1.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
2.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
3.
Talc
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Talc is a clay mineral composed of hydrated magnesium silicate with the chemical formula H2Mg34 or Mg3Si4O102. In loose form, it, along with starch, was one of the most widely used substances known as baby powder It occurs as foliated to fibrous masses. It has a perfect cleavage, and the folia are not elastic. Mohs scale of hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison. As such, talc can easily be scratched by a fingernail, talc has a specific gravity of 2. 5–2.8, a clear or dusty luster, and is translucent to opaque. Talc is not soluble in water, but is soluble in dilute mineral acids. Its color ranges from white to grey or green and it has a greasy feel. Soapstone is a rock composed predominantly of talc. The word talc derives from Medieval Latin talcus, which in turn originates from Arabic, طلق ṭalq which in turn was derived from Persian, in the ancient times, the word was used for various related minerals, including talc, mica, and selenite. Talc is a mineral that results from the metamorphism of magnesian minerals such as serpentine, pyroxene, amphibole. This is known as talc carbonation or steatization and produces a suite of known as talc carbonates. This is typically associated with high-pressure, low-temperature minerals such as phengite, garnet, such rocks are typically white, friable, and fibrous, and are known as whiteschist. Talc is a trioctahedral layered mineral, its structure is similar to pyrophyllite, talc is a common metamorphic mineral in metamorphic belts that contain ultramafic rocks, such as soapstone, and within whiteschist and blueschist metamorphic terranes. Talc carbonate ultramafics are typical of areas of the Archaean cratons. Talc-carbonate ultramafics are also known from the Lachlan Fold Belt, eastern Australia, from Brazil, the Guiana Shield, and from the belts of Turkey, Oman. Notable economic talc occurrences include the Mount Seabrook talc mine, Western Australia, the France-based Luzenac Group is the worlds largest supplier of mined talc. Its largest talc mine at Trimouns near Luzenac in southern France produces 400,000 tonnes of talc per year, talc is used in many industries, including paper making, plastic, paint and coatings, rubber, food, electric cable, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and ceramics. A coarse grayish-green high-talc rock is soapstone or steatite, used for stoves, sinks, electrical switchboards, crayons, soap and it is often used for surfaces of laboratory table tops and electrical switchboards because of its resistance to heat, electricity and acids
4.
Cotton swab
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Cotton swabs or cotton buds consist of a small wad of cotton wrapped around one or both ends of a short rod, usually made of either wood, rolled paper, or plastic. They are commonly used in a variety of applications including first aid, cosmetics application, cleaning, the cotton swab is a tool invented in the 1920s by Leo Gerstenzang after he attached wads of cotton to toothpicks. His product, which he named Baby Gays, went on to become the most widely sold brand name, Q-tips, the term Q-tips is often used as a genericized trademark for cotton swabs in the USA and Canada. The Q-tips brand is owned by Unilever and had over $200 million in sales in the US in 2014, although doctors have said for years that usage of the cotton swab for ear cleaning or scratching is not safe, such use remains the most common. The traditional cotton swab has a tip on a wooden handle. They are usually long, about six inches. These often are packaged sterile, one or two to a paper or plastic sleeve, the advantage of the paper sleeve and the wooden handle is that the package can be autoclaved to be sterilized. Cotton swabs manufactured for use are usually shorter, about three inches long, and usually double-tipped. The handles were first made of wood, then made of rolled paper and they are often sold in large quantities,100 or more to a container. Plastic swab stems exist in a variety of colors, such as blue. However, the cotton itself is traditionally white, the most common use for cotton swabs is to clean or caress the ear canal and/or to remove earwax, despite this not being a medically recommended method for removing earwax. Cotton swabs are commonly used for applying and removing makeup, as well as for household uses such as cleaning. Medical-type swabs are used to take microbiological cultures. They are swabbed onto or into the area, then wiped across the culture medium, such as an agar plate. They are also used to take DNA samples, most commonly by scraping cells from the cheek in the case of humans. They can be used to apply medicines to an area, to selectively remove substances from a targeted area. They are also used as an applicator for various cosmetics, ointments, a related area is the use of swabs for microbiological environmental monitoring. Once taken, the swab can be streaked onto an agar plate, the broth can either then be filtered or incubated and examined for microbial growth
5.
