profile of the country are many streets in Greece having tight bends. US441 through Great Smoky Mountains National Park on the Tennessee/North Carolina border, US40 over Berthoud Pass in Colorado. It forms half of the Mount Evans Scenic Byway, pikes Peak Highway in Colorado Springs includes numerous hairpins and switchbacks which are known as Ws. Mexican Autopista 95D has a hairpin turn which is known as La Pera. The Crowsnest Highway in British Columbia, Canada east of Osoyoos has several hairpin turns, a sharp hairpin turn on British Columbia Highway 97 alongside Vaseux Lake near Oliver, British Columbia has been the scene of many accidents and deaths. Nova Scotia Highway 105, part of the Trans-Canada Highway in Cape Breton has a turn after peaking Kellys Mountain before descending to cross the Seal Island Bridge. The Duffy Lake Road in British Columbia descending into Pemberton from Lillooet, 50°184. 31N, 122°354. 50W The Paso Internacional Los Libertadores has several switchbacks on the Chilean side of the pass. 26 below the tunnel entrance alone, in Japan, there is the known Nikkō Irohazaka, a one-way switchback mountain road, located at Nikko, Tochigi. This road plays a significant role in Japanese history, The route was popular with Buddhist pilgrims on their way to Lake Chuzenji, iroha-Zaka ascends more than 1,300 feet. In Macau, a part of the Guia Circuit is a hairpin turn, in India, the Gata Loops, a part of the route from Manali to Leh. And the Agumbe Ghat road from Udupi to Teerthahalli in Karnataka have 13 hairpin turns, in fact, most of the Ghats include at least one hairpin turn
12.
Wildlife
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Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal, social, and moral sense. Some animals, however, have adapted to suburban environments and this includes such animals as domesticated cats, dogs, mice, and gerbils. The global wildlife population has decreased by 52 percent between 1970 and 2014, according to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, anthropologists believe that the Stone Age people and hunter-gatherers relied on wildlife, both plants and animals, for their food. In fact, some species may have been hunted to extinction by human hunters. Today, hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in parts of the world. In other areas, hunting and non-commercial fishing are seen as a sport or recreation. Meat sourced from wildlife that is not traditionally regarded as game is known as bush meat, in November 2008, almost 900 plucked and oven-ready owls and other protected wildlife species were confiscated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Malaysia, according to TRAFFIC. The animals were believed to be bound for China, to be sold in wild meat restaurants, most are listed in CITES which prohibits or restricts such trade.60. Many Amazon species, including peccaries, agoutis, turtles, turtle eggs, anacondas, armadillos, others in these informal markets, such as monkeys and parrots, are destined for the pet trade, often smuggled into the United States. Still other Amazon species are popular ingredients in traditional medicines sold in local markets, the medicinal value of animal parts is based largely on superstition. Many animal species have spiritual significance in different cultures around the world, for example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans as religious objects. In Hinduism the cow is regarded sacred, muslims conduct sacrifices on Eid-ul-Adha to commemorate the sacrificial spirit of Ibrahim in love of God. Camels, sheep, goats, and cows may be offered as sacrifice during the three days of Eid, many nations have established their tourism sector around their natural wildlife. South Africa has, for example, many opportunities for tourists to see the wildlife in its national parks. In South India the Periar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park and Mudamalai Wildlife Sanctuary are situated around, India is home to many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries showing the diversity of its wildlife, much of its unique fauna, and excels in the range. This subsection focuses on forms of wildlife destruction. Exploitation of wild populations has been a characteristic of man since our exodus from Africa 130,000 –70,000 years ago
13.
Lion-tailed macaque
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The lion-tailed macaque, or the wanderoo, is an Old World monkey endemic to the Western Ghats of South India. The hair of the macaque is black. Its outstanding characteristic is the silver-white mane which surrounds the head from the cheeks down to its chin, the hairless face is black in colour. With a head-body length of 42 to 61 cm and a weight of 2 to 10 kg, the tail is medium in length, about 25 cm, and has a black tuft at the end, similar to a lions tail. The males tail-tuft is more developed than that of the female, the young are nursed for one year. Sexual maturity is reached at four years for females, and six years for males, the life expectancy in the wild is approximately 20 years, while in captivity is up to 30 years. The lion-tailed macaque is a diurnal rainforest dweller and it is a good climber and spends a majority of its life in the upper canopy of tropical moist evergreen forests. Unlike other macaques, it avoids humans, in group behavior, it is much like other macaques, it lives in hierarchical groups of usually 10 to 20 animals, which consist of few males and many females. It is an animal, defending its area first with loud cries towards the invading troops. If this proves to be fruitless, it brawls aggressively, in the forests of Kerala they were observed preying on nestling and eggs of pigeons. A recent assessment for IUCN reports 3000-3500 of these animals live scattered over several areas in Kerala, the lion-tailed macaque ranks among the rarest and most threatened primates. They do not live, feed or travel through plantations, destruction of their habitat and their avoidance of human proximity have led to the drastic decrease of their population. From 1977 to 1980, public concern about the status of lion-tailed macaque became the focal point of Save Silent Valley. From 1993 to 1996,14 troops were observed in Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, a self-sustainable single population of 32 groups of lion-tailed macaques occurred in Sirsi-Honnavara, Karnataka, the northernmost population of the species. The species is also found in the Papanasam part of the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. Many zoos take part in breeding programs which help to secure the survival of this species, about 338 of these macaques are reported to live in zoos
14.
Malabar grey hornbill
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The Malabar grey hornbill is a hornbill endemic to the Western Ghats and associated hills of southern India. They have a beak but lack the casque that is prominent in some other hornbill species. They are found mainly in dense forest and around rubber, arecanut or coffee plantations and they move around in small groups, feeding on figs and other forest fruits. Their loud cackling and laughing call makes them familiar to people living in the region, the Malabar grey hornbill is a large bird, but mid-sized for a hornbill, at 45 to 58 cm in length. It has a 23 cm tail and pale or yellowish to orange bill, males have a reddish bill with a yellow tip, while the females have a plain yellow bill with black at the base of the lower mandible and a black stripe along the culmen. They show a broad whitish superciliary band above the eye, running down to the neck and they fly with a strong flap and glide flight and hop around heavily on the outer branches of large fruiting trees. They have brown-grey wings, a white patch and black primary flight feathers tipped with white. The Indian grey hornbill, which is mainly on the adjoining plains, is easily told apart by its prominent casque. The Malabar grey hornbill has a back and a cinnamon vent. The long tail is blackish with a tip, and the underparts are grey with white streaks. The long curved bill has no casque, immature birds have browner upperparts and a yellow bill. Young birds have a white or yellow iris. Their loud calls are distinctive and include hysterical cackling, laughing and screeching calls, the Malabar grey hornbill is a common resident breeder in the Western Ghats and associated hills of southern India. They are found mainly in dense forest habitats, the dry forest habitat of the plains is typically occupied by the Indian grey hornbill. The Sri Lanka grey hornbill was included with this species in the past and this hornbill is found in small groups mainly in habitats with good tree cover. Being large frugivores, they are important as seed dispersal agents for many species of fruit bearing forest trees and they also feed on small vertebrates and in captivity they will readily take meat. The breeding season is January to May, being secondary cavity nesters, they find trees with large cavities. A study in the Anaimalai Hills showed that the preferred nest sites that had large trees
15.
