1.
Port of New York and New Jersey
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Considered one of the largest natural harbors in the world, the port is by tonnage the third largest in the United States and the busiest on the East Coast. The port is the nations top gateway for flights and its busiest center for overall passenger. There are two foreign-trade zones within the port, the port handled $208 billion in shipping cargo in 2011, and 3,342,286 containers and 393,931 automobiles in 2014. The port is one of the largest natural harbors globally, encompassing an area within an approximate 25-mile radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, the port district comprises all or part of seventeen counties in the region. Abutting sections of Passaic, Middlesex, Monmouth, Morris, and Somerset in New Jersey, the Atlantic Ocean is to the southeast of the port. The sea at the entrance to the port is called the New York Bight, in Lower New York Bay and its western arm, Raritan Bay, vessels orient themselves for passage to the east into Arthur Kill or Raritan River or to the north to The Narrows. To the east lies the Rockaway Inlet, which leads to Jamaica Bay, the Narrows connects to the Upper New York Bay at the mouth of the Hudson River, which is sometimes called the North River. Large ships are able to navigate upstream to the Port of Albany-Rensselaer, to the west lies Kill van Kull, the strait leading to Newark Bay, fed by the Passaic River and Hackensack River, and the northern entrance of Arthur Kill. The Gowanus Canal and Buttermilk Channel are entered from the east, the East River is a broad strait that travels north to Newtown Creek and the Harlem River, turning east at Hell Gate before opening to Long Island Sound, which provides an outlet to the open sea. The port consists of a complex of approximately 240 miles of shipping channels, as well as anchorages, most vessels require pilotage, and larger vessels require tugboat assistance for the sharper channel turns. The Ambrose leads from the sea to the Upper Bay, where it becomes the Anchorage Channel. Connecting channels are the Bay Ridge, the Red Hook, the Buttermilk, the Claremont, the Port Jersey, the Kill Van Kull, the Newark Bay, the Port Newark, the Elizabeth, anchorages are known as Stapleton, Bay Ridge and Gravesend. The natural depth of the harbor is about 17 feet, but it was deepened over the years, by 1891, the Main Ship Channel was minimally 30 feet deep. In 1914, Ambrose Channel became the entrance to the port. During World War II the main channel was dredged to 45 feet deep to accommodate ships up to Panamax size. This has been a source of environmental concern along channels connecting the facilities in Port Newark to the Atlantic. PCBs and other pollutants lay in a blanket just underneath the soil, in June 2009 it was announced that 200,000 cubic yards of dredged PCBs would be cleaned and stored en masse at the site of the former Yankee Stadium and at Brooklyn Bridge Park. In many areas the sandy bottom has been excavated down to rock, dredging equipment then picks up the rock and disposes of it
2.
New York Harbor
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New York Harbor, part of the Port of New York and New Jersey, is at the mouth of the Hudson River where it empties into New York Bay and into the Atlantic Ocean at the East Coast of the United States. It is one of the largest natural harbors in the world, although the United States Board on Geographic Names does not use the term, New York Harbor has important historical, governmental, commercial, and ecological usages. The aboriginal population of the 16th century New York Harbor, the Lenape, used the waterways for fishing and it is fairly firmly held by historians that his ship anchored at the approximate location where the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge touches down in Brooklyn today. He also observed what he believed to be a freshwater lake to the north. He apparently did not travel north to observe the existence of the Hudson River, in 1609 Henry Hudson entered the Harbor and explored a stretch of the river that now bears his name. His journey prompted others to explore the region and engage in trade with the local population, in 1624 the first permanent European settlement was started on Governors Island, and eight years later in Brooklyn, soon these were connected by ferry operation. This prepared New York as a port for the British colonies. In 1686, the British colonial officials gave the municipality control over the waterfront, in 1808, Lieutenant Thomas Gedney of the United States Coast Survey discovered a new, deeper channel through The Narrows into New York Harbor. Because of the difficulty of the required, since 1694. The new channel Gedney discovered was 2 feet deeper, enough of a margin that fully laden ships could come into the harbor even at slack tide. Gedneys Channel, as it came to be called, was shorter than the previous channel, another benefit appreciated by the ship owners. Gedney received the praise of the city, as well as a silver service. In 1824 the first American drydock was completed on the East River, the Morris Canal, carrying anthracite and freight from Pennsylvania through New Jersey to its terminus at the mouth of the Hudson in Jersey City. Portions in the harbor are now part of Liberty State Park, in 1870, the city established the Department of Docks to systematize waterfront development, with George B. McClellan as the first engineer in chief. By the turn of the 20th century numerous railroad terminals lined the banks of the North River in Hudson County. The freight was ferried across by the railroads with small fleets of towboats, barges. New York subsidized this service which undercut rival ports, major road improvements allowing for trucking and containerization diminished the need. The Statue of Liberty National Monument recalls the period of immigration to the United States at the turn of the 20th century
3.
North River (Hudson River)
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North River is an alternate name for the southernmost portion of the Hudson River in the vicinity of New York City and northeastern New Jersey in the United States. The colonial name for the entire Hudson was given to it by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. However it still retains currency as an alternate or additional name among local mariners and others as well as appearing on some nautical charts and maps. The term is used for infrastructure on and under the river, such as the North River piers, North River Tunnels, the names for the lower portion of the river appear to have remained interchangeable for centuries. In 1909, construction of two projects was under way, one was called the North River Tunnels, the other. The origin of the name North River is generally attributed to the Dutch, in describing the major rivers in the New Netherland colony, they called what is now the Hudson the North River, the Connecticut the Fresh River, and the Delaware the South River. Another theory is that the North River and East River were so named for the direction of travel they permitted once having entered the Upper New York Bay. In 1808 the Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, issued his report of proposed locations for transportation and communication internal improvements of national importance and this peculiarity distinguishes the North River from all the other bays and rivers of the United States. The tide in no other ascends higher than the ridge or comes within thirty miles of the Blue Ridge or eastern chain of mountains. In the North River it breaks through the Blue Ridge at West Point, a few miles above Troy, and the head of the tide, the Hudson from the north and the Mohawk from the west unite their waters and form the North River. The Hudson in its course upwards approaches the waters of Lake Champlain, hagstrom Maps, formerly the leading mapmaker in the New York metropolitan area, has labeled all or part of the Hudson adjacent to Manhattan as North River on several of its maps. On a 2000 map of Northern Approaches to New York City, Piers along the Hudson shore of Manhattan were formerly used for shipping and berthing ocean-going ships. In shipping notices, they were designated as, for example, Pier 14, most of the piers that once existed in lower Manhattan fell into disuse or were destroyed in the last half of the 20th century, although a number have been adapted to new uses. As with the river, the name North River piers has largely supplanted by Hudson River piers, or just by a pier and number. The remaining piers are Pier A at the Battery and piers ranging from Pier 25 at North Moore Street to Pier 99 at 59th Street, many of these piers and the waterfront between them are part of the Hudson River Park which stretches from 59th Street to the Battery. Several piers are being rebuilt as part of the park project, Piers above Pier 40 have addresses approximately that of Manhattans numbered streets plus 40 – thus, for example North River Pier 86 is at West 46th Street. Pier A is a national and New York City landmark. The building on the dates to 1886, and was used by the citys Department of Docks, Harbor Police
4.