Health system
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There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. In some countries, health system planning is distributed among market participants, however, health care planning has been described as often evolutionary rather than revolutionary. According to WHO, healthcare systems goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions, provision of health care services, resource generation, financing, and stewardship. Other dimensions for the evaluation of systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability. They have also described in the United States as the five Cs, Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity. Also, continuity of care is a major goal. Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective, for reducing it to healthcare system. In many publications, for example, both expressions are used interchangeably, the World Health Organization defines health systems as follows, A health system consists of all organizations, people and actions whose primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health. This includes efforts to influence determinants of health as well as more direct health-improving activities, a health system is therefore more than the pyramid of publicly owned facilities that deliver personal health services. It includes inter-sectoral action by staff, for example, encouraging the ministry of education to promote female education. Healthcare providers are institutions or individuals providing healthcare services and they may also work outside of direct patient care such as in a government health department or other agency, medical laboratory, or health training institution. One study based on data from the OECD concluded that all types of health care finance are compatible with an efficient health system, the study also found no relationship between financing and cost control. The term health insurance is used to describe a form of insurance that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used broadly to include insurance covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through an insurance program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a basis or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses, the benefit is typically administered by a government agency, a non-profit health fund or a corporation operating seeking to make a profit. Many government schemes also have co-payment schemes but exclusions are rare because of political pressure, the larger insurance schemes may also negotiate fees with providers
6.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list
7.
Antiseptic
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Antiseptic are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. Disinfectants do not kill bacterial spores e. g. on surgical instruments, even sterilization may not destroy prions. Some antibiotics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes, while others are bacteriostatic, antibacterials are antiseptics that have the proven ability to act against bacteria. Microbicides which destroy virus particles are called viricides or antivirals, antisepsis was recommended by Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis in 1847 but, tragically, he was ignored. In this paper, Lister advocated the use of acid as a method of ensuring that any germs present were killed. Some of this work was anticipated by, Ancient Greek physicians Galen and Hippocrates and their theories were bitterly opposed by Galenist Guy de Chauliac and others trained in the classical tradition. Joseph Smith alluded to the use of alcohol as an antiseptic in February 1833, specifically, verse 7 states, And, again, strong drinks are not for the belly, but for the washing of your bodies. More commonly, 3% solutions of hydrogen peroxide have been used in household first aid for scrapes, however, the strong oxidization causes scar formation and increases healing time during fetal development. Iodine is usually used in a solution or as Lugols iodine solution as a pre-. Some people do not recommend disinfecting minor wounds with iodine because of concern that it may induce scar tissue formation, however, concentrations of 1% iodine or less have not been shown to increase healing time and are not otherwise distinguishable from treatment with saline. Polyhexanide is a compound suitable for clinical use in critically colonized or infected acute. The physicochemical action on the bacterial envelope prevents or impedes the development of resistant bacterial strains, balsam of Peru is a mild antiseptic. By continued exposure to antibiotics, bacteria may evolve to the point where they are no longer harmed by these compounds, bacteria can also develop a resistance to antiseptics, but the effect is generally less pronounced. The mechanism by which bacteria evolve may vary in response to different antiseptics, low concentrations of an antiseptic may encourage growth of a bacterial strain that is resistant to the antiseptic, where a higher concentration of the antiseptic would simply kill the bacteria. In addition, use of a high concentration of an antiseptic may cause tissue damage or slow the process of wound healing
8.
Chlorhexidine
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Chlorhexidine is a disinfectant and antiseptic that is used for skin disinfection before surgery and to sterilize surgical instruments. It may be used both to disinfect the skin of the patient and the hands of the healthcare providers and it is also used for cleaning wounds, preventing dental plaque, treating yeast infections of the mouth, and to keep urinary catheters from blocking. It is used as a liquid or powder, side effects may include skin irritation, teeth discoloration, and allergic reactions. May cause eye problems if direct contact occurs, use in pregnancy appears to be safe. Chlorhexidine may come mixed in alcohol, water, or surfactant solution and it is effective against a range of microorganisms though does not inactivate spores. Chlorhexidine came into use in the 1950s. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, chlorhexidine is available over the counter. The wholesale cost in the world is about 2.20 to 4.10 USD per liter of 5% solution. In the United Kingdom this amount costs the NHS about £4.80, chlorhexidine is used in disinfectants, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. In endodontics chlorhexidine is used for root canal irrigation and as an intracanal dressing, there is tentative evidence that it is more effective than povidone-iodine. Chlorhexidine is active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, facultative anaerobes, aerobes and it is particularly effective against Gram-positive bacteria. Significantly higher concentrations are required for Gram-negative bacteria and fungi, chlorhexidine is ineffective against polioviruses and adenoviruses. The effectiveness against herpes viruses has not yet been established unequivocally, chlorhexidine, like other cation-active compounds, remains on the skin. It is frequently combined with alcohols, chlorhexidine is often used as an active ingredient in mouthwash designed to reduce dental plaque and oral bacteria. It has been shown to have a bactericidal action and a prolonged bacteriostatic action due to adsorption onto the pellicle-coated enamel surface. If it is not deactivated, chlorhexidine lasts longer in the mouth than other mouthwashes, to treat periodontal pockets equal or greater than 5 mm, chlorhexidine is also available in high concentration in a gelatin chip. These conditions included gingivitis, periodontitis, dental traumas, oral cysts, the clinical efficacy of the application of chlorhexidine as a component of oral rinses is well documented by many clinical studies summarized by review articles. The brownish discoloration of teeth and tongue is due to the disintegration of bacterial membranes, at the same time, disulfide functions are reduced to thiol functions that form dark complexes with iron ions found in saliva
9.
