1.
Earl of Devon
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The title of Earl of Devon was created several times in the English peerage, and was possessed first by the de Redvers family, and later by the Courtenays. It was a re-invention, if not a continuation, of the pre-Conquest office of Ealdorman of Devon. During the Tudor period all but the last Earl were attainted, the last recreation was to the heirs male of the grantee, not to the heirs male of his body. During this period of dormancy the de jure Earls of Devon, unlike the Dukes of Devonshire, seated in Derbyshire, the Earls of Devon were strongly connected to the county of Devon. Their seat is Powderham Castle, near Starcross on the River Exe, the Earl of Devon has not inherited the ancient and original Barony of Courtenay or the Viscountcy of Courtenay of Powderham, nevertheless, his heir is styled Lord Courtenay by courtesy. Before the Norman Conquest of 1066 the highest sub-regal authority in Devon was the Ealdorman, of office the later Earldom of Devon was a re-invention. He founded Tavistock Abbey in 961 and his son was Ordwulf, who realised the founding. He seized Exeter Castle, and mounted naval raids from Carisbrooke, but was out of England to Anjou, France. She created him Earl of Devon after she established herself in England, William de Redvers, 5th Earl of Devon was the third son of Baldwin, the 1st Earl. He had only two children who left issue and his son Baldwin died 1 September 1216 at the age of sixteen, leaving his wife Margaret pregnant with Baldwin de Redvers, 6th Earl of Devon. King John forced her to marry Falkes de Breauté, but she was rescued at the fall of Bedford Castle in 1224 and divorced from him and she is thus called Countess of Devon in several records. The fifth Earls youngest daughter, Mary de Redvers, known as de Vernon, was sole heiress of the 1141 Earldom. She married firstly, Pierre de Preaux, and secondly, Robert de Courtenay, the 6th Earl was succeeded by his son, Baldwin de Redvers, 7th Earl of Devon, who died without progeny. His sister, Isabella de Forz, widow of William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle and her children predeceased her and she had no grandchildren. Her lands were inherited by her second cousin once removed, Hugh de Courtenay, feudal baron of Okehampton and he was summoned by writ to Parliament in 1299 as Hugo de Curtenay, whereby he is held to have become Baron Courtenay. Although some sources consider this a new grant the wording of the grant arguably indicates a confirmation, historic sources thus variously refer to him as either 1st Earl or 9th Earl, and the position cannot be decided either way due to the uncertainty of the surviving evidence. The 1st/9th Earl was succeeded by his son, Hugh de Courtenay, Three of the eight sons of the 2nd/10th Earl had descendants a fourth, William Courtenay, was Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor. Sir Edward de Courtenay, the son, also predeceased his father, but left an eldest son, Edward de Courtenay, 3rd Earl of Devon, The Blind
2.
Great hall
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At that time the word great simply meant big, and had not acquired its modern connotations of excellence. Great halls were found especially in France, England and Scotland, a typical great hall was a rectangular room between one and a half and three times as long as it was wide, and also higher than it was wide. It was entered through a passage at one end, and had windows on one of the long sides. There was often a gallery above the screens passage. At the other end of the hall was the dais where the table was situated. The lords familys more private rooms lay beyond the end of the hall. Even royal and noble residences had few living rooms until late in the Middle Ages, and a great hall was a multifunctional room. It was used for receiving guests and it was the place where the household would dine together, including the lord of the house, his gentleman attendants, at night some members of the household might sleep on the floor of the great hall. The hearth was used for heating and also for some of the cooking, commonly the fireplace would have an elaborate overmantel with stone or wood carvings or even plasterwork which might contain coats of arms, heraldic mottoes, caryatids or other adornment. In the upper halls of French manor houses, the fireplaces were usually very large, typically, the great hall had the most beautiful decorations in it, as well as on the window frame mouldings on the outer wall. Many French manor houses have very beautifully decorated external window frames on the large mullioned windows that light the hall and this decoration clearly marked the window as belonging to the lords private hall. In western France, the manor houses were centered on a central ground-floor hall. Later, the reserved for the lord and his high-ranking guests was moved up to the first-floor level. This was called the salle haute or upper hall, in some of the larger three-storey manor houses, the upper hall was as high as second storey roof. The smaller ground-floor hall or salle basse remained but was for receiving guests of any social order and it is very common to find these two halls superimposed, one on top of the other, in larger manor houses in Normandy and Brittany. Access from the hall to the upper hall was normally via an external staircase tower. The upper hall often contained the bedroom and living quarters off one end. Occasionally the great hall would have a listening device system
3.
