1.
Bishop of Rome
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
Bishop of Rome
Bishop of Rome
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Bishop of
Rome
Bishop of Rome
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Saint Peter
Bishop of Rome
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
2.
Pope Gregory XII
–
Pope Gregory XII, born Angelo Corraro, Corario, or Correr, was Pope from 30 November 1406 to 4 July 1415 when he was forced to resign to end the Western Schism. On 1 December 1390 he was made Titular Patriarch of Constantinople, on 12 June 1405 he was created cardinal and the Cardinal-Priest of San Marco by Pope Innocent VII. He was Apostolic Administrator of Constantinople from 30 November 1406 to 23 October 1409 and he became Supreme Pontiff on 30 November 1406, taking the name Gregory XII. The two pontiffs opened wary negotiations to meet on neutral turf at Savona in Liguria, but soon began to waver in their resolve, the cardinals of Gregory XII openly showed their dissatisfaction at this manoeuvring and gave signs of their intention to abandon him. On 4 May 1408, Gregory XII convened his cardinals at Lucca, consequently, they summoned the council to Pisa and invited both pontiffs to be present. Neither Gregory XII nor Benedict XIII appeared, meanwhile, Gregory XII stayed with his loyal and powerful protector, the condottiero Carlo I Malatesta, who had come to Pisa in person during the process of the council to support Gregory XII. At the fifteenth session,5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa deposed the two pontiffs as schismatical, heretical, perjured, and scandalous, they elected Alexander V later that month. Gregory XII, who had created ten more cardinals, had convoked a rival council at Cividale del Friuli, near Aquileia. Gregory XIIs cardinals pronounced Benedict XIII and Alexander V schismatics, perjurers, and devastators of the Church, the Council of Constance finally resolved the situation. Gregory XII appointed Carlo Malatesta and Cardinal Giovanni Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies, the cardinal then convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts, thus preserving the formulas of Papal supremacy. Thereupon on 4 July 1415, Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the Pope, the Council then set aside Antipope John XXIII, the successor of Alexander V. After the former follower of Benedict XIII appeared, the council declared him deposed, a new Roman pontiff, Pope Martin V, was not elected before Gregory XIIs death. Therefore, the Papal seat was vacant for two years, the rest of Gregory XIIs life was spent in peaceful obscurity in Ancona. He was the last pope to resign until Benedict XVI did so on 28 February 2013, Papal resignation This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ott, Michael
Pope Gregory XII
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Pope Gregory XII
3.
Antipope Benedict XIII
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Benedict XIII, born Pedro Martínez de Luna y Pérez de Gotor, known as el Papa Luna in Spanish, was an Aragonese nobleman and Avignon Pope during the Western Schism. He is considered by the Catholic Church to be an antipope, Pedro Martínez de Luna was born at Illueca, Kingdom of Aragon in 1328. He belonged to the de Luna family, who were part of the Aragonese nobility and he studied law at the University of Montpellier, where he obtained his doctorate and later taught Canon law. In 1377 Pedro de Luna and the other returned to Rome with Pope Gregory. After Gregorys death on 27 March 1378, the people of Rome feared that the cardinals would elect a French Pope, consequently, they rioted and laid siege to the cardinals, insisting on an Italian Pope. The conclave duly elected Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, as Urban VI on 9 April, some of them reconvened at Fondi in September 1378, declared the earlier election invalid and elected Robert of Geneva as their new Pope, initiating the Western Schism. Robert assumed the name Clement VII and moved back to Avignon, Clement VII sent him as legate to Spain for the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal, in order to win them over to the obedience of the Avignon pope. Owing to his relations, his influence in the Province of Aragon was very great. In 1393 Clement VII appointed him legate to France, Brabant, Flanders, Scotland, England, as such he stayed principally in Paris, but he did not confine his activities to those countries that belonged to the Avignon obedience. Following Clements death on 16 September 1394, the cardinals met at Avignon, the conclave consisted of 11 French cardinals, eight Italians, four Spaniards, and one from Savoy, all proclaiming the ardent wish to reunite the church. On the death of Urban VI in 1389 the Roman College of Cardinals had chosen Boniface IX, at the start of his term of office, de Luna was recognised as Pope by France, Scotland, Sicily, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. In 1396 Benedict sent Sanchez Muñoz, one of the most loyal members of the Avignon curia, in 1398 the Kingdom of France withdrew its recognition of the Avignon papacy. Benedict was abandoned by 17 of his cardinals, with five remaining faithful to him. Benedicts rationale for continuing the rivalry lay in the fact that he was the last living cardinal created by Gregory XI, the last undoubted Supreme Pontiff. As the only unquestioned cardinal, Benedict argued, he was, by right and by canon law, following the Council of Constance Benedicts logic was completely disregarded. When these talks ended in stalemate in 1408, the French king, Charles VI, Charles helped to organise the Council of Pisa in 1409. This council was supposed to arrange for both Gregory and Benedict to resign, so that a new universally recognised Pope could be elected, to oppose this, Benedict convoked the Council of Perpignan but with little success. The Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, then successfully petitioned Benedict to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls
Antipope Benedict XIII
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Antipope Benedict XIII
Antipope Benedict XIII
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The consecration of Benedict XIII
4.
Antipope John XXIII
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Baldassarre Cossa was Pisan antipope John XXIII during the Western Schism. Baldassarre Cossa was born on the island of Procida or in the Kingdom of Naples to the family of Giovanni Cossa, initially he followed a military career, taking part in the Angevin-Neapolitan war. His two brothers were sentenced to death for piracy by Ladislaus of Naples and he studied law at the University of Bologna and obtained doctorates in both civil and canon law. Probably at the prompting of his family, in 1392 he entered the service of Pope Boniface IX, first working in Bologna, in 1386 he is listed as canon of the cathedral of Bologna. In 1396, he became archdeacon in Bologna and he became Cardinal deacon of Saint Eustachius in 1402 and Papal legate in Romagna in 1403. Johann Peter Kirsch describes Cossa as utterly worldly-minded, ambitious, crafty, unscrupulous, and immoral, at this time Cossa also had some links with local robber bands, which were often used to intimidate his rivals and attack carriages. These connections added to his influence and power in the region, in company with those cardinals who had been following Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, they convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became a leading figure. The aim of the council was to end the schism, to end they deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected a new pope Alexander V in 1409. Gregory and Benedict ignored this decision, however, so there were now three simultaneous claimants to the papacy. Alexander V died soon after, and on 25 May 1410 Cossa was consecrated pope and he had become an ordained priest only one day earlier. John XXIII made the Medici Bank the bank of the papacy, contributing considerably to the familys wealth, the main enemy of John was Ladislaus of Naples, who protected Gregory XII in Rome. Following his election as pope, John spent a year in Bologna, an initial victory proved short-lived and Ladislaus retook Rome in May 1413, forcing John to flee to Florence. In Florence he met Sigismund, King of the Romans, Sigismund wanted to end the schism and urged John to call a general council. John did so with hesitation, at first trying to have the council held in Italy, the Council of Constance was convened on 30 October 1413. During the third session, rival Pope Gregory XII authorized the council as well, the council resolved that all three popes should abdicate and a new pope be elected. In March, John escaped from Constance disguised as a postman, there was a huge outcry in Constance when it was discovered that John had fled, and Sigismund was furious about this setback to his plans for ending the Schism. The King of the Romans issued orders to all the powers on the Upper Rhine and in Swabia stating that he had declared Frederick to be an outlaw and that his lands and possessions were forfeit. In due course this led to a deal of political upheaval and many Austrian losses in the region
Antipope John XXIII
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Antipope John XXIII
Antipope John XXIII
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Tomb of Antipope John XXIII.