East River
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The East River is a salt water tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is not a river despite its name. It separates the borough of Queens on Long Island from the Bronx on the North American mainland, and also divides Manhattan from Queens and Brooklyn, because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound River. The tidal strait changes its direction of flow frequently, and is subject to fluctuations in its current. The waterway is navigable for its length of 16 miles. Technically a drowned valley, like the other waterways around New York City, the distinct change in the shape of the strait between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity. The upper portion, running perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering. The lower portion runs north-south, parallel to the glacial motion and it is much narrower, with straight banks. The bays that exist, as well as those used to exist before being filled in by human activity, are largely wide. The stretch has since been cleared of rocks and widened, washington Irving wrote of Hell Gate that the current sounded like a bull bellowing for more drink at half tide, whilte at full tide it slept as soundly as an alderman after dinner. He said it was like a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor at all, or when he has a skinful, but who, the river is navigable for its entire length of 16 miles. Why the river turns to the east as it approaches the three lower Manhattan bridges is currently geologically unknown, in the stretch of the river between Manhattan Island and the borough of Queens, lies Roosevelt Island, a narrow 2-mile long island consisting of 147 acres. Politically part of Manhattan, it begins at around the level of East 46th Street of that borough and it is connected to Queens by the Roosevelt Island Bridge, to Manhattan by the Roosevelt Island Tramway, and to both by a subway station. The Queensboro Bridge runs across Roosevelt Island, but no longer has an elevator connection to it. The abrupt termination of the island on its end is due to an extension of the 125th Street Fault. The Bronx River drains into the East River in the section of the strait. North of Randalls Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill. Along the east of Wards Island, at approximately the midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate
5.
Upper New York Bay
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Upper New York Bay, or Upper Bay, is the traditional heart of the Port of New York and New Jersey, and often called New York Harbor. It is enclosed by the New York City boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Staten Island and it is fed by the waters of the Hudson River, as well as the Gowanus Canal. It is connected to Lower New York Bay by the Narrows, to Newark Bay by the Kill Van Kull, and to Long Island Sound by the East River and it provides the main passage for the waters of the Hudson River as it empties through the Narrows. The channel of the Hudson as it passes through the harbor is called the Anchorage Channel and is approximately 50 feet deep in the midpoint of the harbor. A project to two water mains between Brooklyn and Staten Island which will eventually allowing for dredging of the channel to nearly 100 feet was begun in April 2012. Historically it has played an important role in the commerce of the New York metropolitan area. The Statue of Liberty National Monument recalls the immigrant experience during the late 19th, Liberty State Park opened in 1976. In recent years, it has become a site for recreation sailing and kayaking. NY Waterway operates routes across the bay and through The Narrows to locations near Sandy Hook, the Upper Bay supports a very diverse population of marine species, allowing for recreational fishing, most commonly for striped bass and bluefish
6.
Claude Lorrain
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Claude Lorrain was a French painter, draughtsman and engraver of the Baroque era. He spent most of his life in Italy, and is one of the earliest important artists, apart from his contemporaries in Dutch Golden Age painting, to concentrate on landscape painting. His landscapes are usually turned into the more prestigious genre of paintings by the addition of a few small figures. By the end of the 1630s he was established as the leading landscapist in Italy and these gradually became larger, but with fewer figures, more carefully painted, and produced at a lower rate. He was not generally an innovator in painting, except in introducing the sun into many paintings. His patrons were also mostly Italian, but after his death he became popular with English collectors. He was a creator of drawings in pen and very often monochrome watercolour wash, usually brown. Chalk is sometimes used for under-drawing, and white highlighting in various media may be employed and these fall into three fairly distinct groups. Firstly there are numbers of sketches, mostly of landscapes, and apparently very often done at the scene, these have been greatly admired. Then there are studies for paintings, of various degrees of finish, many clearly done before or during the process of painting and this was certainly the case for the last group, the 195 drawings recording finished paintings collected in his Liber Veritatis. He produced over 40 etchings, often simplified versions of paintings and these served various purposes for him, but are now regarded as much less important than his drawings. He painted frescoes in his career, which played an important part in making his reputation. The earliest biographies of Claude are in Joachim von Sandrarts Teutsche Academie, both Sandrart and Baldinucci knew the painter personally, but at periods some 50 years apart, respectively at the start of his career and shortly before his death. Sandrart knew him well and lived with him for a while, while Baldinucci was probably not intimate with him, and derived much of his information from Claudes nephew, who lived with the artist. Claudes tombstone gives 1600 as his year of birth, but contemporary sources indicate a later date and he was born in the small village of Chamagne, Vosges, then part of the Duchy of Lorraine. He was the third of five sons of Jean Gellée and Anne Padose, according to Baldinucci, Claudes parents both died when he was twelve years old, and he then lived at Freiburg with an elder brother. Jean was an artist in inlay and taught Claude the rudiments of drawing, Claude then travelled to Italy, first working for Goffredo Wals in Naples, then joining the workshop of Agostino Tassi in Rome. Sandrarts account of Claudes early years, however, is quite different, according to Sandrart, Claude did not do well at the village school and was apprenticed to a pastry baker
7.
Port of Shanghai
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The Port of Shanghai, located in the vicinity of Shanghai, comprises a deep-sea port and a river port. In 2010, Shanghai port overtook the Port of Singapore to become the worlds busiest container port, Shanghais port handled 29.05 million TEUs, whereas Singapores was a half million TEUs behind. In 2016, Shanghai port set a record by handling over 37 million TEUs. The Port of Shanghai faces the East China Sea to the east and it includes the confluences of the Yangtze River, Huangpu River, and Qiantang River. The Port of Shanghai is managed by Shanghai International Port which superseded the Shanghai Port Authority in 2003, Shanghai International Port Company Limited is a public listed company, of which the Shanghai Municipal Government owns 44.23 percent of the outstanding shares. During the Ming dynasty, what is now the city of Shanghai was a part of Jiangsu Province, while Shanghai had become a county seat in the Yuan dynasty, it remained relatively a small town. Its location at the mouth of the Yangtze River led to its development as coastal trade developed during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor in the Qing dynasty. Gradually, the port of Shanghai surpassed the port of Ningbo, in 1842, Shanghai became a treaty port, thus developing into an international commercial city. By the early 20th century, it was the largest city in the Far East, in 1949, with the Communist takeover in Shanghai, overseas trade was cut dramatically. The economic policy of the Peoples Republic had an effect on Shanghais infrastructure. In 1991, the government allowed Shanghai to initiate economic reform. Since then, the port of Shanghai has developed at an increasing pace, by 2005, the Yangshan deep water port was built on the Yangshan islands, a group of islands in Hangzhou Bay, linked to Shanghai by the Donghai Bridge. This development allowed the port to overcome shallow water conditions in its current location, and to rival another deep-water port and it serves the Yangtze economically developed hinterland of Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Henan provinces with its dense population, strong industrial base and developed agricultural sector. Container transport SIPG, Shanghai International Port Co
8.