Agastya Mala
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Agasthyarkoodam is a 1, 868-metre -tall peak within Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala in the Western Ghats of South India. The peak lies inside Kerala near the border with Tamil Nadu and this peak is a part of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve which lies on the border between the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The perennial Thamirabarani River originates from the side of the range. Agasthyarkoodam is a centre for devotees of the Hindu sage Agastya. The Tamil language is considered to be a boon from Agasthya, there is a full-sized statue of Agathiyar at the top of the peak and the devotees can offer pujas themselves. Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is among 20 new sites added by UNESCO to its World Network of Biosphere Reserves in March 2016, Agasthyarkoodam is 32 km from Neyyar Dam and 23 km from Bonacaud, near Ponmudi. The major city and airport nearest to Agasthyarkoodam is Thiruvananthapuram and its Trivandrum International Airport, the nearest railway station is Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. The trekking path, nearly 35 km, is from Bonacaud, Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve is part of the Agasthyarkoodam range. Part of the peak can be seen from the Upper Kodayar region, the peak of Agasthyarkoodam can be reached only by trekking up to it. Trekking is allowed based on strict guidelines and is open to pilgrims during January to mid-March, trekking passes are issued by Kerala Forest Department from the district office at Trivandrum. The trekking route starts from Bonacaud, the route Neyyar-Agasthyakoodam is not open to the public. Vehicles reach only till Bonacaud which is around 50 km from Thiruvananthapuram, the trek to the peak is 28 km long from Bonacaud and requires two days. The first part of the trek can be started from the base station Bonacaud in the morning and is 20 km through the forest to the camp. Elephants and wild bulls are in abundance in this part especially in the evenings, the final part i. e. the 8 km long trek can be done from the camp to the top of Agathyakoodam mountain on the second day. The lower elevations of this peak are known for their abundance of rare herbs, around 2,000 medicinal plants used in Ayurvedic treatments are found here. Europeans, particularly those from England, were the first to establish tea gardens around the stations of the mountain at Brimore, Bonacaud. The Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve harbours rare flora and fauna, tourists are permitted to the area only with permission from the forest department of Kerala. Annual trekking passes to the peak are issued from the forest department during January–February only, between elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 metres, the Manjolai area is set deep within the Western Ghats within the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the Tirunelveli District
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Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve
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The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve was Established in 2001 and includes 3,500.36 km2 of which 1828 km² is in Kerala and 1672.36 km² is in Tamil Nadu. Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve became part of World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2016, ABR straddles the border of Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram Districts in Kerala and Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu, South India at the southern end of the Western Ghats. The Biosphere lies Between 8°8 to 9°10 North Latitude, inclusion of adjoining areas of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu has been approved. The reserve now covers parts of Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, ABR includes the Indian Ecoregions of South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, South Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola. It is the habitat for 2,000 varieties of plants, of which at least 50 are rare. Rare animals include the tiger, Asian Elephant, and Nilgiri Tahr, agastyamalai is also home to the Kanikaran, one of the oldest surviving ancient tribes in the world. Ecotourism is popular in the area, kanikkarans are the Original tribal Settlers in Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve
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Valley
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A valley is a low area between hills, often with a river running through it. In geology, a valley or dale is a depression that is longer than it is wide, the terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to characterize the form of valleys. Most valleys belong to one of two main types or a mixture of them, with respect to the cross section of the slopes or hillsides. A valley in its broadest geographic sense is known as a dale. A valley through which a river runs may also be referred to as a vale, a small, secluded, and often wooded valley is known as a dell or in Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley through which a river runs is known in Scotland as a strath, a mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one or both ends, in the central or southern Appalachian Mountains which sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic window. A small valley surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes known as a hollow, a deep, narrow valley is known as a cwm. Similar geological structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, chines, a valley formed by erosion is called an erosional valley, a valley formed by geologic events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is called a structural valley. A valley formed by flowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped, the exact shape will depend on the characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep walls, shallower slopes may produce broader and gentler valleys. However, in the lowest stretch of a river, where it approaches its base level, it begins to deposit sediment, in prehistory, the rivers were used as a source of fresh water and food, as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided a source for irrigation, most of the first civilizations developed from these river valley communities. In geography, a vale is a river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the escarpment slopes of pairs of chalk formations, where the dome has been eroded, exposing less resistant underlying rock. Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift, are formed by the expansion of the Earths crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earths surface, there are various forms of valley associated with glaciation that may be referred to as glacial valleys. A valley carved by glaciers is normally U-shaped, the valley becomes visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it. When the ice recedes or thaws, the remains, often littered with small boulders that were transported within the ice. Floor gradient does not affect the shape, it is the glaciers size that does
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Hill
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A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a summit, although in areas with scarp/dip topography a hill may refer to a particular section of flat terrain without a massive summit. The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is considered to be less tall. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia defines hill as an upland with a height up to 200 m. Today, a mountain is usually defined in the UK and Ireland as any summit at least 2,000 feet high, some definitions include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 feet or 500 feet. In practice, mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to as no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the Cuillin Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use, for a while, the U. S. defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet or more tall. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill, the United States Geological Survey, however, has concluded that these terms do not in fact have technical definitions in the U. S. A hillock is a small hill, other words include knoll and its variant, knowe. Artificial hills may be referred to by a variety of names, including mound. Various names used to describe types of hill, based on appearance and these include, Drumlin – an elongated whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action. Butte – an isolated hill with steep sides and a flat top. Kuppe – a rounded hill or low mountain, typical of central Europe Tor – a rock found on a hilltop, also used to refer to the hill. Puy – used especially in the Auvergne, France, to describe a conical volcanic hill, pingo – a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and Antarctica. For example, Ancient Rome was built on seven hills, protecting it from invaders, in northern Europe, many ancient monuments are sited in heaps. Some of these are structures, but others appear to have hardly any significance. In Britain, many churches at the tops of hills are thought to have built on the sites of earlier pagan holy places. The National Cathedral in Washington, DC has followed this tradition and was built on the highest hill in that city, Hills provide a major advantage to an army, giving them an elevated firing position and forcing an opposing army to charge uphill to attack them
19.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
20.
Painted bush quail
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The painted bush quail is a species of quail found in the hill forests of India. They move in small coveys on hillsides and are distinguished by their red bills and they have a liquid alarm call and small groups will run in single file along paths before taking flight when flushed. This quail is darkish brightly colored with a red bill and legs. The female has brick-red underpart and lacks the throat and head stripe of the male. The male has a face with a white supercilium and throat. These quail are found in a covey of 6 to 10 birds. They come out in open grassy patches or on forest roads and cart tracks to feed, the covey quickly reunites by the constant call of the members to one another. The call consists of runs of soft whistle for rallying the scattered covey, the call is pleasant, oft-repeated triple note kirikee-kirikee-kirikee, by the cock in breeding season. It is 6. 6–7.5 in in length and weighs roughly 2. 4–3.1 oz This species is found in the hill forests. There are two disjunct populations. Subspecies blewitti is found in the Satpuras and extends into the northern Eastern Ghats and this is smaller and paler than the nominate subspecies of the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris and hills of southern India including the Biligirirangans and Shevaroys. These quails are usually seen in groups of 8 to 10. When flushed they scatter in different directions and then begin rally calling to reunite, males are believed to be monogynous. They are pugnacious and trappers are known to use decoy males to capture others, the call of the breeding male is a kirkee. kirkee and other calls include soft whistles which rises and falls in pitch. The nesting season varies locally, but is said to breed mainly in December to March, nests are typically found in the ground at the root of a bush or grass clump, sometimes thinly lined with grass. The female lays 4 to 7 eggs at a time, which are incubated by the female alone for 16–18 days before hatching, females are said to defend their young often by attacking dogs and even humans that intrude. Chicks are said to be able to fly at an early age
21.