5.
Pope Eugene IV
–
Pope Eugene IV, born Gabriele Condulmer, was Pope from 3 March 1431 to his death in 1447. He is the last pope to take the name Eugene upon his election, Condulmer was born in Venice to a rich merchant family. He entered a community of Canons Regular of San Giorgio in Alga in his native city, at the age of twenty-four he was appointed by his maternal uncle, Pope Gregory XII, as Bishop of Siena. In Siena, the political leaders objected to a bishop who was not only 24, therefore, he resigned the appointment, becoming instead his uncles papal treasurer, protonotary and Cardinal Priest of the Basilica of San Clemente. Pope Martin V named him Cardinal Priest of the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere and he also served as papal legate at Picenum in the March of Ancona. Condulmer was quickly elected to succeed Martin V in the conclave of 1431. He was crowned as Eugene IV at St. Peters Basilica on 11 March 1431 and he is described as tall, thin, with a winning countenance, although many of his troubles were owing to his own want of tact, which alienated parties from him. Upon assuming the chair, Eugene IV took violent measures against the numerous Colonna relatives of his predecessor Martin V. This at once involved him in a serious contest with the house of Colonna that nominally supported the local rights of Rome against the interests of the Papacy. By far the most important feature of Eugene IVs pontificate was the struggle between the Pope and the Council of Basel, the final embodiment of the Conciliar movement. On 23 July 1431, his legate Giuliano Cesarini opened the council, canon Beaupère of Besançon, who had been sent from Basle to Rome, gave the pope an unfavourable and exaggerated account of the temper of the people of Basle and its environs. Distrustful of its purposes and emboldened by the attendance, the Pope issued a bull on 18 December 1431 that dissolved the council. The council resisted this expression of papal prerogative, Eugene IVs action gave some weight to the contention that the Curia was opposed to any authentic measures of reform. The council refused to dissolve, instead renewed the resolutions by which the Council of Constance had declared a council superior to the Pope. A compromise was arranged by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who had been crowned emperor at Rome on 31 May 1433 and this situation led also to establishment of an insurrectionary republic at Rome controlled by the Colonna family. The city was restored to obedience by Giovanni Vitelleschi, the militant Bishop of Recanati, in August 1435 a peace treaty was signed at Ferrara by the various belligerents. The Pope moved to Bologna in April 1436 and his condottieri Francesco Sforza and Vitelleschi in the meantime reconquered much of the Papal States. Traditional Papal enemies such as the Prefetti di Vico were destroyed, meanwhile, the struggle with the council sitting at Basel broke out anew
Pope Eugene IV
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Pope Eugene IV
Pope Eugene IV
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Painting of Pope Eugene rowing down the Tiber escaping Rome
Pope Eugene IV
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Portrait of Pope Eugenius IV, after
Jean Fouquet.
Pope Eugene IV
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Statue of Pope Eugene at the
Florence Cathedral
6.
Jean Franczon Allarmet de Brogny
–
Jean-Allarmet de Brogny was a French Cardinal. He was born in the hamlet of Brogny, now part of Annecy-le-Vieux in Savoy, biographers are not agreed as to his parentage and real name. According to some, he belonged to a peasant family of Brogny, called Allarmet, others say he was descended from the dAlouzier, a noble house in Comtat Venaissin. Despite the friendship and the inducement of Marcossay, Bishop of Geneva, young Allarmet retired to the Chartreuse of Dijon, where his merits soon became widely known. When Robert of Geneva was elected pope by the faction hostile to Pope Urban VI, Allarmet joined him at Avignon, there is no doubt that at that time Cardinal de Brogny, like Peter of Luxemburg and Vincent Ferrer, considered the French obedience as legitimate. However, as early as 1398, he had left Avignon, the elusive tactics of Gregory XII and Benedict XIII were met by him with more than a silent protest. He inaugurated the neutral party and brought about the Council of Pisa which resulted in the election of Pope Alexander V, the new pope confirmed de Brogny in his double dignity of Bishop of Ostia and Chancellor of the Church. In the latter capacity he presided over Alexanders funeral and also over the conclave which elected Antipope John XXIII, John held de Brogny in the highest esteem. The Metropolitan See of Arles having become vacant, he disregarded the candidate elected by the Arlesian chapter and this appointment was intended as a means of recovering the rights of the Church of Arles usurped by the Counts of Provence during the confusion consequent on the schism. The new metropolitan did not disappoint his patron, with the might of right he fought the usurpers till the last claim of the venerable see was secured. Cardinal de Brogny then left his diocese in care of the two Fabri and proceeded on a more delicate mission. Owing to the obstinacy of the contestants, the Council of Pisa had really left the Church with three instead of one. Moreover, John Hus was adding the issue of heresy, for unity, he voted for the deposition of the three popes, two of whom had been his personal friends. De Brogny is variously known in history as Cardinal of Viviers, Cardinal of Ostia, sometimes Cardinal of Arles, soulavie, president of St. Nicholas College, published a Histoire de Jean dAlouzier de Brogny of which only fifty copies were printed. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
Jean Franczon Allarmet de Brogny
–
Jean-Allarment de Brogny.
7.