Port of Hamburg
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The Port of Hamburg is a sea port on the river Elbe in Hamburg, Germany,110 kilometres from its mouth on the North Sea. It is Germanys largest port and is named the countrys Gateway to the World, in terms of TEU throughput, Hamburg is the second-busiest port in Europe and 15th-largest worldwide. In 2014,9.73 million TEUs were handled in Hamburg, the harbour covers an area of 73.99 km², of which 43.31 km² are land areas. The location is naturally advantaged by a branching Elbe, creating a place for a port complex with warehousing. The extensive free port enabled toll-free storing, but this was abandoned in 2013, the port is almost as old as the history of Hamburg itself. With discovery of the Americas and the transatlantic trade, Hamburg exceeded all other German ports. During the second half of the 19th century, Hamburg became Central Europes main hub for passenger and freight travel. In her time the Hamburg America Line was the largest shipping company in the world, since 1888, the HADAG runs a scheduled ferry service across various parts of the port and the Elbe. The Free Port, established on 15 October 1888, enabled traders to ship and store goods without going through customs, the Moldauhafen has a similar arrangement, though related to the Czech Republic exclusively. Deepening of the river Elbe for large vessels is controversial for ecological reasons, Hamburg is a major cruise destination and one of Europes largest ports of call for cruise passengers traveling the Atlantic, or the Norwegian and Baltic Seas. The port is also a location for shipbuilder and shipyards, designing, building and reconditioning yachts. The Port of Hamburg is also one of Hamburgs largest attractions, both as a living, industrial and logistic center but also as a backdrop for modern culture and the ports history. Among these are museum ships, musical theaters, bars, restaurants and hotels -. The annual celebration of the harbours birthday during the first weekend of May is one of Hamburgs biggest public events, national and international visitors come to experience the festivities. Tugboats perform ballets, old galleons and new ships are open for tours. Tour guides on boat tours in the harbour are called he lüchts after an often used call of dock workers when they overheard the stories told to tourists
9.
Piraeus
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Piraeus is a port city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens urban area,12 kilometres southwest from its city center, the municipality of Piraeus and several other suburban municipalities within the regional unit of Piraeus form the greater Piraeus area, with a total population of 448,997. Piraeus has a recorded history, dating to ancient Greece. During the Golden Age of Athens the Long Walls were constructed to connect Athens with Piraeus, the port of Piraeus is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe and the second largest in the world, servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe, the city hosted events in both the 1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. The University of Piraeus is one of the largest universities in Greece, Piraeus, which roughly means the place over the passage, has been inhabited since the 26th century BC. Consequently, it was called the Halipedon, meaning the salt field, through the centuries, the area was increasingly silted and flooding ceased, and thus by early classical times the land passage was made safe. In the late 6th century BC, the area caught attention due to its advantages, in 511 BC, the hill of Munichia was fortified by Hippias and four years later Piraeus became a deme of Attica by Cleisthenes. The Athenian fleet played a role in the battle of Salamis against the Persians in 480 BC. From then on Piraeus was permanently used as the navy base, the citys fortification was farther reinforced later by the construction of the Long Walls under Cimon and Pericles, with which Piraeus was connected to Athens. Meanwhile, Piraeus was rebuilt to the grid plan of architect Hippodamus of Miletus, known as the Hippodamian plan. As a result, Piraeus flourished and became a port of high security and great commercial activity, during the Peloponnesian War, Piraeus suffered its first setback. In the second year of the war, the first cases of the Athens plague were recorded in Piraeus, in 404 BC, the Spartan fleet under Lysander blockaded Piraeus and subsequently Athens surrendered to the Spartans, putting an end to the Delian League and the war itself. As a result, the tattered and unfortified port city was not able to compete with prosperous Rhodes, the destruction was completed in 395 AD by the Goths under Alaric I. Piraeus was led to a period of decline which lasted for fifteen centuries. During the Byzantine period the harbour of Piraeus was occasionally used for the Byzantine fleet and it was also called Porto Drako by Greeks, drako meaning not just dragon, but any monster. When Piraeus was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1456, it known as Aslan Liman. The Piraeus Lion itself was looted in 1687 by Francesco Morosini during his expedition against Athens and was carried to the Venetian Arsenal, a copy of the lion statue is on display at the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus
10.
Port of Seattle
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The Port of Seattle is a port district that runs Seattles seaport and airport. Its creation was approved by the voters of King County, Washington, on September 5,1911 and it is run by an elected five-member commission. The commissioners terms run four years, in 2015, Sea-Tac Airport handled a record 42.3 million passengers and the seaport division handled over 3.5 million containers, making them combined the 3rd largest container gateway in North America. In 2015, over 898,000 cruise passengers passed through the ports facilities, the Port of Seattle employs just under 1,800 employees. The port has three operating divisions, as well as development and corporate divisions. The Port of Seattle also controls recreational and commercial moorage facilities, the Port of Seattle celebrated its centennial in 2011. To mark the anniversary, the created a historical filled with photos and information about the ports. The work of the commission for the first six months was confined almost entirely to the preparation of projects which were approved by the people at a special election held on March 5,1912. A Porsche 959 was stored for 13 years by the Customs Service at the Port of Seattle, gates and Allen both helped pass the Show and Display law. In 1949 the U. S. Department of Commerce designated a zone in the port. Recent years have brought significant changes to the Port of Seattle, in 2007, Tay Yoshitani joined the organization as CEO. Just after his tenure began, two significant scandals occurred, the port police department uncovered a significant problem with racist and pornographic emails. The organization refused to pay and the claim was dropped, though the situation led to a recall of one commissioner. Finally, in December of that year, the State Auditors Office issued a report on the ports contracting practices. The audit report sparked an investigation by the Department of Justice, Yoshitani also brought a heightened commitment to environmental practices. The port has many programs, including shore power for cruise ships. But increased container and cruise traffic have increased community concerns, just as the new runway did, in 2012, port commissioners began outreach on the Century Agenda, a strategic plan for the ports next 25 years. In 2012, the Port became one of the most vocal opponents of the proposal to build a new arena in the Stadium District, in 2015, an agreement to berth Royal Dutch Shell semi-submersible offshore drilling rigs at the Ports Terminal 5 led to protests against Arctic drilling
11.
Port of Haifa
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The Port of Haifa is the largest of Israels three major international seaports, which include the Port of Ashdod, and the Port of Eilat. It has a deep water harbor which operates all year long. It is one of the largest ports in the eastern Mediterranean in terms of freight volume, the port employs over 1,000 people, with the number rising to 5,000 when cruise ships dock in Haifa. Haifa Bay has been a refuge for mariners since prehistoric times, when the Crusaders conquered Haifa in the year 1100, it became an important town and the main port for Tiberias, the capital of the Galilee. The port fell into disrepair during the Mamluk reign, and acquired the reputation of a lair in the 18th century. Until the beginning of the 20th century, Acre served as the port for the region. However, the port eventually became clogged with silt, and was unable to accommodate large ships, Construction of the port began in 1922, and it was officially opened on October 31,1933 by Lieut. Sir Arthur Wauchope, the British High Commissioner for Palestine, the port allowed Haifa to blossom, and in 1936, the city had over 100,000 inhabitants. The port was a gateway for thousands of immigrants to Israel after the Second World War, today the port brings both passenger and cargo traffic to a bustling metropolis, much as Theodor Herzl predicted over a century ago. The port has been the scene of two fatal sinkings, the Patria disaster in 1940 killed 267 people, the loss of Shelly in 2007 killed two. The Port of Haifa contains many cargo terminals, and is capable of servicing many ships at once, a railroad freight terminal is inside the port and is used for transporting goods across the country. The port also features a terminal, fishing wharf, yacht club, sports marina. In 2013, the port processed about 26 million tons of cargo including 1.36 million TEUs, the new facilities will expand the ports annual container handling capacity by 500,000 TEU. Construction of this new terminal cost NIS1.8 billion and took five years to complete, the Port maintains facilities for the United States Sixth Fleet. On 4 January 2013, the MSC Chicago docked at the ports Carmel terminal, MSC Chicago has a capacity of 9,200 containers. The previous record ship visit was the MSC Maeva which had visited two months before, Israel Shipyards is nearby the port and provides heavy ship repair facilities. The company also operates a port on its premises which in 2013 handled approximately 1.7 million tons of cargo. The port contains a passenger terminal serving cruise and ferry passengers
12.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
13.