Wynaad laughingthrush
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The Wynaad laughingthrush is a species of laughingthrush in the family Leiothrichidae. It is endemic to the Western Ghats south of Goa in India and these laughingthrushes move in groups in dense forests, producing loud calls but tend to be hard to spot in the undergrowth. They have brown upperparts, a throat, a broad black mask through the eye. Despite the name, derived from the Wayanad region, this species has a wider range than the two other south Indian species of laughingthrush that are restricted to the higher elevation hills and this species has dark brownish-grey upperparts, a black mask and a white throat. The breast is grey while the belly and underside are rufous and it has some resemblance to Garrulax gularis of northeastern India which has a yellow throat. Some older treatments considered lumped delesserti with gularis, the ranges of delesserti and gularis are widely disjunct but museum specimens can be told apart by the pale lower mandible of delesserti unlike the all dark bill of gularis. The tail is coloured and is darker than the back in delesserti while that of gularis is pale with rufous outer tail feathers. The chin is yellow in gularis while white in delesserti, the generic placement of this species has varied over time and has been placed in the past under Dryonastes and Garrulax. A2012 phylogenetic study suggests that it should be separated from Garrulax under the genus Ianthocincla, the species is named in honour of Adolphe Delessert who collected a specimen in 1839 from near Kotagiri. Jerdon described the species as Crateropus delesserti, another description was later published by de Lafresnaye in 1840. The Wynaad laughingthrush is patchily distributed south of Goa and its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist forests. Their breeding has been recorded from the plains to the hills of southern India. The species has been recorded near Goa, Castle Rock, Karwar, Dandeli and it has been recorded in the Brahmagiris, Nilgiris, and extending south to the Ashambu hills. The species is gregarious and tends to skulk in the undergrowth. Flocks vary from six to fifteen but sometimes as many as forty birds may be present together and they feed mainly on the ground turning over leaves to find insects and fallen seed or berries. The calls are load and include shrill chattering and cackling, other calls include churring and chirping notes and some calls resemble those of Turdoides subrufus. The peak breeding season is mainly during the monsoons, April to August in Kerala, the nest is an untidy cup of grasses with a dome above it. It is placed low in a bush, often on Strobilanthes sp, three eggs are the typical clutch
22.
Broad-tailed grassbird
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The broad-tailed grassbird is a species of Old World warbler in the Locustellidae family. It is endemic to the Western Ghats of India with the possibility of occurrence in Sri Lanka, a small, mostly brown bird, it has a broad rounded and graduated tail. It is found only on the higher altitude grassy hills where it usually skulks, the species is believed to be a resident although it is possible that they make local movements. The uniform brown upperparts, broad and long graduated tail of the bird is distinctive, the species has a buff supercilium and the brown tail has thin dark bars. The underside of the tail is dark and the feathers are tipped with white. Males and females are indistinguishable in plumage, the call of the male during breeding is a lark-like and repeated trill that is accompanied by fanned tail and a fluttering flight. Other calls include a chack and a zink note, the gape colour is black and visible in singing males but is brown in females. In the non-breeding season, it is a skulker moving rapidly between grass and reeds but sometimes perches in the open, the species has in former times included the African Schoenicola brevirostris which was originally called Catriscus apicalis and later as Schoenicola platyura brevirostris. The Indian species was first described by Jerdon who found the bird at the base of the Gudalur ghat at the foothills of the Nilgiris, the bill is short strong and culmen is slightly curved in the genus and there are two rictal bristles. The tarsus is long for the proportions. The populations north and south of the Palghat gap are said to differ in plumage shade, the southern form is dark rufous brown above and more whitish below with bright buff on the breast and flanks. This plumage variation was earlier believed to be seasonal, molecular phylogeny studies place the genus in the warbler subfamily Megalurinae. The species is restricted to grassy moist highlands, principally in the Western Ghats of southern India mainly south of Karnataka but with some records from Lonavla and Nasik. A specimen was collected by S. A. Hussain at Point Calimere that suggests that the bird may be involved in movements or migrations possibly into Sri Lanka. Suggestions that it may occur in Sri Lanka are as yet not well supported, there is an old specimen, the species has not been reported from the Biligirirangan Hills. The breeding season appears to be March to May but nests have been seen in July and September, the nest is a ball of coarse grass blades with an entrance on the side and placed low in a tussock of long grass. The eggs are white with spot and blotches of brownish red, the usual clutch is about 2 or 3 eggs. Photos on the Internet Bird Collection
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Nilgiri pipit
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The Nilgiri pipit is a distinctive species of pipit that is endemic to the high altitude hills of southern India. Richer brown in colour than other pipits in the region, it is distinctive in having the streaking on the breast continuing along the flanks. It is non-migratory and has a tendency to fly into low trees when disturbed and is related to the tree pipits, Anthus hodgsoni. The Nilgiri pipit is about 12. 6–14 centimetres long and is coloured, has dark lores. The flanks, breast and sides of neck are brighter buff, the crown is heavily streaked in black as are the upperparts. The outer tail feathers are buff coloured and there is no white in the plumage. The streaking on the breast is fine and it extends along the flanks, the first four primaries of the wing are almost equal and the fifth is about 1–2 mm shorter. The primaries from the second to the fifth are emarginate, the tail feathers are pointed and the second outer feather has a tapering triangle along the shaft and the third with a small triangle at the tip. Abnormal albino individuals have been reported, the species was first described by Jerdon in 1840 under the name of Anthus rufescens, a name already used by Temminck for a different species. Blyth referred to it under the name of Anthus montanus and these are however invalid names and it was redescribed under replacement name of A. nilghiriensis by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1885. The Nilgiri pipit is closely related to the pipits and is a sister to the clade containing Anthus trivialis. Museum specimens exist from the Palani ranges but habitat changes may have led to its reduction or extirpation as the species was not found in surveys, Nilgiri pipits are found singly or in pairs. When disturbed they fly into a low bush or tree. They breed in summer from April to July, the nest is a cup of grass in short grass. The clutch consists of two to three grey brown speckled eggs and they feed on grass seeds and insects with invertebrates becoming more important during the breeding season. The world population is estimated to be about 4000 birds based on a density estimate of about 0.1 birds per hectare in suitable habitat, the grassland habitat is threatened by wattle plantations and the colonization of grasslands by species such as broom in the Nilgiris and by fire
24.