Pope Innocent VII
–
Pope Innocent VII, born Cosimo de Migliorati, was Pope from 17 October 1404 to his death in 1406. He was pope during the period of the Western Schism while there was the rival Antipope Benedict XIII at Avignon, Migliorati was born to a simple family of Sulmona in the Abruzzi. He distinguished himself by his learning in both civil and Canon Law, which he taught for a time at Perugia and Padua, Pope Boniface IX made him cardinal-priest of S. Croce in Gerusalemme and employed him as legate in several delicate and important missions. When Boniface IX died, there were present in Rome delegates from the rival Pope at Avignon, the Roman cardinals asked these delegates whether their master would abdicate if the cardinals refrained from holding an election. When they were told that Benedict XIII would never abdicate. First, however, they all undertook an oath to leave nothing undone. Migliorati was unanimously chosen – by eight cardinals – on 17 October 1404 and that suited Innocent VII, who had no intention of reaching an agreement with Avignon that would compromise his claims to the Papal States. Thus Innocent VII was laid under embarrassing obligations, from which he freed himself, following his elevation to head of the militia his uncle would also name him the rector of Todi in April 1405. Pope, court and cardinals, with the Migliorati faction, fled towards Viterbo and his protector Ladislaus sent a squad of troops to quell the riots, and by January 1406 the Romans again acknowledged Papal temporal authority, and Innocent VII felt able to return. But Ladislaus, not content with the concessions, desired to extend his authority in Rome. To attain his end he aided the Ghibelline faction in Rome in their attempts in 1405. Only after Ladislaus was excommunicated did he yield to the demands of the Pope, shortly after his accession in 1404 Innocent VII had taken steps to keep his oath by proclaiming a council to resolve the Western Schism. King Charles VI of France, theologians at the University of Paris, such as Pierre dAilly and Jean Gerson, and Rupert III, King of the Germans, were all urging such a meeting. However, the troubles of 1405 furnished him with a pretext for postponing the meeting, claiming that he could not guarantee safe passage to his rival Benedict XIII if he came to the council in Rome. Benedict, however, made it appear that the obstacle to the end of the Schism was the unwillingness of Innocent VII. It is hardly necessary to say that Innocent VII was unreceptive to the proposal that he as well as Benedict XIII should resign in the interests of peace. It is said that Innocent VII planned the restoration of the Roman University and he died so suddenly at Rome on 6 November 1406 that there were rumors of foul play, which have been denied ever since, there is no evidence that he did not die of natural causes. His successor was Pope Gregory XII and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Innocent VII
Pope Innocent VII
–
Pope Innocent VII
8.
Genazzano
–
Genazzano is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, located on a tuff spur at 375 metres above sea level that, starting from the Monti Prenestini, ends on the Sacco River valley. The name originates from its role as vacation resort for the ancient Roman gens Genucia, in the fifth century, during the reign of Pope Sixtus III, the town of Genazzano contributed a large portion of its revenue for the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. In the 11th century AD it was a fief of the Colonna family who, from their Baronal Palace, in the late fifteenth century, it became fief of the Borgia Family. Measuring 40 by 45 centimetres, the image is executed on a layer of porcelain no thicker than an egg shell. Over the centuries, devotions to Our Lady of the Good Counsel grew among saints, more than any other pope, Leo XIII was deeply attached to this devotion. The small Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel was presented by the Hermits of St. Augustine to Pope Leo XIII, on 22 April 1903, that same Pope included the invocation Mater boni consilii in the Litany of Loreto. At the southern end of the village, there is a Nymphaeum built at the dawn of the 16th century, on the southern slopes of Monti Prenestini overlooking the Valle del Sacco is the Genazzano Denominazione di origine controllata region that produces both red and white wines. The DOC red blend is composed of 70–90% Sangiovese, 10–30% Cesanese Comune, the DOC white wine is composed of 50–70% Malvasia di Candia, 10–30% each of Bellone and Bombino bianco and up to 40% of other local white grape varieties
Genazzano
–
The
Our Lady of Good Counsel original fresco from Genazzano.
9.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
10.
Papal States
–
The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
Papal States
–
The
Quirinal Palace, papal residence and home to the civil offices of the Papal States from the
Renaissance until their annexation
Papal States
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Flag in 1870
Papal States
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Antichristus (1521) by
Lucas Cranach the Elder is a woodcut of the Papal States at war during the Renaissance.
Papal States
–
The Breach of Porta Pia, on the right, in 1870.
11.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
12.
Pope
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
Pope
Pope
–
Bishop of
Rome
Pope
–
Saint Peter
Pope
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
13.
Western Schism
–
The Western Schism or Papal Schism was a split within the Catholic Church which lasted from 1378 to 1417. Three men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope, driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism was ended by the Council of Constance. For a time these claims to the papal throne damaged the reputation of the office. This reputation can be attributed to perceptions of predominant French influence and to the papal efforts to extend its powers of patronage. After Pope Gregory XI died in 1378, the Romans rioted to ensure the election of a Roman for pope, on April 8,1378 the cardinals elected a Neapolitan when no viable Roman candidates presented themselves. Urban VI, born Bartolomeo Prignano, the Archbishop of Bari, was elected, urban had been a respected administrator in the papal chancery at Avignon, but as pope he proved suspicious, reformist, and prone to violent outbursts of temper. Robert took the name Clement VII and reestablished a papal court in Avignon, the second election threw the Church into turmoil. The conflicts quickly escalated from a problem to a diplomatic crisis that divided Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula there were the Fernandine Wars and the 1383–1385 Crisis in Portugal, efforts were made to end the Schism through force or diplomacy. The French crown even tried to coerce antipope Benedict XIII, whom it nominally supported, the suggestion that a church council should resolve the Schism, first made in 1378, was not adopted at first because canon law required that a pope call a council. Eventually the cardinals of both factions secured an agreement that Benedict and Pope Gregory XII would meet at Savona and they balked at the last moment, and both groups of cardinals abandoned their preferred leaders. A church council was held at Pisa in 1409 under the auspices of the cardinals to try solving the dispute, at the fifteenth session,5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa attempted to depose both Pope and antipope as schismatical, heretical, perjured, and scandalous. But it then added to the problem by electing a second antipope and he reigned briefly from June 26,1409, to his death in 1410, when he was succeeded by antipope John XXIII, who won some but not universal support. Finally, a council was convened by Pisan antipope John XXIII in 1414 at Constance to resolve the issue and this was endorsed by Pope Gregory XII, Innocent VIIs successor in Rome, thus ensuring the legitimacy of any election. The Council elected Pope Martin V in 1417, essentially ending the schism, nonetheless, the Crown of Aragon did not recognize Pope Martin V and continued to recognize Benedict XIII. Archbishops loyal to Benedict XIII subsequently elected Antipope Benedict XIV and three followers simultaneously elected Antipope Clement VIII, but the Western Schism was by then practically over, Clement VIII resigned in 1429 and apparently recognized Martin V. The line of Roman popes is now recognized as the legitimate line, Pope Pius II decreed that no appeal could be made from pope to council, to avoid any future attempts to undo a papal election by anyone but the elected pope. No such crisis has arisen since the 15th century, and so there has no need to revisit this decision
Western Schism
–
Habemus Papam at the Council of Constance
Western Schism
–
Map showing support for Avignon (red) and Rome (blue) during the Western Schism; this breakdown is accurate until the
Council of Pisa (1409), which created a third line of claimants. Caution: this map is highly inaccurate in some regions and borders, see
Talk page and
here.