Samuel and Nathaniel Buck
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For the British band see Buck Brothers. Samuel Buck and his brother Nathaniel Buck were English engravers and printmakers, best known for their Bucks Antiquities, Samuel produced much work on his own but when the brothers worked together, they were usually known as the Buck Brothers. More is known about Samuel than Nathaniel, Samuel Buck was born in Yorkshire in 1696. After publishing some prints in that county he moved to London, with Nathaniel he embarked on making a number of series of prints of antiquities, which consisted of ancient castles and former religious buildings in England and Wales. Starting in 1724, they travelled around these countries, and completed sets of prints for the regions of England by 1738 and these are commonly known as Bucks Antiquities. During this time also worked on a series of townscapes in England and Wales entitled Cities, Sea-ports. Nathaniel was the first to die, sometime between 1759 and 1774, Samuel died on 17 August 1779 in London and was buried in the churchyard of St. Clement Danes. Samuels later years were spent in poverty
4.
Manor of Powderham
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In the Domesday Book of 1086, the tenant-in-chief of POLDREHA~ is recorded as William II, Count of Eu, listed under the heading, Terra Willelmi de Ow. William II, Count of Eu, rebelled against King William II and was executed and their tenant at both manors continued to be the de Powderham family until after the death of John de Powderham it escheated to the then overlord Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford. Pole however states that the escheat was due to the attainder of John de Powderham, Margaret bequeathed Powderham in her will to her 4th son Sir Philip Courtenay, who thus became the founder of the junior Powderham branch of the Courtenay family. He married Anne Wake, daughter of Sir Thomas Wake of Blisworth, much of his time was spent away from Powderham, which manor together with Chivelstone, he leased to his brother-in-law Sir Robert Cary of Cockington, Devon,12 times MP for Devon. He was the eldest son of Sir John Courtenay, by his wife Joan Champernoun, daughter of Sir RIchard Champernoun of Modbury and he married Elizabeth Hungerford, daughter of Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford, KG, by Katherine Peverell. His younger son was Peter Courtenay Bishop of Exeter and his second son was Sir Philip Courtenay, sometime MP and Sheriff of Devon in 1471, who was bequeathed by his mother the Devon manor of Molland, where his line of the family continued until 1732. Sir William Courtenay, Sheriff of Devon in 1483 and he married Margaret Bonville, daughter of William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville. His second son was Edward Courtenay of Landrake, Cornwall, whose monumental brass survives in Landrake Church and their son and heir was Edward Courtenay, the husband of Margaret Trethurffe, daughter and co-heir of Thomas Trethurffe of Trethurffe in Ladock, Cornwall. He married Cecily Cheyne, daughter of Sir John Cheyne of Pinhoe, MP for Devon 1529, Sheriff of Devon 1522, 1525-6, 1533-4, Esquire of the Body to King Henry VIII, whom he accompanied to the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Sir William Courtenay, de jure 2nd Earl of Devon and he was the son of George Courtenay by his wife Catherine St Leger, daughter of Sir George St Leger. He married Elizabeth Paulet, daughter of daughter of John Paulet, a retrospective decision of the House of Lords in 1831 determined that he had succeeded his sixth cousin once removed Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon as de jure 2nd Earl of Devon in 1556. He died at the storming of Saint Quintin in France in 1557, Sir William Courtenay, de jure 3rd Earl of Devon. Francis Courtenay, de jure 4th Earl of Devon Sir William Courtenay, forde became the couples main home, possibly due to the damage suffered by Powderham Castle in 1645 during the Civil War. Sir William and his wife were buried at Wolborough and several of their children were baptised there, Sir William Courtenay, 2nd Baronet de jure 6th Earl of Devon. Marys brother was John Boevey who refers to himself in his will dated 6 March 1703 as John Boevey of Powderham Castle and he directed his body to be buried in the north aisle of Powderham Church near the monument there erected. He further derired my executor. to bestow and lay out the summe of fifty pounds in erecting a monument near the place of interrment in such manner as my executor shall think fit. He left £10 each to his nieces Elizabeth, Mary, Lucy and he also bequeathed them each the sum of £30 to buy a diamond ring each to be worn in his memory. He bequeathed to Sir William Courtenay his nephew the sum of £100 and he died unmarried, when the viscountcy became extinct, but not the earldom or baronetcy
5.