Appias lalage
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Appias lalage, the spot puffin, is a small butterfly of the family Pieridae, that is, the yellows and whites, which is found in India, Indochina and Hainan. List of butterflies of India List of butterflies of India Pieridae Evans, mumbai, India, Bombay Natural History Society. Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India - A Biodiversity Assessment of a Threatened Mountain System, bangalore, India, Centre for Ecological Sciences. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, gay, Thomas, Kehimkar, Isaac David, Punetha, Jagdish Chandra. Bombay, India, World Wide Fund for Nature-India by Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, Bombay Natural History Society. Our Common Butterflies page by Dr. PR Arun
25.
Travancore tortoise
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The Travancore tortoise is a large forest tortoise growing up to 330 millimetres in length. It primarily feeds on grasses and herbs and it also feeds on molluscs, insects, animal carcass, fungi and fruits. It occurs in forests at 450–850 m elevation. Males combat by ramming their shell during their breeding season between November and March and it makes a shallow nest in the ground and lay 1-5 eggs. Hatchlings are 55–60 mm in size, the tortoise is hunted and it is threatened due to forest fires, habitat destruction and fragmentation. Identification, a scute right behind the head is absent and the second scute along the column is located at the highest point of the shell. Status, IUCN Red list - Vulnerable, Indian Wildlife Act, distribution, restricted to the Western Ghats, in the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Vernacular names, Tamil, Periya amai, Kal amai, kannada, Betta aame, Gudde aame, Kadu aame
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Malabar gliding frog
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The Malabar gliding frog or Malabar flying frog is a Rhacophorid tree frog species found in the Western Ghats of India. The term gliding frog refers to its ability to break its fall by stretching the webbing between its toes when making leaps down from the treetops and it can make gliding jumps of 9–12 m, a maximum of about 115 times its length. This frog has a length of about 10 cm, making it one of the largest moss frogs. In preserved specimens, the back turns purplish blue, the belly is more coarsely granulated – particularly under the thighs – and pale yellow. There are skin fringes between and along the limbs, and a triangular skin extension at the heel. The webbing between fingers and toes is large and orange-red, the vomerine teeth are arranged in two straight or slightly oblique series touching the inner front edge of the choanae. The snout is rounded but not very wide, about as long as the diameter of the orbit, the canthus rostralis is bluntly-angled, the nostrils are located nearer to the end of the snout than to the eyes. The interorbital space is broader than the upper eyelid, the tympanum measures about 60–70% of the diameter of the eye. The disks of fingers and toes are large, about the size of the tympanum, the tibio-tarsal articulation reaches at least to the eye, at most top the nostril. Like many moss frogs, they build nests above small pools of water. Dutta, S. Vasudevan, K. Srinivasulu, C, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature, bordoloi, Sabitry, Bortamuli, Tutul and Ohler, Annemarie, Systematics of the genus Rhacophorus, identity of red-webbed forms and description of a new species from Assam. PDF abstract and first page Boulenger, George Albert,56, in, Fauna of British India – Reptilia and Batrachia,473. DjVu fulltext Kadadevaru, Girish G. and Kanamadi, Ravishankar D, courtship and nesting behaviour of the Malabar gliding frog, Rhacophorus malabaricus. 79, 377–380 PDF fulltext http, //coorg. mampam. com/malabaricus. html http, //www. new-ecopsychology. org/en/amphibia/index-ar. htm#Miraculous_Legs
27.
Malabar tree toad
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The Malabar tree toad or warty Asian tree toad is a species of toad found in forests along the Western Ghats of India south of Goa. It is small and is found in wet tree hollows or leaf bases containing water and this is a slender frog with a moderate-sized head. The snout is pointed and the lores are vertical, the distance between the eyes is as wide as the upper eyelid width. The ear opening is marked and is about a third of the diameter of the eye. The fingers are moderate, depressed, and webbed at the base, the first finger is half the length of the second. The toes are almost entirely webbed and the tips of fingers and toes are dilated into broad, truncated disks being smaller on the toes. The tubercle near the joint is small, with two small, flat metatarsal tubercles, when the hind limb is held straight beside the body, the metatarsal tubercles reach to between the eye and tip of the snout. Skin of upper parts is rough, the largest tubercles being arranged along each side of the back. In color, it is brownish-grey above, with the darker, a white band runs from below the eye to the axil, another white, longitudinal band is in the lumbar region. The male has a vocal sac. Adults of this toad grow to 3. 6-3.85 cm in length, the call is described as a shirrrr shirr shirr shirr, with a dominant frequency of 3780 Hz, each call lasting 3 to 7 sec with three to 10 pulses. Its length from snout to vent is 1.4 in and this species is known to live in tree habitats, but adults are found among leaf litter, climbing into trees at night. They are found in the forest of the Western Ghats at elevations of 250 m to over 1000 m, often beside streams
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Nilgiri tahr
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It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu. Despite its local name, it is closely related to the sheep of the Ovis genus than the ibex. In the Tamil language it is called varaiaadu, the term being composed of two Tamil words, wurrai a precipice, and aadu, a goat. In Malayalam it is pronounced as Varayaadu, the ancient word in classical Tamil was varudai. It was previously named Capra warryato by John Edward Gray, until 2005, it was placed with the Himalayan tahr and the Arabian tahr in the genus Hemitragus. However, it has recently transferred to a new genus Nilgiritragus because it is genetically more similar to members of the genus Ovis than to other tahrs. The Nilgiri tahr is a goat with short, coarse fur. Males are larger than females and of color when mature. Both sexes have curved horns, reaching up to 40 centimetres for males and 30 centimetres for females, adult males weigh 80 to 100 kilograms and stand about 100 centimetres tall at the shoulder. Adult males develop a grey area on their backs and are thus called saddlebacks. The Nilgiri tahr inhabits the montane grassland habitat of the South Western Ghats montane rain forests ecoregion. At elevations from 1,200 to 2,600 metres and these grassland habitats are surrounded by dense forests at the lower elevations. The Nilgiri tahrs formerly ranged over these grasslands in large herds, before, as few as 100 Nilgiri tahrs were left in the wild by the early 20th century. Since that time their numbers have increased somewhat, in a study of the Nilgiri tahr population in Western Ghats. Their range extends over 400 kilometres from north to south, and this is the highest ever count recorded in the national park, with the first census in 1996 finding only 640 tahrs. Journal of Zoology, London,214, 269-284 ARKive - images and movies of the Nilgiri tahr http, //nilgiritahrinfo. info/
29.
Meenmutty Falls, Thiruvananthapuram
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Meenmutty Falls is a waterfall located 45 kilometres from Trivandrum city in Thiruvananthapuram District in the Indian state of Kerala, India. The falls are located near the Neyyar Reservoir area, no transportation is available so visitors have to trek 2km through the dense forests to reach the falls. It is very beautiful fall with beautiful surroundings, the Kombaikani Falls lie 2 kilometres upstream of the Meenmutti Falls on the trek path to Agastyakoodam
30.