Port of Barcelona
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The Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year history and great contemporary commercial importance as one of Europes ports in the Mediterranean, as well as Catalonias largest port, tying with Tarragona. It is also Spains third and Europes ninth largest container port, the port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona. Its 7.86 km2 are divided into three zones, Port Vell, the port, and the logistics port. The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size by diverting the mouth of the Llobregat River 2 km to the south and slightly pushing back the Llobregat Delta Nature Reserve. This is not the port in Barcelona, as there are also two additional yacht harbors/marinas, Port Olímpic and Port Fòrum Sant Adrià to the north. Because it is located in a designated tourist zone, the Maremagnum is the commercial mall in the city that can open on Sundays. Next to the Maremagnum area are the Golondrines, small ships that take tourists for a visit around the port area, in common with much of Western Europe, the older traditional industries in Spain, such as textiles, declined in the face of foreign competition. The surviving companies closed their factories in the city or along the rivers, in many cases within Spain, these industries moved to the Zona Franca. The free trade area was constructed in two phases, the first phase covered an area of 70 hectares, the second phase, covering an area of 140 hectares, started construction in 1995. The free trade zone is located within the area, not far away from downtown Barcelona. It is 5 kilometres away from the Barcelona International Airport and connected via highway and railway, business investors here rent offices or bonded warehouses. They can also elect to purchase land to erect their own buildings, the free trade zone offers a series of services. It is divided into a service area, truck/lorry area, reception area. It has a customs service, bonded warehousing service, advanced telecommunication and computer system, security system, combined multiple transport system
14.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
15.
Port of Busan
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The Korea Strait is a sea passage between Japan and South Korea, connecting the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan in the northwest Pacific Ocean. The strait is split by the Tsushima Island into the western channel, to the north it is bounded by the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula, and to the south by the southwestern Japanese islands of Kyūshū and Honshū. It is about 200 km wide and averages about 90 to 100 meters deep, Tsushima Island divides the Korea Strait into the western channel and the Tsushima Strait. The western channel is deeper and narrower than the Tsushima Strait, a branch of the Kuroshio Current passes through the strait. Its warm branch is called the Tsushima Current. The water-mass characteristics vary widely because of the low-salinity waters of the southeast coasts of Korea, numerous international shipping lanes pass through the strait, including those carrying much of the traffic bound for the ports of southern South Korea. Both South Korea and Japan have restricted their territorial claims in the strait to 3 nautical miles from shore, passenger ferries travel numerous routes across the strait. Commercial ferries run from Busan, South Korea to Japanese ports including Fukuoka, Tsushima, Shimonoseki, ferries also connect Tsushima Island with Fukuoka, and South Koreas Jeju Island with the Korean mainland. Ferries connecting Busan and Japanese cities with ports in China also traverse the strait, historically, these narrows served as a highway for high risk voyages. The shortest distance between Busan, South Korea, and the Tsushima Island is about 50 km, as is the shortest distance from Tsushima to Iki Island, Japan. Japans Yamatai periodically sent year-long embassies to Chinese dynasties, believed to have traveled through the Korean strait, in the 6th century, Buddhism was transmitted by Baekje people to the easternmost Japan of the Emperor Kinmeis era over this strait. See main article, Mongol invasions of Japan A joint Mongol-Korea fleet crossed this strait, the force severely ravaged the Tsushima Island on the way to Japan but failed to defeat Japan. The typhoon is said to have saved Japan from a Mongol invasion fleet led by Kublai Khan in 1281, see main article, Wokou and Ōei Invasion After the Mongolian invasion ravaged Tsushima, it became a base of the Wokou. The Korean Joseon Dynasty sent a fleet to Tsushima in 1419 for the suppression of Wokou activity, Korea subsequently agreed to grant the Japanese limited trading privileges. The Russian fleet was destroyed by the Japanese. The Battle of Korea Strait was a battle fought on the first day of the Korean War, 25-26 June 1950. A North Korean troop transport carrying hundreds of soldiers attempted to land its cargo near Busan but was encountered by a South Korean patrol ship and it was one of the first surface actions of the war and resulted in an important South Korean victory. The possibility of a Japan–Korea Undersea Tunnel or bridge, similar to the Channel Tunnel running under the English Channel between France and the United Kingdom, has been discussed for decades
16.
Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
17.
Maersk
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A. P. Moller–Maersk Group, also known as Maersk, is a Danish business conglomerate. A. P. Møller – Maersk Group has activities in a variety of sectors, primarily within the transport. It has been the largest container ship operator and supply vessel operator in the world since 1996, as of September 2016 the company is in the process of splitting its shipping and energy interests into separate divisions. It ranked 148 on the Forbes Global 2000 list for 2015, a. P. Møller – Maersk Group started as the shipping company Dampskibsselskabet Svendborg founded by captain Peter Mærsk-Møller and his son Arnold Peter Møller in Svendborg, April 1904. A. P. Møller had four children, all by his first wife Chastine Estelle Roberta Mc-Kinney, a. P. Møllers second child was Arnold Mærsk Mc- Kinney Møller. In 1939, Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller became a partner in the company, following the death of A. P. Møller in June 1965, he became CEO of the company and held this post until 1993, when he was succeeded by Jess Søderberg. Beginning in 1965, Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller also served as chairman and did not relinquish this position until December 2003. Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller was until his one of the managing owners of the company and was chairman of Odense Steel Shipyard until 2 May 2006. Møller, who was a deeply religious Christian, attached a banner with a white seven pointed star on both sides of the black chimney on the steamship Laura when his wife recovered from illness. In a letter to his wife, P. M, the same star later became the emblem of the Maersk Group. In May 2014 the company lifted its first-quarter net profit to $1. 02bn as a result of Maersk Line improving its operations. Container shipping and related activities is the largest business area for A. P. Moller – Maersk and it comprises worldwide container services, logistics and forwarding solutions and terminal activities under the brand names, Maersk Line, Safmarine, and Damco. Since 1996, Mærsk is the largest container shipping company in the world, the largest operating unit in A. P. Moller – Maersk by revenue and staff is Maersk Line. In 2013 the company described itself as the worlds largest overseas cargo carrier, as per September 2015, being still the largest container fleet, it holds 15. 1% of the global TEU. In 2006, the largest container ship in the world to that date, the E-class vessel Emma Maersk, was delivered to Maersk Line from Odense Steel Shipyard. Seven other sisterships have since been built, and on 21 February 2011, Maersk ordered 10 even larger ships from Daewoo. The first were delivered in 2013 and it held options for 10–20 more, and in June 2011 placed follow-on orders for a second batch of ten sisterships with the same shipyard, but cancelled its option for a third batch of ten. As of February 2010, Maersk had a book for new ships totalling 857000TEU
18.