Hundred (county division)
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It is still used in other places, including South Australia. Other terms for the hundred in English and other languages include wapentake, herred, herad, hérað, härad or hundare, Harde, Satakunta or kihlakunta, kihelkond and cantref. In Ireland, a subdivision of counties is referred to as a barony. The name hundred may be derived from the number 100, it may once have referred to an area liable to provide 100 men under arms and it was a traditional Germanic system described as early as AD98 by Tacitus. Similar systems were used in the traditional administrative regimes of China, the term hundred is first recorded in the laws of Edmund I as a measure of land and the area served by a hundred court. The Hundred Ordinance, which dates to the middle of the century, provides that the court is to meet monthly, the name of the hundred was normally that of its meeting-place. During Norman times, the hundred would pay geld based on the number of hides. To assess how much everyone had to pay, a clerk and a knight were sent by the king to each county, they sat with the shire-reeve, of the county, there would be two knights from each hundred. After it was determined what geld had to be paid, the bailiff and knights of the hundred were responsible for getting the money to the sheriff, above the hundred was the shire, under the control of a sheriff. Hundred boundaries were independent of both parish and county boundaries, although often aligned, meaning that a hundred could be split between counties, or a parish could be split between hundreds. Exceptionally, in the counties of Kent and Sussex, there was a sub-division between that of the hundred and the shire, several hundreds were grouped together to form lathes in Kent and rapes in Sussex. At the time of the Norman conquest of England, Kent was divided into seven lathes, the system of hundreds was not as stable as the system of counties being established at the time, and lists frequently differ on how many hundreds a county had. In many parts of the country, the Domesday Book contained a different set of hundreds from that which later became established. The numbers of hundreds in each county varied wildly, Leicestershire had six, whereas Devon, nearly three times the size, had 32. Over time, the functions of the hundred became the administration of law. By the 12th century, the court was held twelve times a year. This was later increased to fortnightly, although an ordinance of 1234 reduced the frequency to every three weeks. In some hundreds, courts were held at a place, while in others
6.
Exminster
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Exminster is a village situated on the southern edge of the City of Exeter on the western side of the Exeter ship canal and River Exe in the county of Devon, England. It is around 6 km south of the centre of Exeter, Exminster is an ancient village associated with a Saxon minster or religious community, founded here in the 8th century. And left by King Alfred the Great to his youngest son Aethelweard in his will of 889, in the 14th century, it was the seat of the Courtenay family, the Earls of Devon. William Courtenay, who was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1381 to 1396, was born here, Exminster is a major part of the electoral ward of Kenn Valley. Its population at the census was 5,906 Exminster Marshes, to the east of the village, are a major site for birds. The present parish church of Saint Martin of Tours is a Grade I listed building and was built in the late 14th and 15th centuries in the Perpendicular style and it was heavily restored in 1841 and again in 1852. It has a large three-storied tower with a stair turret. Inside, the Peamore chapel has a plaster ceiling dated 1633, depicting the Twelve Apostles and the Four Evangelists, scenes of the Nativity, Christ carrying the cross, there is also a notable monument to Otho Petre of Bowhay who died in 1607. The churchyard contains the war graves of eight British service personnel of World War I - the first and highest ranking being Major General Robert Kekewich - and it featured a central administration block with six radiating arms and had a capacity of around 800 beds. The hospital closed in the mid-1980s when it was known as Exminster Hospital, after years of neglect, the surrounding land was built upon for housing and the grade II listed hospital was converted to apartments and town houses, it is now known as Devington Park. Exminster railway station was opened by George Hennet on behalf of the South Devon Railway in 1852 and it closed to passenger traffic on 30 March 1964 and to goods on 4 December 1967, but its distinctive building still stands next to the railway line. The signal box remained standing on the site until September 2006 but has now been removed for preservation to Broadway, Worcestershire. Exminster also has a school, several parks for children including a skate park. The Topsham and Exminster Brewery, which produces Ferryman Ale, is located at a former RAF GCI radar station in the midst of the Exminster Marshes RSPB reserve. The Exeter Canal cycle path leads from Exminster into the centre of Exeter, Peamore, Exminster Bowhay, a seat of the Petre family, later the seat of Aaron Baker the first President of the Madras Presidency. Exminsters Community Website Devington Park - the alternative Website Exminster at DMOZ Exminster in the Domesday Book
7.