Forest
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A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as density, tree height, land use, legal standing. According to the widely used Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares or approximately 30 percent of the land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe, Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earths biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earths plant biomass. Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly different ecozones, boreal forests near the poles, tropical forests near the equator, higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways, Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect peoples health, human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. Although forest is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, there are three broad categories of forest definitions in use, administrative, land use, and land cover. Land use definitions are based upon the purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may be defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber, land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold and these thresholds are typically the number of trees per area, the area of ground under the tree canopy or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks. Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees, areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity. Under land use definitions, there is variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, forests require high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, excluding savannas. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, the term was not endemic to Romance languages, and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure, uses of the word forest in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a term denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility. These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all, however, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word forest eventually came to mean wooded land more generally
31.
Backpacking (wilderness)
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Backpacking is the outdoor recreation of carrying gear on ones back, while hiking for more than a day. It is often but not always an extended journey, and may or may not involve camping outdoors, in North America tenting is common, where simple shelters and mountain huts found widely in Europe are rare. In New Zealand, tramping is an equivalent term though overnight huts are frequently used, hill walking is the equivalent in Britain, though backpackers make use of all kinds of accommodation, in addition to camping. Backpackers use simple huts in South Africa, similar terms used in other countries are trekking and bushwalking. Backpacking as a method of travel is a different activity, which mainly utilizes public transport during a journey which can last months, backpacking is an outdoor recreation where gear is carried in a backpack. This can include food, water, bedding, shelter, clothing, stove, backpacking trips consist of at least one night and can last for weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned resupply points or drops. A skilled backpacker minimizes their impact on the environment, including staying on established trails, not disturbing vegetation, the Leave No Trace movement ethos is direct, Leave nothing but footprints. Backpackers must always be prepared for difficulties, whether mishaps are experienced or not, the remoteness of backpacking locations can exacerbate any mishap. Survival gear and the skills to use it are paramount, backpacking camps are usually more spartan than campsites where gear is transported by car or boat. In areas with heavy traffic, a hike-in campsite might have a fire ring, an outhouse. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of free of underbrush. In remote wilderness areas hikers must choose their own site, established camps are rare and the ethos is to leave no trace when gone. In some regions, varying forms of accommodation exist, from simple log lean-tos to staffed facilities offering escalating degrees of service, beds, meals, and even drinks may be had at Alpine huts scattered among well-traveled European mountains. In the more parts of Great Britain, especially Scotland. On the French system of long distance trails, Grande Randonnées, backpackers can stay in gîtes detapes, there are some simple shelters and occasional mountain hut also provided in North America, including on the Appalachian trail. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in the Yosemite National Park, long distance backpacking trails with huts also exist in South Africa, including the 100 km plus Amatola Trail, in the Eastern Cape Province. Backpacking is also popular in the Himalayas, where porters and pack animals are often used, backpacking gear begins with a suitable backpack, proper both in size and fit. Next is clothing and footwear appropriate for expected conditions, third is an adequate amount and type of food
32.
Thiruvananthapuram Central railway station
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Thiruvananthapuram Central is the main Railway station in the city of Thiruvananthapuram in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the largest railway station in Kerala in terms of passenger movement and it is one of profitable stations under Southern Railway. The building of the station is one of the landmarks of Thiruvananthapuram. The railway station is located opposite to Central Bus Station Thiruvananthapuram at Thampanoor, trains from here connect the city of Thiruvananthapuram to major cities of India. This station is noted for a whole range of amenities available within the premises. The station has book-shops, restaurants, accommodation and Internet browsing centers, a second satellite station was opened in 2005 at Kochuveli called the Kochuveli Railway Station, near the International Airport. A second terminal was opened in 2004 to handle passenger traffic, to reduce traffic, the Central Railway Station has 18 railway tracks. Number of long trains are starts/ends in Thiruvananthapuram Central. The Madras-Quilon line was extended to the capital of the Princely State of Travancore, the line then terminated at Chakka, which was the trading centre of Thiruvananthapuram then. M. E. Watts, Dewan of the erstwhile Travancore, the terminus was shifted to current location Thiruvananthapuram Central Thampanoor on 1931. The Thiruvananthapuram Central station building was built during the reign of Sethu Lakshmi Bayi, the Maharani of Travancore, no bricks were used for the construction of this station building, it was built completely with rock masonry. This station has 5 platforms to handle long and short distance trains, the Thiruvananthapuram railway station has two entrances. Kochuveli satellite terminal has started functioning with trains originating from here, Thiruvananthapuram Central is well equipped with modern security gadgets, and is the first station in the state to install video surveillance. The station handles over 300,000 passengers daily and it was announced in railway budget to convert Thiruvananthapuram Central railway station into world-class standards. The foundation stone for expansion and modernisation of station was laid by Former Union Minister for Railways, tenders have been invited for carrying out feasibility studies for this proposed project. More than ₹1,000 million is needed for first phase of this project, a new complex of railway station will be built with a built-up area of 1,000,000 square feet. All modern facilities including an office and commercial complex is planned here, the proposal to set up a passenger terminal at Nemom is announced in rail budget and yet to begin work. It is estimated only a consortium would be able to take up expansion project of Thiruvananthapuram Central
33.
Trivandrum International Airport
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Trivandrum International Airport is in Thiruvananthapuram and is the first airport in the state of Kerala, India. It was the international airport of India declared by then Prime Minister of India. The airport is a base for Air India Express operations and is a focus city for Air India, Jet Airways, SpiceJet. There are flights to Middle eastern and South eastern countries from here, Trivandrum International Airport operates two terminals. Terminal 1 handles domestic operations and Terminal 2 handles all international flight operations as well as all domestic flights by Air India. In addition to operations, Trivandrum Airport caters to the Indian Air Force. IAF have an apron to handle all their operations. Trivandrum airport also caters to the Rajiv Gandhi Academy for Aviation Technology which carries out training activities. The airport was established in 1932 as part of the Royal Flying Club under the initiative of Colonel Goda Varma Raja, Consort Prince of HRH Queen Karthika Thirunal of Travancore Kingdom. Col G. V Raja, a pilot, felt the need an airport to accommodate Travancore in the aviation map of India. A detailed report was made and presented to the King by Consort Prince in this regard, in 1935, on royal patronage of H. H Maharaja Chithira Thirunal, Tata Airlines made its maiden flight to the airport using DH. The first flight took off on 1 November 1935, carrying mails of Royal Anchal to Bombay, in 1938, the Royal Government of Travancore acquired a Dakota as Maharajas private aircraft and placed the first squadron of Royal Indian Air Force for protection of state from aerial attacks. After Independence, the airstrip was used for flights with construction of a domestic terminal. International operations were initiated by Air India to cities in the Arabian Peninsula in the late 1970s using Boeing 707, by early 80s, the then Indian Airlines started service to Colombo, followed by service to Male. Later, SriLankan Airlines and Air Maldives, the cargo warehouse is on the airport premises. It has a capacity to import 21000 MT and export 27000 MT per annum, in 2010-11, the airport achieved MT of import cargo and MT of export cargo. Major cargo jets such as Emirates has begun flights to Trivandrum International Airport, the air traffic control tower is 18 m tall. There are plans to build a new 43m tall ATC tower for Trivandrum airport near the new international terminal. The airport has an instrument landing system using distance measuring equipment, the Instrument Landing System allows aircraft landings in reduced visibility
34.