Western Schism
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
14.
Colonna family
–
The Colonna family, also known as Sciarrillo or Sciarra, is an Italian noble family. It was powerful in medieval and Renaissance Rome, supplying one Pope and many other Church, the family is notable for its bitter feud with the Orsini family over influence in Rome, until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511. According to tradition, the Colonna are a branch of the Counts of Tusculum — by Peter son of Gregory III, called Peter de Columna from his property the Columna Castle in Colonna, Alban Hills. The first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206 when Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano was made Cardinal Deacon of SS and he served as the Provincial of the Roman province of the Dominican Order and led the provincial chapter of 1248 at Anagni. Colonna was appointed as Archbishop of Messina in 1255, in 1248, after having dedicated her entire life to serving God and the poor, Margherita Colonna died. A member of the Franciscan Order, she was beatified by Pope Pius IX in 1848, at this time a rivalry began with the pro-papal Orsini family, leaders of the Guelph faction. This reinforced the pro-Emperor Ghibelline course that the Colonna family followed throughout the period of conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, in 1297, Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the familys strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina, Jacopo refused, in May, Boniface removed him from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated him and his followers. The Colonna family declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army. By the end of 1298 Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns, the familys lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers, the rest of the family fled Italy. The exiled Colonna allied with the Popes other great enemy, Philip IV of France, in September 1303, Sciarra and Philipps advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a small force into Anagni to arrest of Boniface VIII and bring him to France, where was to stand trial. While the two managed to apprehend the Pope and Sciarra reportedly slapped the pope in the face in the process, the attempt eventually failed after a few days, when locals freed the Pope. However, Boniface VIII died on the 11th October, allowing France to dominate his weaker successors during the Avignon papacy, the family remained at the centre of civic and religious life throughout the late Middle Ages. Cardinal Egidio Colonna died at the court in Avignon in 1314. An Augustinian, he had studied theology in Paris under St. Thomas of Aquinas to become one of the most authoritative thinkers of his time, in the 14th century, the family sponsored the decoration of the Church of San Giovanni, most notably the floor mosaics. In 1328, Louis IV of Germany marched into Italy for his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor. As Pope John XXII was residing in Avignon and had declared that he would not crown Louis, the King decided to be crowned by a member of the Roman aristocracy
Colonna family
–
Princely arms of the family
15.
Prince of Salerno
–
These are the rulers of the Principality of Salerno. When Prince Sicard of Benevento was assassinated by Radelchis in 839, war raged between Radelchis and Siconulf until Emperor Louis II came down and forced a peace in 851, confirming Siconulf as prince of Salerno. The chronology is very confusing from then on until the assassination of Adhemar, Prince Gisulf II surrendered the next year and the principality, the final Lombard state in Italy, fell. Salerno became the capital of Guiscards duchy of Apulia, Calabria, Prince of Salerno was also a title created by Charles I of Naples for his son, later Charles II of Naples. It was regularly used for the heirs of the Kings of Naples, in the fourteenth century, most of the province of Salerno became the territory of the Princes of Sanseverino
Prince of Salerno
–
The Principality of Salerno in Italy around 1000
16.
Venosa
–
Venosa is a town and comune in the province of Potenza, in the southern Italian region of Basilicata, in the Vulture area. It is bounded by the comuni of Barile, Ginestra, Lavello, Maschito, Montemilone, Palazzo San Gervasio, the city was known as Venusia to the Romans, who credited its establishment—as Aphrodisia —to the Homeric hero Diomedes. The town was taken by the Romans after the Third Samnite War in 291 BC, no fewer than 20,000 men were sent there, owing to its military importance. Throughout the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome, and had a contingent of colonists sent in 200 BC to replace its losses in war. In 190 BC the Appian way was extended to the town, some coins of Venusia of this period exist. Horace was born here in 65 BC, the Lombards made it a gastaldate in 570/590. In 842 Venosa was sacked by the Saracens, who were ousted by Emperor Louis II. Next rulers in the 9th century were the Byzantines, who lost control of it after their defeat in 1041 by the Normans, under the latter, Venosa was assigned to Drogo of Hauteville. In 1133 the town was sacked and set on fire by Roger II of Sicily and his later successor Frederick II had a castle built here where a Lombard outpost existed before, which was to house the Treasury of the Kingdom of Sicily. Fredericks son, Manfred of Sicily, was here in 1232. After the latters fall, the Hohenstaufens were replaced by the Angevines, after a series of different feudal lords, Venosa became a possession of the Orsini in 1453. Count Pirro Del Balzo, who had married Donata Orsini, built a new castle, then, under the Aragonese domination, followed the Gesualdo family, amongst their number was the famous prince, musician and murderer Carlo Gesualdo. Venosa took part in the revolt of Masaniello in 1647, the Gesualdos were in turn followed by the Ludovisi and the Caracciolo families. Home to a strong republican tradition, Venosa had a role in the peasant revolts. A true civil war between baronal powers and supporters of the peasants rights broke out in 1849, being suppressed by the Neapolitan troops. The Aragonese castle, built in 1470 by Pirro del Balzo Orsini and it has a square plan with four cylindrical towers. The shining sun, the del Balzo coat of arms, is visible on the western towers and it was turned into a residence by Carlo and Emanuele Gesualdo, who added also an internal loggia, the north-western wing and bastions used as prisons. From 1612 it was the seat of the Accademia dei Rinascenti and it is now home to the National Museum of Venosa, inaugurated in 1991, with ancient Roman and other findings up to the 9th century
Venosa
–
Venosa
Venosa
–
The Aragonese Castle
Venosa
–
The Church of SS. Trinità
Venosa
–
The Archaeological Area of Notarchirico
17.