National Health Service
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The National Health Service is the name of the public health services of England, Scotland and Wales, and is commonly used to refer to those of Northern Ireland. They were established together as one of the social reforms following the Second World War on the founding principles of being comprehensive, universal. Today, each provides a range of health services, the vast majority of which are free for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. Taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a budget of £136.7 billion. For non-residents, the NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner, the NHS began on the Appointed Day of 5 July 1948. This put into practice Westminster legislation for England and Wales from 1946 and Scotland from 1947, when Clement Attlees Labour Party won the 1945 election he appointed Aneurin Bevan as Health Minister. Bevan then embarked upon what the historian of the NHS, Charles Webster. Three years after the founding of the NHS, Bevan resigned from the Labour government in opposition to the introduction of charges for the provision of dentures and glasses, the following year, Winston Churchills Conservative government introduced prescription charges. These charges were the first of many controversies over reforms to the NHS throughout its history, each of the UKs four nations have their own separate NHS, each with its own history. From its earliest days, the history of the NHS has shown its place in British society reflected and debated in film, TV, cartoons. However, some functions might be performed by one health service on behalf of another. There have been issues about cross-border payments, taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion. In 2014 the total health sector workforce across the UK was 2,165,043 and this broke down into 1,789,586 in England,198,368 in Scotland,110,292 in Wales and 66,797 in Northern Ireland. The NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner and emergency treatment not including admission to hospital, people with the right to medical care in European Economic Area nations are also entitled to free treatment by using the European Health Insurance Card. Those from other countries with which the UK has reciprocal arrangements also qualify for free treatment, people not ordinarily resident in the UK are in general not entitled to free hospital treatment, with some exceptions such as refugees. People not ordinarily resident may be subject to an interview to establish their eligibility, patients who do not qualify for free treatment are asked to pay in advance, or to sign a written undertaking to pay, except for emergency treatment. The provision of treatment to non-UK-residents, formerly interpreted liberally, has been increasingly restricted. As of 2016 the surcharge was £200 per year, with exemptions and reductions in some cases, the systems are 98. 8% funded from general taxation and National Insurance contributions, plus small amounts from patient charges for some services
10.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone
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It is used as a binder in many pharmaceutical tablets, it simply passes through the body when taken orally. However, autopsies have found that crospovidone contributes to pulmonary vascular injury in substance abusers who have injected pharmaceutical tablets intended for oral consumption, the long-term effects of crospovidone or povidone within the lung are unknown. PVP added to iodine forms a complex called povidone-iodine that possesses disinfectant properties and this complex is used in various products like solutions, ointment, pessaries, liquid soaps and surgical scrubs. It is known under the trade names Pyodine and Betadine among a plethora of others, for this purpose, povidone iodine is equally effective and safe as talc, and may be preferred because of easy availability and low cost. Povidone is used as a lubricant in some eye drops, e. g. Bausch & Lombs Soothe and this has led to its application in coatings for photo-quality ink-jet papers and transparencies, as well as in inks for inkjet printers. PVP is also used in personal care products, such as shampoos and toothpastes, in paints and it has also been used in contact lens solutions and in steel-quenching solutions. PVP is the basis of the formulas for hair sprays and hair gels. As a food additive, PVP is a stabilizer and has E number E1201 and it is also used in the wine industry as a fining agent for white wine or some beers. Other references state that polyvinyl pyrrolidone and its derivatives are fully from mineral synthetic origin, therefore, its use in the production should not be a problem for vegans. In molecular biology, PVP can be used as an agent during Southern blot analysis as a component of Denhardts buffer. It is also good at absorbing polyphenols during DNA purification. Polyphenols are common in many plant tissues and can deactivate proteins if not removed, in microscopy, PVP is useful for making an aqueous mounting medium. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration has approved this chemical for many uses, for example, a boy having an anaphylactic response after application of PVP-Iodine for treatment of impetigo was found to be allergic to the PVP component of the solution. A woman, who had previously experienced urticaria from various hair products and she was found to be allergic to PVP. In another case, a man experiencing anaphylaxis after taking acetaminophen tablets orally was found to be allergic to PVP, povidone is commonly used in conjunction with other chemicals. Some of these, such as iodine, are blamed for allergic responses, allergies attributed to these other chemicals may possibly be caused by the PVP instead. Broadhurst, JAFC2000 PVP is soluble in water and other polar solvents, for example, it is soluble in various alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol, as well as in more exotic solvents like the deep eutectic solvent formed by choline chloride and urea. When dry it is a light flaky hygroscopic powder, readily absorbing up to 40% of its weight in atmospheric water, in solution, it has excellent wetting properties and readily forms films
11.
Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
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