Anamudi
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Anamudi or Anai Mudi or ആനമുടി is a mountain located in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and South India, at an elevation of 2,695 metres, the name Anamudi literally translates to elephants forehead, a reference to the resemblance of the mountain to an elephants head. The first recorded ascent of Anamudi was by General Douglas Hamilton of the Madras Army on May 4,1862, Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India, having an elevation of 2,695 metres. Anamudi is also the highest point in South India, the peak is the highest point of the Periyar river basin. The peak is not exceptionally dramatic in term of steepness or local relief and is a Fault-block mountain and it is located in the southern region of Eravikulam National Park at the junction of the Cardamom Hills, the Anaimalai Hills and the Palani Hills. The nearest town is Munnar,13 kilometres, the easiest route to the summit of Anamudi is a technically easy hike on grass slopes, starting from a rolling hill plateau with a base elevation of about 2,000 metres. The north and south slopes are gentle, while the east and west slopes are steeper, Anamudi and the Eravikulam National Park surrounding it is home to the largest surviving population of the Nilgiri tahr. Asian elephants, gaur, Bengal tigers, and the Nilgiri marten are some of the species of animals found here, the Anamudi peak area is also habitat of a unique frog Raorchestes resplendens. This newly discovered species is located in the Eravikulam National Park and is restricted to less than three km2 on the summit of Anamudi, the summit of the Anamudi is vegetated with patches of stunted Arundinaria densifolia and Gaultheria fragrantissima, Anaphalis sp. Impatiens and some species of Eriocaulon, Eravikulam National Park Munnar Pallivasal Hunter, William Wilson, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, BiblioBazaar, LLC, ISBN 1-110-35940-3. Hunter, William Wilson, James Sutherland Cotton, Richard Burn, William Stevenson Meyer, archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Beautiful natural sound of flowing water on Anamudi slope near peak
35.
Cardamom Hills
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Not to be confused with Cardamom Mountains in Cambodia. The Cardamom Hills are hills of southern India and part of the southern Western Ghats located in southeast Kerala and their name comes from the cardamom spice grown in much of the hills cool elevation, which also supports pepper and coffee. The Western Ghats, Periyar Sub-Cluster including the Cardamom Hills, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site, the Cardamom Hills central point is about 9°52′N 77°09′E. They cover about 2,800 km2 of mountainous terrain with deep valleys and it includes Idukki Dam and Mullaperiyar Dam. They conjoin the Anaimalai Hills to the northwest, the Palni Hills to the northeast, the crest of the hills form the boundary between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Anamudi in Eravikulam National Park, is the highest peak in western ghats, the hills experience average daily temperatures of 15 °C in winter to 31 °C in summer. The annual rainfall of 2,000 mm to 3,000 mm in Periyar decreases to less than 1,500 mm in the east in Srivilliputtur Wildlife Sanctuary, on the western side, two-thirds of the precipitation is received during the southwest monsoon from June to September. The areas also receive rainfall from the northeast monsoon and from pre-monsoon showers and these hills are made up largely of several contiguous protected areas intended to restrict human access, protect specific endangered species and preserve some of the still undeveloped forest biomes. The central part of the hills comprise the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary covering an area of 777 km2, the 350 km2 core zone of the sanctuary is the Periyar National Park and Tiger Reserve. Periyar is an ecotourism destination. To the south of the Periyar Tiger Reserve are the forests of the Ranni, Konni. The Cardamom Hill Reserve is within the Cardamom Hills Idukki District and it comprises about 15,721 acres as per 1897 royal proclamation of the Kingdom of Travancore. But the extent of land in accordance with the boundaries of the notification is about 334 Sq miles. It is bordered by the Tamil Nadu border to the east, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary on the south, the Periyar River on the west, now it is situated in the Idukki District of Kerala. According to the Chief Secretary of the Government of Kerala, Cardamom Hill land is Government land under the control of the Revenue Department for more than a century. The total extent of the Cardamom Hill area was 1071.9746 km2 of which 568.6 km2 was assigned under various Land Assignment Rules. The balance of 503.38 km2 is leased to farmers for cardamom cultivation The CHR accounts for about 70 percent of the production of India. CHR contains The Cardamom Research Station, situated in the Pampadumpara village of Udumbanchola taluk and it is located on the eastern side of Kumily-Munnar road
36.
Bhadra River
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The Bhadra River is a river in Karnataka state in southern India. It flows through the towns of Kudremukh, Kalasa, Horanadu, Balehonnur, Balehole, a dam is built across the river near Lakkavalli which forms the Bhadra reservoir. From here the river continues its journey through the city of Bhadravathi, the Bhadra meets the Tunga River at Koodli, a small town near Shivamogga. The combined river continues east as the Tungabhadra, a tributary of the Krishna. Flood Every year in season due to heavy rain in Western Ghats the Bhadra Dam will reach to its peak. Map of Bhadra River Noisy scenes at meeting of Bhadra farmers, officials Jabir bhr Assessing Irrigation Performance of Rice-Based Bhadra Project in India Crocodiles are abundant in the Bhadra river
37.
Bhavani River
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Bhavani is a major river in Kongu Nadu region of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the second longest river in Tamil Nadu and a tributary of the Kaveri River. Bhavani river originates from Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats, enters the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, the Bhavani is a 217-kilometre long perennial river fed mostly by the southwest monsoon and supplemented by the northeast monsoon. Its watershed drains an area of 0.62 million hectares spread over Tamil Nadu, Kerala, the main river courses majorly through Coimbatore district and Erode district in Tamil Nadu. About 90 per cent of the water is used for agriculture irrigation. Twelve major rivulets including West and East Varagar rivers join Bhavani draining the southern Nilgiri slopes, at Mukkali, Bhavani takes an abrupt 120-degree turn towards the northeast and flows for another 25 kilometres through Attappady plateau. It gets reinforced by the Kunda river coming from the north, siruvani river, a perennial stream and the Kodungarapallam river, flowing from the south and southeast respectively join the Bhavani at Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. The river then flows east along the base of Nilgiris and enters the plains near Bathra Kaliamman temple at Mettupalayam after joining with Coonoor river coming from northwest, after the Moyar it is blocked by the Lower Bhavani Dam, feeding Lower Bhavani Project Canal near Sathyamangalam in Erode District. A small barrage across the river was built by Kalingarayan in 1283 AD to feed the 90-kilometre Kalingarayan irrigation canal, the river joins Kaveri at Kooduthurai near Sangameswarar Temple, Bhavani where it is believed that the mystic Sarasvati River also joins the confluence. Bhavanisagar Bhavanisagar dam is located on the Bhavani river in Erode district, Tamil Nadu, the dam is one of the largest earthen dams in the world. The dam is situated some 16 km west of Sathyamangalam and 35 km from Gobichettipalayam, the Lower Bhavani Project was the first major irrigation project initiated in India after independence in 1948. It was completed by 1955 and opened for use in 1956, the dam was constructed at a cost of ₹210 million. The dam is 8 km long and 40 m high, the full reservoir level is 120 ft and the dam has a capacity of 32. 8×10^9 cu ft. The dam has two power stations, one on the east bank canal and the other on the Bhavani river. Each has a capacity of 16 megawatts for a capacity of 32 megawatts. Kodiveri Kodiveri dam is located on the Bhavani River near Gobichettipalayam in Western Tamil Nadu, the dam is situated along the State Highway 15 about 15 km from Gobichettipalayam towards Sathyamangalam. It was constructed by Kongalvan in the year 1125 AD, industrial, municipal and agricultural pollution of the river results in poor water quality and negative impacts on the health of people, plants and animals dependent on the river water
38.