University of Pavia
–
The University of Pavia is a university located in Pavia, Lombardy, Italy. It was founded in 1361 and has thirteen faculties, an edict issued by the Frankish king of Italy Lothar I mentions the existence of a higher education institution at Pavia as early as AD825. This institution, mainly devoted to ecclesiastical and civil law as well as to divinity studies, was selected as the prime educational centre for northern Italy. In 1858, the University was the scene of student protests against Austrian rule in northern Italy. The authorities responded by ordering the universitys temporary closure, the incidents at Pavia were typical of the wave of nationalist demonstrations all over Italy that immediately preceded the Unification. During the following centuries, through periods of both adversity and prosperity, the fame of the University of Pavia grew over the last years due to the number of applicants. Three Nobel Prize winners also taught in Pavia, physician Camillo Golgi, chemist Giulio Natta, also critical to the universitys reputation was its distinguished record of public education, epitomised by the establishment of 5 private and public colleges. In 1997 the IUSS, was established, a Higher Learning Institution analogous to the Scuola Normale Superiore, the IUSS is the federal body that links the 5 colleges of Pavia which constitute the Pavia University System. Today, the University continues to offer a variety of disciplinary and inter-disciplinary teaching. Research is carried out in departments, institutes, clinics, centres and laboratories, in association with public and private institutions, enterprises. English - One single-cycle masters degree and seven masters degrees are offered in English
University of Pavia
–
Borromeo college
University of Pavia
–
University of Pavia
University of Pavia
–
Ghislieri college
18.
Apostolic protonotary
–
An example is Prince Georg of Bavaria who became in 1926 Protonotary by papal decree. In the Middle Ages the protonotaries were very high papal officials, originally numbering seven, Pope Sixtus V increased their number to twelve. Their importance gradually diminished, and at the time of the French Revolution the office had almost entirely disappeared, priests so honored are addressed as reverend monsignor, may put the post-nominal letters P. A. The name of the prothonotary warbler derives from the similarity between its plumage and the golden robes worn by protonotaries. Chaplain of His Holiness Honorary Prelate Herbermann, Charles, ed. Prothonotary Apostolic and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Prothonotary Apostolic
Apostolic protonotary
–
Saint Peter
19.
Pope Urban VI
–
Urban VI, born Bartolomeo Prignano, was pope from 8 April 1378 to his death in 1389. He is so far the last pope to be elected from outside the College of Cardinals and his reign, which began shortly after the end of the Avignon Papacy, was marked by immense conflict between rival factions as part of the Western Schism. Born in Itri, Prignano was a monk and learned casuist. On 21 March 1364 he was consecrated Archbishop of Acerenza in the Kingdom of Naples and he became Archbishop of Bari in 1377. Prignano had developed a reputation for simplicity and frugality and a head for business when acting Vice-Chancellor and his great faults undid his virtues, Ludwig Pastor summed up his character, He lacked Christian gentleness and charity. He was naturally arbitrary and extremely violent and imprudent, and when he came to deal with the ecclesiastical question of the day, that of reform. On the death of Pope Gregory XI, a Roman mob surrounded the papal conclave to demand a Roman pope, not being a Cardinal, he was not well known. Immediately following the conclave, most of the cardinals fled Rome before the mob could learn that not a Roman, Urban VI did himself no favors, whereas the cardinals had expected him pliant, he was considered arrogant and angry by many of his contemporaries. Nor would he remove again to Avignon, thus alienating King Charles V of France, five months after his election, the French cardinals met at Anagni, inviting Urban, who realized that he would be seized and perhaps slain. In his absence they issued a manifesto of grievances on 9 August that declared his election invalid since they had been cowed by the mob into electing an Italian, letters to the missing Italian cardinals followed on 20 August declaring the papal throne vacant. Then at Fondi, secretly supported by the king of France, Robert, a militant cleric who had succeeded Albornoz as commander of the papal troops, took the name Clement VII, beginning the Western Schism, which divided Catholic Christendom until 1417. Urban was declared excommunicated by the French antipope and was called the Antichrist, while Catherine of Siena, defending Pope Urban, called the cardinals devils in human form. Events overtook the rhetoric, however,26 new cardinals were created in a single day, at the end of May 1379 Clement went to Avignon, where he was more than ever at the mercy of the king of France. Louis I, Duke of Anjou, was granted a phantom kingdom of Adria to be carved out of papal Emilia and Romagna, if he could unseat the pope at Rome. Urbans erstwhile patroness, Queen Joan I of Naples, deserted him in the summer of 1378. Urban now lost sight of the issues and began to commit a series of errors. He turned upon his powerful neighbor Joan, excommunicated her as a partisan of Clement. Joans authority was declared forfeit, and Charles murdered her in 1382, in return for these favours, Charles had to promise to hand over Capua, Caserta, Aversa, Nocera, and Amalfi to the popes nephew, a thoroughly worthless and immoral man
Pope Urban VI
–
Pope Urban VI
Pope Urban VI
–
Urbano VI at Nocera's Castel, from Croniche of
Giovanni Sercambi
20.
Cardinal-Deacon
–
A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
Cardinal-Deacon
–
Saint Peter
Cardinal-Deacon
–
Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of
France
Cardinal-Deacon
–
Cardinal Innitzer,
Archbishop of Vienna and Cardinal-Priest of
San Crisogono
Cardinal-Deacon
–
Choir dress of a cardinal.
21.
San Giorgio al Velabro
–
San Giorgio in Velabro is a church in Rome, Italy, devoted to St. George. The church is located in the ancient Roman Velabrum, near the Arch of Janus, sited near the River Tiber, it is within a complex of Republican-era pagan temples associated with the port of Rome. The ancient Arcus Argentariorum is attached to the side of the churchs façade, San Giorgio in Velabro is the station church for the first Thursday in Lent. The first religious building attested in the place of the current basilica is a diaconia, the current church was built during the 7th century, possibly by Pope Leo II, who dedicated it to Saint Sebastian. A482 inscription in the catacombs of St. Callixtus probably refers of a church in the same zone and its plan is irregular, indeed slightly trapezoidal, as a result of the frequent additions to the building. As can be seen from the photograph, the interior columns are almost randomly arranged having been taken from sundry Roman temples. After a restoration of Pope Gregory IV, the received the addition of the portico. The apsis was decorated with frescoes by Pietro Cavallini in the 13th century, in 1347, the Roman patriot Cola Di Rienzo posted a manifesto announcing the liberation of Rome on the doors of this church. During this process, fragments were found indicating a schola cantorum on the site, the building as we see it today is largely a product of the 1920s restoration. However, five years further restoration followed the explosion of a car bomb, parked close to the facade, the church was established as a Deaconry by 590 A. D. the reign of Pope Gregory I. Federico di San Pietro, Memorie istoriche del sacro tempio, o sia Diaconia di San Giorgio in Velabro, antonio Muñoz, Il restauro della basilica di S. Giorgio al Velabro in Roma. Sketch of S. Giorgio St Georges Church, for a list of churches worldwide of the same name
San Giorgio al Velabro
–
The church of San Giorgio in Velabro.