Port of Montreal
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The Port of Montreal is a port and transshipment point on the St. Lawrence River in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. On the Saint Lawrence Seaway 1,600 kilometres inland from the Atlantic Ocean, it is on the shortest direct route from Europe and the Mediterranean to North America. It is a container port that services Toronto and the rest of Central Canada, the U. S. Midwest. In 2012 More than 2,000 cargo ships visited, with the port handling 28,422,003 tonnes of goods, machinery, cereal, sugar, petroleum, products. It is operated by the Montreal Port Authority, the port originated in the historic area now known as the Old Port of Montreal. Over the years, the Port of Montreal expanded eastward along the waterfront, in 1978, the Port of Montreal ceded the area now known as the Old Port to the Old Port Corporation, a public corporation responsible for developing tourism and recreational activities in the area. The site is now a gem and a major tourist attraction, having been enhanced with museums, restaurants, shops. Today, most Port of Montreal facilities are located downstream from the Old Port, the Montreal Port Authoritys head office and the multipurpose Bickerdike Terminal are located upstream from the Old Port. Starting from the first authority,1830, The first Harbour Commission is created and it builds the first permanent wharves and presses the government to dredge the river. 1830-1832,1,143 metres of docks are built,1840, The Gold-Headed Cane tradition begins. 1854, The navigation channel between Quebec City and Montreal is deepened to 4.88 metres and widened to 76.19 metres. 1872, Archives for May 28 note that there were 70 vessels -21 of them ocean-going steamships - docked at different berths,1883, Channel is dredged to 7.5 metres. 1902, Start of construction of grain elevators in the port. 1908, First permanent transit sheds constructed,1910, Project to deepen the channel to 10.7 metres begins. 1936, The federal government creates the National Harbours Board,1947, More than 25 steamship lines serve the port for seven and a half months of the year. 1962, The federal government decides to use icebreakers to keep the open between Montreal and Quebec City during winter. 1964, Year-round navigation begins in Montreal, Year-round navigation to and from the port began in 1964. 1967, The port handles its first container,1968, Canadas first container terminal is inaugurated in Montreal
19.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
20.
Twin Ports
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The Twin Ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin, are located at the western part of Lake Superior and together are considered the largest freshwater port in the world. They are twin cities and seaports, connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Twin Ports are at the core of the U. S. Census Bureaus Duluth, MN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, which all of Wisconsins Douglas County. With a 2010 census population of 279,771, the Duluth MSA ranked as the 165th largest metropolitan area in the United States, the area is home to two very long bridges, the Richard I. Bong Memorial Bridge and the John Blatnik Bridge, while their central spans are not notably lengthy, the overall lengths are very impressive, with each reaching across more than 1.5 miles of water. However, when visitors to the come to see bridges. It must be raised and lowered whenever ships enter or exit the Duluth side of the harbor, together, the cities rank as the 19th-busiest port in the country overall as of 2002, though the area is the 7th-busiest port when measured on foreign exports alone. List of ports in the United States Superior WI Community Links Page Twin Ports Commonwealth regional community cooperative
21.
Fresh water
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Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts
22.
Hilo
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Hilo is the largest settlement and census-designated place in Hawaii County, Hawaii, which encompasses the Island of Hawaiʻi. The population was 40,759 at the 2000 census, the population increased by 6. 1% to 43,263 at the 2010 census. Hilo is the county seat of the County of Hawaiʻi and is located in the District of South Hilo, the majority of human settlement in Hilo stretches from Hilo Bay to Waiākea-Uka, on the flanks of Mauna Loa. Hilo is also home to the Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation and it is served by Hilo International Airport, located inside the CDP. Around 1100 AD, the first Hilo inhabitants arrived, bringing with them Polynesian knowledge, although archaeological evidence is scant, oral history has many references to people living in Hilo, along the Wailuku and Wailoa Rivers during the time of ancient Hawaii. Oral history also gives the meaning of Hilo as to twist, originally, the name Hilo applied to a district encompassing much of the east coast of the Island of Hawaiʻi, now divided into the District of South Hilo and the District of North Hilo. When William Ellis visited in 1823, the settlement in the Hilo district was Waiākea on the south shore of Hilo Bay. Missionaries came to the district in the early-to-middle 19th century, founding Haili Church, Hilo expanded as sugarcane plantations in the surrounding area created new jobs and drew in many workers from Asia, making the town a trading center. A breakwater across Hilo Bay was begun in the first decade of the 20th century, on April 1,1946, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake near the Aleutian Islands created a fourteen-meter high tsunami that hit Hilo 4.9 hours later, killing 160 people. In response an early warning system, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, was established in 1949 to track these killer waves and provide warning. This tsunami also caused the end of the Hawaii Consolidated Railway, and instead the Hawaii Belt Road was built north of Hilo using some of the old railbed. On May 23,1960, another tsunami, caused by a 9.5 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Chile the previous day, claimed 61 lives, allegedly due to the failure of people to heed warning sirens. Low-lying bayfront areas of the city on Waiākea peninsula and along Hilo Bay, previously populated, were rededicated as parks, Hilo expanded inland beginning in the 1960s. The downtown found a new role in the 1980s as the cultural center with several galleries and museums being opened. Closure of the plantations during the 1990s led to a downturn in the local economy. Hilo in recent years has seen commercial and population growth, as the neighboring District of Puna became the region in the state. Hilo is located at 19°42′20″N 155°5′9″W, Hilo features a tropical rainforest climate, with substantial rainfall throughout the course of the year. An average of around 126.72 inches of rain fell at Hilo International Airport annually between 1981 and 2010, with 272 days of the year receiving some rain
23.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
24.
Wharf
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A wharf, quay, staith or staithe is a structure on the shore of a harbor or on the bank of a river or canal where ships may dock to load and unload cargo or passengers. Such a structure includes one or more berths, and may also include piers, warehouses, a wharf commonly comprises a fixed platform, often on pilings. Commercial ports may have warehouses that serve as storage areas. A pier, raised over the rather than within it, is commonly used for cases where the weight or volume of cargos will be low. Smaller and more modern wharves are sometimes built on devices to keep them at the same level as the ship. In some contexts wharf and quay may be used to mean pier, berth, in old ports such as London many old wharves have been converted to residential or office use. Certain early railways in England referred to goods loading points as wharves, the term was carried over from marine usage. The person who was resident in charge of the wharf was referred to as a wharfinger. The word wharf comes from the Old English hwearf, meaning bank or shore, wharfage also refers to a fee charged by ports for the cargo handled there. Originally, werf or werva in Old Dutch simply referred to inhabited ground that was not yet built on and this could explain the name Ministry Wharf located at Saunderton, just outside High Wycombe, which is nowhere near any body of water. In support of this explanation is the fact that places in England with wharf in their names are in areas with a high Dutch influence. In the northeast and east of England the term staith or staithe is also used, both originally referred to staithes in the sense of jetties or wharves. However, the term staith may also be used to only to loading chutes or ramps used for bulk commodities like coal in loading ships. Quay, on the hand, has its origin in the Proto-Celtic language. Before it changed to its current form under influence of the modern French quai, its Middle English spelling was key and this in turn also came from the Old North French cai, both roughly meaning sand bank. The Old French term came from Gaulish caium, ultimately tracing back to the Proto-Celtic *kagio- to encompass, modern cognates include Welsh cae fence, hedge and Cornish ke hedge. Canal basin Dock Port Safeguarded wharf The dictionary definition of wharf at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of quay at Wiktionary
25.