Bhima River
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The Bhima River is a major river in South India. It flows southeast for 861 kilometres through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana states, after the first sixty-five kilometers in a narrow valley through rugged terrain, the banks open up and form a fertile agricultural area which is densely populated. The river is prone to flooding due to heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, in 2005 there was severe flooding in Solapur, Bijapur and Gulbarga districts. The river is referred to as Chandrabhaga River, especially at Pandharpur. The Bhima River flows southeast for a journey of 861 kilometres. It flows through Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary where it enters Khed Taluka and is joined by its tributary. Upstream on the Aria is the Rajgurunagar-Kalmodi Dam impounding the Kalmodi Reservoir, the Chas Kaman Reservoir is impounded by the Chas Kaman Dam, the most upstream dam on the Bhima River proper. The village of Chas is on the left bank some 16 km below the dam, some 5 km along the river below the bridge on the Bhirma at Chas, the Kumandala River enters from the right. From there it is 8 km along the river to the bridge at the town of Rajgurunagar on the left bank. In 18 km further along the river, the Bhima River enters from the right just above the village of Pimpalgaon on the left bank, from there to Siddhegavhan along the river is 10 km. Siddhegavhan is the last village in Khed Taluka on the left, after leaving Khed Taluka, the Bhima forms the boundary between Havali Taluka on the right and Shirur Taluka on the left. From the Bhimas intersection to the Indrayani River, which enters from the right, is 14 km along the river. At the confluence is the town of Tulapur on the bank in Havali Taluka. The Bhima River, the Indrayani River and the Mula-Mutha River are the tributaries of the Bhima that drain western Pune. After the Indrayani, in about 4 km down stream the Dhomal River enters from the right, shortly thereafter the Bhima passes under the SH60 bridge at the town of Koregaon Bhima. From Koregaon going east, downstream 16 km, is the confluence with the Vel River from the left, the Vel River also arises in Ambegaon Taluka, east of the Bhima, and flows through Khed Taluka and into Shirur Taluka before flowing into the Bhima. With Vittalwadi on the left, the side of the river leaves Haveli Taluka. From Vittalwadi the Bhima meanders northwest and 14 km after the Vel River enters from the left, after the Kamania River enters, the river meanders back southeast for 23 km to the confluence with the Mula-Mutha River from the right at the village of Ranjangaon Sandas
39.
Chalakudy River
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Chalakudy River or Chalakudy Puzha is the fourth longest river in Kerala, India. The river flows through Palakkad district, Thrissur District and Ernakulam District of Kerala, the total drainage area of the river is 1704 km². out of this 1404 km² lies in Kerala and the rest 300 km² in Tamil Nadu. The length of the river is 145.5 km, though Chalakudy river in strict geological sense is a tributary of the Periyar river, for all practical purposes it is treated as a separate river by Government and other agencies. Chalakudy River is the one of few rivers of Kerala with relics of riparian vegetation in substantial level. The annual report of the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources Lucknow, the Chalakudy River is known for its diversity, as it contains 98 species of fresh water fishes out of the 152 species known from Kerala. According to a report of the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources in Lucknow, Chalakudy could well be the richest river in fish diversity in India, with thick vegetation on both sides. Among the fish species in the river, the most species rich family are the Cyprinids, followed by Bagrid catfishes, among others, Horabagrus nigricollaris and Sahyadria chalakkudiensis are endemic to the Chalakudy River. The famous waterfalls, Athirappilly Falls and Vazhachal Falls, are situated on this river, the hydro electric projects on Chalakkudy River are Sholayar Hydro Electric Project and Peringalkuttu Hydro Electric Project. For irrigation purposes Thumboormoozhy Dam is constructed across this river and it merges with the Periyar River near Elenthikara, adjacent to Manjali, North Paravur in Ernakulam District and finally Joins Kodungallur Backwaters and Join Arabian sea at Azhekode. The Parambikulam Dam has been built on the Parambikulam River, one of its four tributaries, study of rivers in Kerala Chalakudy River Protection Forum Chalakudy Puzha Samrakshana Samithi Dam Has Kerala Greens Up In Arms, Sep 22,2007, Tehelka Magazine
40.
Godavari River
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The Godavari is the second longest river in India after the river Ganges having its source at Tryambakeshwar, Maharashtra. Measuring up to 312,812 km2, it one of the largest river basins in the Indian subcontinent, with only the Ganges. However, in the past few decades, the river has been abused with relentless construction of barrages and dams. The river delta, supporting 729 persons/km2 – nearly twice the density average for the nation, has been categorized as having substantial risk to greater risk of flooding with rising sea levels. The Godavari originates 80 km from the Arabian Sea in the Western Ghats of central India near Nasik in Maharashtra. The Godavari River has an area of 312,812 km2. The river basin is considered to be divided into 3 sections, Upper, Middle and these put together account for 24. 2% of the total basin area. The rivers annual average water inflows are nearly 110 billion cubic metres, nearly 50% of the water availability is being harnessed. The water allocation from the river among the states are governed by the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal. The river has highest flood flows in India and experienced recorded flood of 3.6 million cusecs in the year 1986, within Nashik District the river assumes a north-easterly course till it flows into the Gangapur Reservoir created by a dam of the same name. The reservoir along with the Kashypi Dam provides potable water to Nashik, about 25 km below Nasik is the confluence of the Godavari and one of its tributaries, the Darna river. The stream occupies, for nine months in the year, a space in a wide and gravelly bed. A few kilometres after its meeting with the Darna, the Godavari swerves to the north-east, till the Banganga, from the north-west, the course of the main stream then tends more decidedly south. At Nandur-Madhmeshwar, the Kadva, a large affluent, brings considerable increase to the waters of the Godavari. The river begins its southeasterly course characteristic of rivers of the Deccan Plateau, the river beyond exits the Niphad Taluka of Nashik and enter the Kopargaon taluka, Ahmednagar District. Within Ahmednagar the river completes its short course, flowing alongside the town of Kopargaon. By virtue of a sub-tributary of Pravara – Mandohol, which originates in Pune District – the basin impinges the Pune District, the river at Paithan has been impounded by the Jayakwadi Dam forming the NathSagar Reservoir. Kalsubai located in Godavari basin, is the highest peak in Maharashtra, Beed and Jalna Beed and Parbhani, Located along here is its merger with Sindphana, an important tributary which drains a considerably large area within Beed
41.