San Giorgio al Velabro
–
Interior of San Giorgio.
22.
Council of Pisa
–
The Council of Pisa was an unrecognized ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held in 1409 that attempted to end the Western Schism by deposing Benedict XIII and Gregory XII. Instead of ending the Western Schism, the Council elected a third claimant, Alexander V. The two bodies thus united were resolved to seek the union of the Church in spite of everything, on 2 and 5 July 1408, they addressed to the princes and prelates an encyclical letter summoning them to a general council at Pisa on 25 March 1409. The Universities of Paris, Oxford, and Cologne, many prelates, on 15 August, four patriarchs,22 cardinals and 80 bishops assembled in the Cathedral of Pisa under the presidency of Cardinal de Malesset, Bishop of Palestrina. The ambassadors of all the Christian kingdoms completed the assembly, two cardinal deacons, two bishops, and two notaries approached the church doors, opened them, and in a loud voice, in the Latin tongue, called upon the rival pontiffs to appear. Has anyone been appointed to represent them, the delegates returned to their places and requested that Gregory and Benedict be declared guilty of contumacy. In defence of Gregory, a German embassy unfavourable to the project of the assembled cardinals went to Pisa at the instance of Rupert, King of the Romans. John, Archbishop of Riga, brought several objections before the council, carlo Malatesta, Prince of Rimini, adopted a different approach, defending Gregorys cause as a man of letters, an orator, a politician, and a knight, but was still unsuccessful. Benedict refused to attend the council in person, but his delegates arrived very late, the people of Pisa threatened and insulted them. The Chancellor of Aragon was listened to with little favour, while the Archbishop of Tarragona made a declaration of war. Intimidated, the ambassadors, among them Boniface Ferrer, Prior of the Grande Chartreuse, secretly left the city, contrary to common belief, the French element did not prevail either in numbers or influence. There was a unanimity among the 500 members during the month of June, in consequence, they are declared unworthy of the Supreme Pontificate, and are ipso facto deposed from their functions and dignities, and even driven out of the Church. It is forbidden to them henceforward to consider themselves to be Supreme Pontiffs, the Holy See is declared vacant and the faithful are set free from their promise of obedience. This grave sentence was greeted with applause, the Te Deum was sung, and a solemn procession was ordered next day. All the members appended their signatures to the decree, and the schism seemed to be at an end, on 15 June the cardinals met in the archiepiscopal palace of Pisa to elect a new pope. Few obstacles intervened from outside to cause delay, the new pope announced his election to all the sovereigns of Christendom, receiving expressions of sympathy for himself and for the position of the Church. 24 cardinals participated in the election of Antipope Alexander V, including 14 cardinals of the obedience of Rome and 10 of the obedience of Avignon. Pudenziana, Protopriest of the Sacred College of Cardinals Corrado Caraccioli – Cardinal-Priest of S. Crisogono, quattro Coronati, administrator of the see of Bordeaux Giordano Orsini – Cardinal-Priest of SS
Council of Pisa
–
The
Cathedral of Pisa at sunset
Council of Pisa
–
Map showing support for Avignon (red) and Rome (blue) during the
Western Schism; this breakdown is accurate until the Council of Pisa (1409), which created a third line of claimants. Caution: this map is highly inaccurate in some regions and borders, see its
talk page.
23.
Antipope Alexander V
–
Alexander V was antipope during the Western Schism. He reigned from June 26,1409, to his death in 1410 and is regarded by the Roman Catholic Church as an antipope. Alexander V was born in Crete in 1339 of Greek descent and he was born Petros Philargos, but is often known by the Italian version of this name, Pietro di Candia. He soon entered the Franciscan order, and his abilities were such that he was sent to study at the universities of Oxford, while he was in Paris the Western Schism occurred, Philarges supported Pope Urban VI. He settled in Lombardy, where, thanks to the favour of Giangaleazzo Visconti, the Duke of Milan, he became bishop, first of Piacenza, then of Vicenza, then of Novara, and finally Archbishop of Milan. On being created cardinal by Pope Innocent VII in 1405, he devoted all his energies to the reunion of the Church, at the Council of Pisa, the assembled cardinals chose Philarges as the new prelate for a chair they presumed was vacant. He was crowned on June 26,1409, as Alexander V and he also gave out papal favours with a lavish hand, from which the mendicant orders benefitted especially. Alexander V suddenly died while he was with Cardinal Baldassare Cossa at Bologna and his remains were placed in the church of St. Francis at Bologna. A rumour, though now considered false, spread that he had been poisoned by Cossa, the Popes drinking society at Greyfriars, Oxford, is traditionally held to have been founded by Philarges during his time at the university. Because of this Rodrigo Borgia took the name Pope Alexander VI in 1492 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Alexander s. v. Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Alexander V
Antipope Alexander V
–
Antipope Alexander V (1409–1410)
24.
Orvieto
–
Orvieto is a city and comune in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The site of the city is among the most dramatic in Europe, the ancient city, populated since Etruscan times, has usually been associated with Etruscan Velzna, but some modern scholars differ. Orvieto was certainly a centre of Etruscan civilization, the archaeological museum houses some of the Etruscan artifacts that have been recovered in the immediate neighbourhood. Orvieto was annexed by Rome in the third century BC, because of its site on a high, steep bluff of tufa, a volcanic rock, the city was virtually impregnable. It was last conquered by Julius Caesar, by the thirteenth century, three papal palaces had been built. In the 13th century bitter feuds divided the city, which was at the apogée of its wealth but found itself often at odds with the papacy, Pope Urban IV stayed at Orvieto from 1262-64. The city became one of the cultural centers of its time when Thomas Aquinas taught at the studium there. A small university, had its origins in a studium generale that was granted to the city by Pope Gregory IX in 1236. The territory of Orvieto was under papal control long before it was added to the Papal States, it remained a papal possession until 1860. The design has often attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio. The church is striped in white travertine and greenish-black basalt in narrow bands, similar in ways to the cathedral of Siena. In the following decade, cathedral authorities called Sienese architect and sculptor Lorenzo Maitani to stabilize the building and he enlarged the choir and planned a transept with two chapels, spaces that were not finished until long after his death. The Cathedral has five bells, tuned in E flat, which date back to the renaissance, the façade is particularly striking and includes some remarkable sculpture by Lorenzo Maitani. Inside the cathedral, the Chapel of San Brizio is frescoed by Fra Angelico and with Luca Signorellis masterpiece, from the 11th century onward, the popes maintained an aggressive political presence in the papal territory which occupied central Italy. Together with his court, the pope moved from palace to palace in the manner of his European secular counterparts, several central Italian cities hosted the pope and his retinue during the years of wandering, housing them in the bishops palace. Outside Rome, only Orvieto and Viterbo had papal palaces, Pope Adrian IV was the first pope to spend significant time in Orvieto. His successor, Pope Innocent III, was a militant opponent of the Cathar heresy, which had infiltrated the city, in 1227, Pope Gregory IX confirmed the Dominican studium generale in Orvieto, a school of theology, and one of the first in Europe. Pope Urban IV, a Frenchman who was crowned in the Dominican church in Viterbo, in 1263, he began a papal palace, perhaps the first outside Rome, and consecrated the new Dominican church in Orvieto
Orvieto
–
Piazza della Repubblica.