Affreightment
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Affreightment is a legal term used in shipping. The charterer agrees to pay a price, called freight. A ship may be let, like a house, to a person who takes possession, the person who hires a ship in this way occupies during the specified time the position of ship-owner. The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is a branch of the law of contract. The rights and obligations of the ship-owner and the freighter depend, as in the case of all parties to contracts, the law, however, interferes to some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts. Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are therefore incapable of enforcement, the most important example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract, the meaning of words in the contract, or—in other words—its construction, when a dispute arises about it, are determined by a judge or court. The law acts in a third way—by laying down rules that regulate rights of the parties in the absence of a contractual stipulation that such rules cover. Goods are not often shipped without a contract or acknowledgment of terms. For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped, a bill of lading is almost invariably given, the shipper must be prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery of his goods with reasonable despatch on arrival of the ship at its destination. The shipper must pay the freight, and is not entitled to claim delivery until the freight is paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage. Further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount that does not exceeding eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ships tonnage. A bill of lading is a document the master or agent for the signs to acknowledge the shipment of a parcel of goods. The document used today first appeared centuries ago as a bill presented to shippers for all charges incurred by the cargo until properly secured on board, in the age of sail, cargo and ships became lost more often than today. This bill proved that cargo expenses were paid, but became mainly a proof that the cargo was really on board, under this type of carriage, the bill of lading assumes two main tasks, as cargo receipt and property title. In liner shipping it assumes a triple identity, property title, cargo receipt, in tramp shipping, object of this wiki entry, the carriage contract is the charter party. It must not be supposed that even these obligations, which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not by express terms of the contract
26.
Port of Manchester
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The Port of Manchester was a port in North West England, until its closure in 1982. It was created as a port on 1 January 1894. It extended along the whole 36-mile length of the canal, from Eastham in the west to Manchester in the east, absorbing the Port of Runcorn. The creation of the new port moved the Port of Liverpools boundary 11 miles to the west, the ship canal transformed Manchester from a landlocked city into a major sea port, at its height the third-busiest port in the United Kingdom. Once delivered to the goods could be transported to other parts of the country such as Leeds to the east. Initially, the port struggled to compete with the established ports. In 1908, although Manchester had about 75 percent of the spindles in the United Kingdom. Despite the competition, trade grew steadily, between 1895 and 1896,121,336 bales of cotton were imported from America, the main source of cotton, this increased to 377,264 bales in 1907–1908. The Port of Manchester was not the destination for American cotton in the early 20th century. In 1907–1908 about half of the used in Lancashire cotton mills passed through the port. In the early-20th century, the main produce travelling through the port was timber, grain, the grain trade expanded more than tenfold, increasing from 35,000 long tons in 1895 to 406,000 long tons in 1907. Based on value of import and export trade, between 1904 and 1964 the Port of Manchester was in the top five most important custom ports in the UK for 39 out of the 55 years for which figures exist. The peak year for tonnage was 1959, but the port declined in the 1960s because of the size of ocean-going vessels. Manchester Liners was established on 3 May 1898, to provide a fortnightly service between the Port of Manchester and North America, via the Manchester Ship Canal. The success of its trip to Halifax, Nova Scotia. The company continued to operate vessels registered in Manchester for more than 80 years, until 1985
27.
Duluth, Minnesota
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Duluth /dəˈluːθ/ is a major port city in the U. S. state of Minnesota and the county seat of Saint Louis County. Duluth has a population of 86,110 and is the second-largest city on Lake Superiors shores, after Thunder Bay, Ontario, in Canada, the Duluth MSA had a population of 279,771 in 2010, the second-largest in Minnesota. Duluth forms an area with neighboring Superior, Wisconsin, called the Twin Ports. The cities share the Duluth–Superior harbor and together are the Great Lakes largest port, transporting coal, iron ore, the city is also the starting point for vehicle trips along Minnesotas North Shore. The city is named for Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, the Anishinaabe, also known as the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region for more than 500 years. They were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet and Gros Ventre peoples, after the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe found a niche as the middlemen between the French fur traders and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Indian nation in the region, forcing out the Dakota Sioux and Fox, by the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superiors shores. For both the Ojibwe and the Dakota, interaction with Europeans during the period revolved around the fur trade. The Ojibwe are historically known for their crafting of birch bark canoes, use of arrow points. In 1745, they adopted guns from the British for use against the Dakota nation of the Sioux, the Ojibwe Nation was the first to set the agenda with European-Canadian leaders for signing more detailed treaties before many European settlers were allowed too far west. Duluths name in Ojibwe is Onigamiinsing, a reference to the small, the Stopping Places were the places the Native Americans occupied during their westward migration as the Europeans overran their territory. Several factors brought fur traders to the Great Lakes in the early 17th century, the fashion for beaver hats in Europe generated demand for pelts. Étienne Brûlé is credited with the European discovery of Lake Superior before 1620, pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers explored the Duluth area, Fond du Lac in 1654 and again in 1660. The French soon established fur posts near Duluth and in the far north where Grand Portage became a trading center. The French explorer Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, whose name is anglicized as DuLuth. The first post was where Superior, Wisconsin, later developed, known as Fort Saint Louis, the post became the headquarters for North Wests new Fond du Lac Department. It had stockaded walls, two houses of 40 feet each, a shed of 60 feet, a warehouse. Over time, Indian peoples and European Americans settled nearby, in 1808, the American Fur Company was organized by German-born John Jacob Astor
28.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
29.
Canal
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Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles. In the vernacular, both are referred to as canals, and in most cases, the works will have a series of dams. These areas are referred to as water levels, often just called levels. In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge, many canals have been built at elevations towering over valleys and others water ways crossing far below. Cities need a lot of water and many canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination where there is a lack of water. The Roman Empires Aqueducts were such water supply canals, a navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river. A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river, a vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height. A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, most commercially important canals of the first half of the 19th century were a little of each, using rivers in long stretches, and divide crossing canals in others. This is true for many canals still in use, there are two broad types of canal, Waterways, canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people. These can be subdivided into two kinds, Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans and those connected in a city network, such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy, the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. Aqueducts, water canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals. Historically canals were of importance to commerce and the development, growth. In 1855 the Lehigh Canal carried over 1.2 million tons of burning anthracite coal, by the 1930s the company which built. By the early 1880s, canals which had little ability to compete with rail transport, were off the map. In the next couple of decades, coal was diminished as the heating fuel of choice by oil. Later, after World War I when motor-trucks came into their own, Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path, Human made streams A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, the water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs. Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise, examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal
30.
Port of Singapore
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The Port of Singapore refers to the collective facilities and terminals that conduct maritime trade handling functions in harbours and which handle Singapores shipping. It was also the busiest port in terms of cargo tonnage handled until 2005. Thousands of ships drop anchor in the harbour, connecting the port to over 600 other ports in 123 countries, the Port of Singapore is not a mere economic boon, but an economic necessity because Singapore is lacking in land and natural resources. The service industries such as hospitality services typical of a port of call restock the food, ships pass between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean through the Singapore Strait. The Straits of Johor on the north are impassable for ships due to the Johor-Singapore Causeway, built in 1923. In the late 13th century, a Kingdom known as Singapura was established on the bank of the Singapore River around what was called the Old Harbour. Although these goods were available from other Southeast Asian ports. Secondly, Singapore acted as a gateway into the regional and international system for its immediate region. South Johor and the Riau Archipelago supplied products to Singapore for export elsewhere, Archaeological artefacts such as ceramics and glassware found in the Riau Archipelago evidence this. In addition, cotton was transshipped from Java or India through Singapore, by the 15th century, Singapore had declined as an international trading port due to the ascendance of the Malacca Sultanate. Local trade continued on the island, Singapore also provided other regional ports with local products demanded by international markets. For instance, blackwood was exported from Singapore to Malacca, and was in turn purchased by Chinese traders, in the early 17th century, Singapores main settlement and its port were destroyed by a punitive force from Aceh. These networks were complementary, and positioned Singapore as the transshipment point of regional and international trade, by the 1830s, Singapore had overtaken Batavia as the centre of the Chinese junk trade, and also become the centre of English country trade, in Southeast Asia. This was because Southeast Asian traders preferred the free port of Singapore to other regional ports which had cumbersome restrictions. Singapore had also supplanted Tanjung Pinang as the gateway for the gambier and pepper industry of the Riau–Lingga Archipelago by the 1830s. It had also become the centre of the Teochew trade in marine produce and rice, as the volume of its maritime trade increased in the 19th century, Singapore became a key port of call for sailing and steam vessels in their passage along Asian sea routes. From the 1840s, Singapore became an important coaling station for steam shipping networks that were beginning to form, towards the late 19th century, Singapore became a staple port servicing the geographical hinterland of the Malay Peninsula. Following the institution of the British Forward Movement, Singapore became the capital of British Malaya
31.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
32.
Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan
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The port is located in Ningbo and Zhoushan, on the coast of the East China Sea, in Zhejiang province south of Hangzhou Bay, across which it faces Jiaxing and Shanghai. The port is at the crossroads of the inland and coastal shipping route, including canals to the important inland waterway to interior China. The port comprises several ports which are Beilun, Zhenhai, Ningbo Port was established in 738 during Chinas ancient history. During the Tang Dynasty, it was known as one of the three major seaports for foreign trade under the name Mingzhou, along with Yangzhou and Guangzhou, in the Song Dynasty, it became one of the three major port cities for foreign trade together with Guangzhou and Quanzhou. It was designated as one of the Five Treaty Ports along with Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, the Port of Ningbo was merged with the neighbouring Port of Zhoushan in 2006 to form a combined cargo-handling centre. The Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan is involved in trade with cargo shipment, raw materials and manufactured goods from as far as North and South America. It has economic trade with over 560 ports from more than 90 countries and it is one of a growing number of ports in China with a cargo throughput volume exceeding 100 million tons annually. The water quality within Ningbo-Zhoushan Port has become badly polluted over the past ten years, the Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan complex is a modern multi-purpose deep water port, consisting of inland, estuary, and coastal harbors. There are a total of 191 berths including 39 deep water berths with 10,000, the larger ports include the 250,000 tonnage crude oil terminal, the 200, 000+ tonnage ore loading berth. There is also a terminal for the 6th generation container vessel
33.
Red Sea
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The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
34.
Qin dynasty
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The Qin dynasty was the first dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 206 BCE. The strength of the Qin state was increased by the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the fourth century BC. It is also the shortest dynasty in Chinese history, lasting only 15 years with two emperors, Qin administration was by no means purely punitive, and was not harsher than was generally prevalent at the time. Though often anathema to Legalist philosophy, Confucianism and its values too coexisted with Legalism during the reign of the First Emperor, Qin administrative documents considered such matters as filial piety, and one circulated letter reads that The purpose of all standards. Is to teach and lead the people, rid them of dissoluteness and depravity. during its reign over China, the Qin sought to create an imperial state unified by highly structured political power and a stable economy able to support a large military. This allowed for the construction of projects, such as a wall on the northern border. For years, local rulers built walls along Chinas northern border to protect their villages from invaders, Three hundred thousand peasants and convicts were forced to work on this 1,400 mile wall. The Qin dynasty introduced reforms, currency, weights and measures were standardized. The Qins military was revolutionary in that it used the most recently developed weaponry, transportation, an attempt to restrict criticism and purge all traces of old dynasties led to the supposed burning of books and burying of scholars later espoused by Confucians. Despite its military strength, the Qin dynasty did not last long, the advisors squabbled among themselves, however, resulting in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant. Despite its rapid end, the dynasty influenced future Chinese empires, particularly the Han, in the 9th century BC, Feizi, a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao, was granted rule over Qin City. The modern city of Tianshui stands where this city once was, during the rule of King Xiao of Zhou, the eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the regency of Gonghe, the became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses. One of Feizis descendants, Duke Zhuang, became favoured by King Ping of Zhou, as a reward, Zhuangs son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin. The state of Qin first sent an expedition into central China in 672 BC. By the dawn of the fourth century BC, however, the tribes had all been either subdued or conquered. The resulting city greatly resembled the capitals of other Warring States, notably, Qin Legalism encouraged practical and ruthless warfare
35.
Canopus, Egypt
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Canopus, also known as Canobus, was an Ancient Egyptian coastal town, located in the Nile Delta. Its site is in the outskirts of modern-day Alexandria, around 25 kilometers from the center of that city. Canopus was located on the bank at the mouth of the westernmost branch of the Delta – known as the Canopic or Heracleotic branch. It belonged to the seventh Egyptian Nome, known as Menelaites and it was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, along with Naucratis and Heracleion. Its ruins lie near the present Egyptian village of Abu Qir, the settlements Egyptian name was Peguat or Pikuat. The Greeks called it Canopus after a commander of the era of the Trojan War supposedly buried there. The English form of the name derives from the Latinized form used under Roman rule, Canopus was the site of a temple to the Egyptian god Serapis. The name of Canopus appears in the first half of the 6th century BC in a poem by Solon, the exact date of the foundation of Canopus is unknown, but Herodotus refers to it as an ancient port. Homeric myth claims that it was founded by Menelaus, and named after Canopus, the pilot of his ship, legend describes how Menelaus built a monument to his memory on the shore, around which the town later grew up. The real origin of the name Canopus is said to be Ancient Egyptian Kah Nub, there is unlikely to be any connection with canopy. A temple to Osiris was built by Pharaoh Ptolemy The Good, but, according to Herodotus, very near to Canopus was an older shrine, Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, that of a vase with a human head. In Ptolemy III Euergetes ninth regnal year, an assembly of priests at Canopus passed an honorific decree that, inter alia, conferred various new titles on the king and his consort. This was the earliest of the series of inscriptions of the Rosetta Stone Series. There are three such Decrees altogether, the town had a large trade in henna. In Roman times, the town was notorious for its dissoluteness, juvenals Satire VI referred to the debauchery that prevailed there. The emperor Hadrian built a villa at Tivoli,18 miles away from Rome, one of these was borrowed from Canopus. The Egyptian city of Abu Qir, honoring two Christian martyrs, is located a few miles away from the ruins of Canopus and it is a village, at the end of a little peninsula north-east of Alexandria. It has a trade in quails, which are caught in nets hung along the shore, off Aboukir on 1 August 1798, the French Mediterranean fleet was destroyed within the roads by British Admiral Horatio Nelson on 25 July 1799
36.
Alexandria
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Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
37.
Battle of Salamis
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The battle was fought in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens, and marked the high-point of the second Persian invasion of Greece. To block the Persian advance, a force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae. In the resulting Battle of Thermopylae, the rearguard of the Greek force was annihilated, whilst in the Battle of Artemisium the Greeks had heavy losses and this allowed the Persians to conquer Boeotia and Attica. The Allies prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth whilst the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island, the Persian king Xerxes was also eager for a decisive battle. As a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the Persian navy rowed into the Straits of Salamis, in the cramped conditions of the Straits, the great Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganized. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet formed in line and scored a decisive victory, Xerxes then retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. However, the year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea. Afterwards, the Persians made no attempts to conquer the Greek mainland. These battles of Salamis and Plataea thus mark a point in the course of the Greco-Persian wars as a whole, from then onward. The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus, Herodotus, who has been called the Father of History, was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor. He wrote his Enquiries around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, Herodotuss approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented history as we know it. Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off, and therefore evidently felt that Herodotuss history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, however, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a job in his Historia. Nevertheless, there are some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story. This account is consistent with Herodotuss. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also some of Herodotuss specific claims. The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499-494 BC, led by the satrap of Miletus, the Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples
38.