Kabini River
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The Kabani, also called Kabini or Kapila, is a river in southern India. It originates in the Wayanad District of Kerala state by the confluence of the Panamaram River and it flows eastward to join the Kaveri River at Tirumakudalu Narasipura in Karnataka. The Kaveri river then irrigates Tamil Nadu and it is drinking water source before emptying into the Bay of Bengal near kaveripoompattinam. Close to the town of Sargur it forms the huge Kabani Reservoir, the backwaters of the Kabani reservoir are very rich in wildlife especially in summer when the water level recedes to form rich grassy meadows. The Kabani dam is 2,284 ft in length with a gross storage of 19.52 tmcft. The Kabani Dam is situated between villages Bichanahalli and Bidarahalli having distance of 17 km 6 km away from Sargur town in Heggadadevana kote taluk and it is 80 km away from Mysuru and 205 km from Bengaluru, and comprises the south-eastern part of Nagarahole National Park. Situated on the banks of the Kabini River, thet reserve is spread over 55 acres of forestland, steep valleys, once a private hunting lodge of the Maharaja of Mysore, Kabini was a popular shikar hotspot for British Viceroys and Indian royalty. Now it is considered to be one of the best wildlife sanctuaries in Karnataka, famous for its spectacular wildlife, the river originates in the Pakramthalam hills at Kuttiady-Mananthavady road. Makkiyad river and Periya river join it near Korome and Valad respectively, after flowing through Mananthavady town, Panamaram river joins Kabini near Payyampally. One branch of the Panamaram river starts from the Banasura Sagar reservoir near Padinjarethara, after traversing 2 kilometres from the confluence of Panamaram river Kabini forms an island called Kuruva Island, spreading over 520 acres with diverse flora and fauna. Within 20 km it reaches the Kabini reservoir bordering Kerala and Karnataka for some distance, between Kabani reservoir and Kuruva island Kalindi river joins Kabini. Kalindi river originates from Brahmagiri hills which on reaching near Thirunelli Temple the rivulet Papanasini joins it, taraka and Nugu are the two small rivers in Heggadadevana kote taluk that join the Kapila. The Kabani dam is built on the River Kabini in the district of Mysore, the dam is 696 meters in length and was built in 1974. The exact location of the dam is near village Beechanahally, in Taluk Heggadadevanakote, the catchment area of the dam is 2,141.90 km2. It caters to the needs of around 22 villages and 14 hamlets and this dam also provides water to the combined system of Sagaredoddakere and Upper Nugu Dams. There is an arrangement of lifting and transfer of 28.00 TMC of water during the months from the Kabini dam to the other two smaller dams. The dam is spread over an area of 55 hectares covering forests, rivers, lakes and valleys
42.
Kali River (Karnataka)
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The Kali River or Kalinadi is a river flowing through Karwar, Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka state in India. The river rises near Diggi, a village in Uttar Kannada district. The river is the lifeline to some 4 lakh people in the Uttara Kannada district, there are many dams built across this river for the generation of electricity. One of the important dams build across Kali river is the Supa Dam at Ganeshgudi, the river runs 184 kilometers before joining Arabian Sea. The National Highway NH-17 continues on the Kali Bridge built over Kali River, the Kali exits at Supa Dam near Kurandi then flows east towards Dandeli. Passing south of Dandeli, the Kali River flows southeast into the Bommanalli Reservoir, exiting at the dam, after the village of Bommanalli the Kali turns south and at 15°05′21″N 074°43′57″E is joined by the Tattihalla River from the left. At that point the Kali turns west and flows through a gorge which ends at Sathodi Falls below Sykes Point, the Kali is then joined by the Kaneri River from the right at 15°03′52″N 074°36′17″E, and flows south-southwest into Kodasalli Reservoir. Leaving that reservoir, the Kali River flows west and is joined by the Vuki Halla from the right, whence it flows southwest into the Kadra Reservoir, and is joined by the Thana Halla just below the dam at Kadra. From Kadra, the Kali flows west thrrough marshland to join the Arabian Sea near the town of Karwar, the river flows entirely through the district of Uttara Kannada. Untreated effluents released directly into the river by industrial units and illegal mining in the Supa Dam area resulted in serious disturbances to the rivers ecology. The government strategy for controlling the pollution from illegal mining has produced a cleaner river. The releases from a papermill have drawn crocodiles to the Anshi Dandeli Tiger Reserve, chemical and petroleum companies near its estuary have been leaking toxic wastes, including mercury, into the Kali River for decades. Real TVs reality show, Sarkaar Ki Duniya was shot at Ambe Joog, List of dams and reservoirs in India List of rivers of India Karwar Sadashivgad A documentary on the river by Amoghavarsha JS Kali Nadi Kali river
43.
Kallayi (river)
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Kallayi is one of the rivers in Kerala, India. It originates in Cherikkulathur in the Western Ghats, at an altitude of 45 metres and is 40 km long and it is linked to the Chaliyar River by a man-made canal on the south side of the small timber village of Kallayi lying on its banks. The Kallayi was known for its businesses, but now many of these have been closed down. Its basin is located in the Kozhikode District
44.
Kaveri
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The Kaveri is a large Indian river. Rising in southwestern Karnataka, it flows southeast some 800 kilometres to enter the Bay of Bengal, in Mandya district it forms the island of Shivanasamudra, on either side of which are the scenic Shivanasamudra Falls that descend about 100 metres. The river is the source for an irrigation system and for hydroelectric power. The river has supported irrigated agriculture for centuries and served as the lifeblood of the ancient kingdoms, after the river leaves the Kodagu hills and flows onto the Deccan plateau, it forms two islands in mandya districts Srirangapatna and Shivanasamudra. First comes the Srirangapatna which forms the sangam and then comes Shivanasamudra, at Shivanasamudra the river drops 98 metres, forming the famous Shivanasamudra Falls known separately as Gagana Chukki and Bhara Chukki. Asias first hydroelectric plant was on the falls and supplied power to the city of Bangalore. In its course through Karnataka, the channel is interrupted by 12 anekattu for the purpose of irrigation, three kilometers away from Srirangapatna, the Kaveri is the basis for the Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary. Near Srirangapatna is also an aqueduct, the Bangara Doddi Nala and it is said to be the only aqueduct where the water from a river, dammed upstream, is carried by the aqueduct over the very same river few miles downstream. The river enters Tamil Nadu through Dharmapuri district leading to the plains where it meanders. It drops into the Hogenakkal Falls just before it arrives in the town of Hogenakkal in Tamil Nadu, the three minor tributaries, Palar, Chennar and Thoppar enter into the Kaveri on her course, above Stanley Reservoir in Mettur, where the dam has been constructed. It then flows further through the length of Erode district where the river Bhavani, running through the breadth of the district, merges with it. The confluence of the rivers Kaveri, Bhavani and Akash Ganga is at the place of Bhavani, Tamil Nadu Kooduthurai or Tiriveni Sangamam. While passing through Erode, two tributaries merge. Thirumani Mutharu joins it in a village called Kududurai in Namakkal District, noyyal and Amaravathi join it in Karur district before it reaches Tiruchirapalli district. Here the river becomes wide, with a bed. The northern branch of the river is called the Kollidam while the southern branch retains the name Kaveri and these two rivers join again and form the Srirangam island that is a part of the city of Tiruchirapalli. The fourth oldest functional damGrand Anicut or Kallanai was present at this place, from Thanjavur, the river splits and goes to few places in the Delta kaveri. It was built as far back as 1,800 years ago or even more, on both sides of the river are found walls spreading to a distance of 330 metres