Orvieto
–
Facade of the Orvieto Cathedral.
Orvieto
–
The
Pozzo di S. Patrizio, a well built for the Popes.
Orvieto
–
The monumental
Cathedral of Orvieto.
25.
Perugia
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Perugia is the capital city of both the region of Umbria in central Italy, crossed by the river Tiber, and of the province of Perugia. The city is located about 164 kilometres north of Rome and 148 km south-east of Florence and it covers a high hilltop and part of the valleys around the area. The region of Umbria is bordered by Tuscany, Lazio, the history of Perugia goes back to the Etruscan period, Perugia was one of the main Etruscan cities. Perugia is also a cultural and artistic centre of Italy. The famous painter Pietro Vannucci, nicknamed Perugino, was a native of Città della Pieve and he decorated the local Sala del Cambio with a beautiful series of frescoes, eight of his pictures can also be admired in the National Gallery of Umbria. Perugino was the teacher of Raphael, the great Renaissance artist who produced five paintings in Perugia, another famous painter, Pinturicchio, lived in Perugia. Galeazzo Alessi is the most famous architect from Perugia, the citys symbol is the griffin, which can be seen in the form of plaques and statues on buildings around the city. Perugia was an Umbrian settlement but first appears in history as Perusia, one of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria. Fabius Pictors account, utilized by Livy, of the carried out against the Etruscan League by Fabius Maximus Rullianus in 310 or 309 BC. At that time a thirty-year indutiae was agreed upon, however, in 295 Perusia took part in the Third Samnite War and was reduced, with Volsinii and Arretium, a number of lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the city. Negotiations with the besieging forces fell to the bishop, Herculanus. Totila is said to have ordered the bishop to be flayed and beheaded, st. Herculanus later became the citys patron saint. In the Lombard period Perugia is spoken of as one of the cities of Tuscia. Peter, acknowledged the validity of the statement and recognised the established civic practices as having the force of law. However this dominant tendency was rather an anti-Germanic and Italian political strategy, midway through the 14th century Bartholus of Sassoferrato, who was a renowned jurist, asserted that Perugia was dependent upon neither imperial nor papal support. Civic peace was constantly disturbed in the 14th century by struggles between the party representing the people and the nobles. A citadel known as the Rocca Paolina, after the name of Pope Paul III, was built, in 1797, the city was conquered by French troops. On 4 February 1798, the Tiberina Republic was formed, with Perugia as capital, in 1799, the Tiberina Republic merged to the Roman Republic
Perugia
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Piazza IV Novembre
Perugia
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View from Perugia, over a valley below.
Perugia
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View of other hills around Perugia.
26.
Umbria
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Umbria, is a region of historic and modern central Italy. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries and it includes the Lake Trasimeno, Marmores Falls, and is crossed by the River Tiber. Umbria is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, culinary delights, artistic legacy, and influence on culture. Contained within Umbria is Cospaia, a republic created by accident that existed from 1440 to 1826 Umbria is bordered by Tuscany to the west, Marche to the east. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries. The commune of Città di Castello has an exclave named Monte Ruperto within Marche. Umbria is crossed by two valleys, the Umbrian valley, stretching from Perugia to Spoleto, and the Tiber Valley, west of the first one, the Tiber River forms the approximate border with Lazio, although its source is just over the Tuscan border. The Tibers three principal tributaries flow southward through Umbria, the Chiascio basin is relatively uninhabited as far as Bastia Umbra. About 10 kilometres farther on, it joins the Tiber at Torgiano, the third river is the Nera, flowing into the Tiber further south, at Terni, its valley is called the Valnerina. The upper Nera cuts ravines in the mountains, the lower, in antiquity, the plain was covered by a pair of shallow, interlocking lakes, the Lacus Clitorius and the Lacus Umber. They were drained by the Romans over several hundred years, an earthquake in the 4th century and the political collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in the refilling of the basin. The eastern part of the region, being crossed by many faults, has often hit by earthquakes, the last ones have been that of 1997. In literature, Umbria is referred to as il cuore verde dItalia, the phrase is taken from a poem by Giosuè Carducci, the subject of which is the source of the Clitunno River in Umbria. The region is named for the Umbri people, an Italic people which was absorbed by the expansion of the Romans, the Umbris capital city was Gubbio, where today is housed the longest and most important document of any of the Osco-Umbrian group of languages, the Iguvine Tablets. In fact, they belonged to a family of neighbouring peoples with similar roots. Their language was Umbrian, one of the Italic languages, related to Latin, the Etruscans were the chief enemies of the Umbri. The Etruscan invasion went from the western seaboard towards the north and east, eventually driving the Umbrians towards the Apennine uplands, nevertheless, the Umbrian population does not seem to have been eradicated in the conquered districts. The border between Etruria and Umbria was the Tiber river, the ancient name of Todi, Tular, after the downfall of the Etruscans, Umbrians aided the Samnites in their struggle against Rome
Umbria
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Cityscape of the capital Perugia
Umbria
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Umbria
Umbria
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A typical landscape of the Umbrian countryside
Umbria
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View of
Assisi
27.