Lothal
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Lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India, the official Indian government agency for the preservation of ancient monuments. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia, the techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years. Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad district and it is six kilometres south-east of the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by roads to the cities of Ahmedabad, Bhavnagar, Rajkot. The nearest cities are Dholka and Bagodara, the findings consist of a mound, a township, a marketplace, and the dock. Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in India are displayed, when British India was partitioned in 1947, most Indus sites, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, became part of Pakistan. The Archaeological Survey of India undertook a new program of exploration, many sites were discovered across northwestern India. Lothal stands 670 kilometers from Mohenjo-daro, which is in Sindh, the meaning of Lothal in Gujarati to be the mound of the dead is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi means the same. People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town, as recently as 1850, boats could sail up to the mound. In 1942, timber was shipped from Broach to Saragwala via the mound, a silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek. Speculation suggests that owing to the small dimensions of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all. However, the ASI and other contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat. Lothal provides with the largest collection of antiquities in the archaeology of modern India and it is essentially a single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to be autochthonous, two sub-periods of Harappan culture are distinguished, the same period is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. After the core of the Indus civilisation had decayed in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived and its constant threats - tropical storms and floods - caused immense destruction, which destabilised the culture and ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that at about the time of its demise, thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters, as suggested by environmental magnetic records. Lothal is based upon a mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide, small channel widths when compared to the lower reaches suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the city
39.
Ostia Antica
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Ostia Antica is a large archeological site, close to the modern suburb of Ostia, that was the location of the harbour city of ancient Rome, which is approximately 30 kilometres to the northeast. Ostia is a derivation of os, the Latin word for mouth, at the mouth of the River Tiber, Ostia was Romes seaport, but due to silting the site now lies 3 kilometres from the sea. The site is noted for the excellent preservation of its ancient buildings, magnificent frescoes, Ostia may have been Romes first colonia. An inscription seems to confirm the establishment of the old castrum of Ostia in the 7th century BC, the oldest archaeological remains so far discovered date back to only the 4th century BC. The most ancient buildings currently visible are from the 3rd century BC, notably the Castrum, Ostia was a scene of fighting during the period of the civil wars Sullas first civil war between Gaius Marius and Sulla during the 1st century BC. In 87 BC, Marius attacked the city in order to cut off the flow of trade to Rome, forces led by Cinna, Carbo and Sertorius crossed the Tiber at three points before capturing the city and plundering it. After his victory here, Marius moved on to attack and capture Antium, Aricia, in 68 BC, the town was sacked by pirates. During the sack, the port was set on fire, the war fleet was destroyed. Within a year, the pirates had been defeated, the town was then re-built, and provided with protective walls by the statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. During Julius Caesars time as Dictator, one of his improvements to the city was his establishment of better supervision of the supply of grain to Rome and he proposed better access to grain by the use of a new harbor in Ostia along with a canal from Tarracina. The town was developed during the first century AD under the influence of Tiberius. The town was also enriched by the construction of a new harbor on the northern mouths of the Tiber. The new harbor, not surprisingly called Portus, from the Latin for harbor, was excavated from the ground at the orders of the emperor Claudius. This harbor became silted up and needed to be supplemented later by a built by Trajan finished in the year 113 AD, it has a hexagonal form. Moreover, it must remember also that at a short distance. These elements took business away from Ostia itself and began its commercial decline, Ostia itself was provided with all the services a town of the time could require, in particular, a famous lighthouse. By 1954 eighteen mithraea had been discovered, Mithras had his largest following among the population that were the majority of this port town. Archaeologists also discovered the public latrinae, organised for collective use as a series of seats that allow us to imagine today that their function was also a social one
40.
Portus
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Portus was a large artificial harbour of Ancient Rome. Sited on the bank of the north mouth of the Tiber, on the Tyrrhenian coast, it was established by Claudius. The archaeological remains of the harbour are near the modern-day Italian village of Porto within the Comune of Fiumicino, the harbour thus opened directly to the sea on the northwest and communicated with the Tiber by a channel on the southeast. The object was to obtain protection from the prevalent southwest wind, nero gave the harbour the name of Portus Augusti. It was probably Claudius who constructed the new road from Rome to Portus. The Via Portuensis ran over the hills as far as the modern Ponte Galeria and it bore the name Fossa trajana, though its origin is undoubtedly due to Claudius. The basin itself is preserved, and is now a reedy lagoon. It was surrounded by warehouses, remains of which may still be seen. In 2010, one of the biggest canals ever built by the Romans was discovered to have built in Portus. For some 400 years, from the second century AD into the fifth and sixth centuries. Its abandonment dates from the silting up of the right arm of the Tiber in the Middle Ages. To the west of the harbour is the cathedral of Saint Rufina and the palace, fortified in the Middle Ages. It is a frazione, or portion of the commune of Rome,5 km to the north is the pumping station by which the lowland between there and Maccarese is kept drained. The site can still be clearly traced in the low ground to the east of Fiumicino. The harbour is generally supposed to have been protected by two moles with a breakwater in front, on which stood the lighthouse, with an entrance on each side of it. The whole course of the mole has not yet been traced. Many other remains of buildings exist, they were easily traceable in the 16th century when Pirro Ligorio and Antonio Labacco made plans of the harbour. The division between the ancient settlement and the medieval Porto began in the 4th century CE, when Emperor Constantine the Great had a line of walls built, Ostia, just opposite, on the left bank of the Tiber, was increasingly depopulated after Vandal and Saracen attacks
41.
Claudius
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Claudius was Roman emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and he was born at Lugdunum in Gaul, the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Claudius infirmity probably saved him from the fate of other nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligulas reigns. His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligulas assassination, despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also a builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts. During his reign the Empire began the conquest of Britain, having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility, Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion, many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 AD, his grand-nephew and adopted son Nero succeeded him as Emperor, Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum. He had two siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two children who died young. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus sister and his paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the son of Augustus. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour, Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years, Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a former mule-driver to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness, however, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In 7 AD, Livy was hired to tutor him in history and he spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus
42.
Trajan
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Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born in the city of Italica in the province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans non-patrician family was of Italian, Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus, in September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva was compelled to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and he died on 27 January 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea and his conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. However, its position north of the Danube made it susceptible to attack on three sides, and it was later abandoned by Emperor Aurelian. Trajans war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and his campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and he was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajans Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son Hadrian, as an emperor, Trajans reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. As far as ancient literary sources are concerned, an extant continuous account of Trajans reign does not exist, only fragments remain of the Getiká, a book by Trajans personal physician Titos Statilios Kriton. The Parthiká, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate, book 68 in Cassius Dios Roman History, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgments and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajans rule. Besides this, Pliny the Youngers Panegyricus and Dio of Prusas orations are the best surviving contemporary sources and it is certain that much of text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajans signature was written and/or edited by Trajans Imperial secretary, his ab epistulis. Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation, as well as recourse to sources such as archaeology. Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans birthplace of Italica was founded as a Roman military colony in 206 BC, though it is unknown when the Ulpii arrived there. Trajan was the son of Marcia, a Roman noblewoman and sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus, and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Marcus Ulpius Traianus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the Legio X Fretensis. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death and his elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonina Matidia. The patria of the Ulpii was Italica, in Spanish Baetica, as a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empires frontier
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Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