Gregory XII
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Pope Gregory XII, born Angelo Corraro, Corario, or Correr, was Pope from 30 November 1406 to 4 July 1415 when he was forced to resign to end the Western Schism. On 1 December 1390 he was made Titular Patriarch of Constantinople, on 12 June 1405 he was created cardinal and the Cardinal-Priest of San Marco by Pope Innocent VII. He was Apostolic Administrator of Constantinople from 30 November 1406 to 23 October 1409 and he became Supreme Pontiff on 30 November 1406, taking the name Gregory XII. The two pontiffs opened wary negotiations to meet on neutral turf at Savona in Liguria, but soon began to waver in their resolve, the cardinals of Gregory XII openly showed their dissatisfaction at this manoeuvring and gave signs of their intention to abandon him. On 4 May 1408, Gregory XII convened his cardinals at Lucca, consequently, they summoned the council to Pisa and invited both pontiffs to be present. Neither Gregory XII nor Benedict XIII appeared, meanwhile, Gregory XII stayed with his loyal and powerful protector, the condottiero Carlo I Malatesta, who had come to Pisa in person during the process of the council to support Gregory XII. At the fifteenth session,5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa deposed the two pontiffs as schismatical, heretical, perjured, and scandalous, they elected Alexander V later that month. Gregory XII, who had created ten more cardinals, had convoked a rival council at Cividale del Friuli, near Aquileia. Gregory XIIs cardinals pronounced Benedict XIII and Alexander V schismatics, perjurers, and devastators of the Church, the Council of Constance finally resolved the situation. Gregory XII appointed Carlo Malatesta and Cardinal Giovanni Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies, the cardinal then convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts, thus preserving the formulas of Papal supremacy. Thereupon on 4 July 1415, Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the Pope, the Council then set aside Antipope John XXIII, the successor of Alexander V. After the former follower of Benedict XIII appeared, the council declared him deposed, a new Roman pontiff, Pope Martin V, was not elected before Gregory XIIs death. Therefore, the Papal seat was vacant for two years, the rest of Gregory XIIs life was spent in peaceful obscurity in Ancona. He was the last pope to resign until Benedict XVI did so on 28 February 2013, Papal resignation This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ott, Michael
Gregory XII
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Pope Gregory XII
28.
Council of Constance
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The Council of Constance is the 15th century ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Western Schism, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants, the Council also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic and facilitated his execution by the civil authority. It also ruled on issues of sovereignty, the rights of pagans. The Council is important for its relationship to ecclesial Conciliarism and Papal supremacy, the councils main purpose was to end the Papal schism which had resulted from the confusion following the Avignon Papacy. After thirty years of schism, the Council of Pisa had sought to resolve the situation by deposing the two claimant popes and elected a new pope, Alexander V. The council claimed that in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, therefore, many voices, including Sigismund, King of the Romans and of Hungary, pressed for another council to resolve the issue. That council was called by John XXIII and was held from 16 November 1414 to 22 April 1418 in Constance, according to Joseph McCabe, the council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals,100 learned doctors of law and divinity,134 abbots, and 183 bishops and archbishops. Sigismund arrived on Christmas Eve 1414 and exercised a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his capacity of imperial protector of the Church, an innovation at the Council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs. The vote by nations was in great measure the work of the English, German, the four nations consisted of England, France, Italy, and Germany, with Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scandinavians counted with the Germans. While the Italian representatives made up half of those in attendance, they were equal in influence to the English, many members of the new assembly strongly favored the voluntary abdication of all three popes, as did King Sigismund. Although the Italian bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers supported his legitimacy, partly in response to a fierce anonymous attack on his character from an Italian source, on 2 March 1415 he promised to resign. However, on 20 March he secretly fled the city and took refuge at Schaffhausen in territory of his friend Frederick, haec Sancta Synodus marks the high-water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform. The Church declared the first sessions of the Council of Constance an invalid and illicit assembly of bishops, the acts of the Council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the Council of Basel, they were printed in 1500. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, in part because of the constant presence of the King, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism, on 4 July 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Malatesta and Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council, thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesta immediately informed the Council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiffs behalf and he asked the Council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately, former Pope Gregory XII was then created titular Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina by the Council, with rank immediately below the Pope
Council of Constance
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Emperor Sigismund, his second wife,
Barbara of Celje, and their daughter,
Elizabeth of Luxembourg, at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
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Bishops debating with the pope at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
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Imperia, a 1993-erected statue commemorating the Council
29.
Schaffhausen
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Schaffhausen is a town in northern Switzerland and the capital of the canton of the same name, it has an estimated population of 34,587 as of December 2008. The official language of Schaffhausen is the Swiss variety of Standard German, the old portion of the city has many fine Renaissance era buildings decorated with exterior frescos and sculpture, as well as the impressive old canton fortress, the Munot. A train runs out of town to the nearby Rhine Falls in Neuhausen am Rheinfall, Europes largest waterfall, the town is first mentioned in 1045 as Villa Scafhusun. There are at least two theories on the origin of this name, one is related to a mention of a ford across the Rhine River that first occurs in 1050. This ford may actually refer to a scapha or skiff which was used to disembark goods coming from Constance to move them around the Rhine Falls, the name Scafhusun then arose from the scapha used at that point. Another theory is that Scafhusun comes from Schaf, as a ram formed the ancient arms of the town, derived from those of its founders, the counts of Nellenburg. The blazon of the coat of arms is Or on a Base Vert issuant from sinister a Semi Castle Argent with tower with entrance from which is issuing a Semi Ram Sable. The canting coat of arms refers to the interpretation of the name. Schaffhausen was a city state in the Middle Ages, documented to have struck its own coins from 1045, about 1050 the counts of Nellenburg founded the Benedictine monastery of All Saints, which became the centre of the town. Perhaps as early as 1190, certainly in 1208, it was a free city. The powers of the abbot were gradually limited and in 1277 the Emperor Rudolf I gave the town a charter of liberties, in 1330 the emperor Louis of Bavaria pledged it to the Habsburgs. In the early 15th century, Habsburg power over the city waned, by 1411 the guilds ruled the city. Then, in 1415 the Habsburg Duke Frederick IV of Austria sided with the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, as a result of the ban and Fredericks need of money, Schaffhausen was able to buy its independence from the Habsburgs in 1418. The city allied with six of the Swiss confederates in 1454, Schaffhausen became a full member of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1501. The Reformation was adopted, initially, in 1524 and completely in 1529, the town was heavily damaged during the Thirty Years War by the passage of Swedish and Bavarian troops and the very important bridge was burnt down. It was not until the early 19th century that the industrial development of the town made a fresh start. In 1857 the first railroad, the Rheinfall-Bahn running from Winterthur, Schaffhausen is located in a finger of Swiss territory surrounded on three sides by Germany. On 1 April 1944 Schaffhausen suffered a raid by United States Army Air Forces aircraft which strayed from German airspace into neutral Switzerland due to navigation errors
Schaffhausen
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Schaffhausen
Schaffhausen
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Rhine Falls as seen from
Neuhausen am Rheinfall
Schaffhausen
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Views of old town, Schaffhausen
Schaffhausen
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All Saints Abbey (
German: Allerheiligen) as seen from
Munot
.jpg)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Martin V". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