Exeter
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Exeter is a cathedral city in Devon, England with a population of 127,300. It lies within the county of Devon, of which it is the county town as well as the home of Devon County Council, currently, the administrative area has the status of a non-metropolitan district and is therefore under the administration of the County Council. The city is on the River Exe about 37 miles northeast of Plymouth and 70 miles southwest of Bristol, Exeter was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in Britain, although there is evidence a Cornish tribe existed in Exeter before the Roman invasion. Exeter became a centre during the Middle Ages and into the Tudor times, Exeter Cathedral, founded in the mid 11th century. During the late 19th century, Exeter became an affluent centre for the wool trade, after the Second World War, much of the city centre was rebuilt and is now considered to be a centre for modern business and tourism in Devon and Cornwall. The name Exe is a development of the Brittonic name—meaning water or, more exactly, full of fish —that also appears in the English Axe and Esk, the Welsh Usk. Exeter began as settlements on a dry ridge ending in a spur overlooking a navigable river teeming with fish, although there have been no major prehistoric finds, these advantages suggest the site was occupied early. Coins have been discovered from the Hellenistic kingdoms, suggesting the existence of a settlement trading with the Mediterranean as early as 250 BC. Such early towns had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries, the Romans established a 42-acre playing-card shaped fort named Isca around AD55. To distinguish the two, the Romans also referred to Exeter as Isca Dumnoniorum, Watertown of the Dumnonii, a small fort was also maintained at Topsham, a supply depot on the route between the two was excavated at St Loyes on Topsham Road in 2010. The presence of the built up an unplanned civilian community of natives. This area was excavated in the 1970s, but could not be maintained for public view owing to its proximity to the present-day cathedral, in January 2015, it was announced that Exeter Cathedral had launched a bid to restore the baths and open an underground centre for visitors. In the late 2nd century, the ditch and rampart defences around the old fortress were replaced by a bank and wall enclosing a much larger area, although most of the visible structure is older, the course of the Roman wall was used for Exeters subsequent city walls. Thus about 70% of the Roman wall remains, and most of its route can be traced on foot, the dating of the coins so far discovered, however, suggests a rapid decline, virtually none have been discovered dated after the year 380. By that time, the city was held by the Saxons, Exeter was known to the Saxons as Escanceaster. In 876, it was attacked and briefly captured by Danish Vikings, alfred the Great drove them out the next summer. Over the next few years, he elevated Exeter to one of the four burhs in Devon and these permitted the city to fend off another attack and siege by the Danes in 893. King Athelstan again strengthened the walls around 928, and at the time drove out the remaining Britons from the city
8.
Kenton, Devon
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Kenton is a small village located near Exeter, the capital of Devon, England. It has two restaurants, a pub, two hairdressers, a school, a mediaeval church and is near Powderham Castle. Kenton is known for its castle, Powderham Castle, where the Earl of Devon once settled. Powderham Castle was built between 1390 and 1420 by Sir Philip Courtenay, the Castle remains in the hands of his descendant, the Earl of Devon. The church is dedicated to all of the saints and is a building of the 14th century. It is built of red sandstone and the arcades are of Beer stone, according to John Betjeman the full-aisled Devon plan at its best. The tower is handsome and the screen is massive and stately with ancient colour. The pulpit is medieval and the reredos is by Charles Eamer Kempe, saint-Lambert-du-Lattay since 1996 Linkebeek since 1996 Powderham Castle Powderham Castle, Kenton, Devon
9.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
10.
River Exe
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It flows for 60 miles and reaches the sea at a substantial ria, the Exe Estuary, on the south coast of Devon. Historically, its lowest bridging point was at Exeter, though there is now a viaduct for the M5 motorway about 3 kilometres south of the city centre. The rivers name is an anglicisation of the Latin isca, itself a form of a Brittonic root meaning water or, more exactly. It seems to be a cognate of pysg, the Welsh word for fish. The river gave the name of Exeter and many settlements along its course, including Exford, Up Exe, Nether Exe, Exwick, Exton, Exminster, and Exebridge. The seaside town of Exmouth is at the east side of the estuary mouth, the river fuelled Exeters growth and relative importance in medieval times, and the citys first industrial area was developed at Exe Island, created by a series of leats to the west of the city. The island was home to numerous watermills producing paper and textiles, tides on the river are limited at Countess Wear, the site of a weir commissioned by the Countess of Devon in the 13th century. The Exeter Canal bypasses this weir to enable ships to reach Exeter Quay, at high tide, the estuary forms a large body of water that is heavily used for water sports especially sailing, windsurfing and water skiing. Railways run along both sides of the estuary, the Avocet Line from Exeter to Exmouth on the eastern side, and the South Devon main line on the western. The latter is on a causeway, the South Devon Railway sea wall from Powderham to Dawlish Warren, at low tide, extensive mud flats are exposed, and these are an important feeding source for wading birds. Along with other rias in South West England, the Exe estuary is an important site for wintering waders, Dawlish Warren is a favoured site for birdwatching. The river has a low pH but does not suffer from an acid rain problem. It is populated with wild brown trout, and in the lower reaches coarse fish including dace, chub, perch, roach, pike and bream and some grayling, there is a run of Atlantic salmon and a sparse run of sea trout. Just 150 metres below the union of the River Barle is Black Pool, which is one of the best, the smaller fish species present include stone loach and there are good reasons to assume others are present. In 2008 the Environment Agency embarked on a project to clean the river from vegetation forming, in order to do so the water level decreased to its lowest level – less water remained than the droughts the city has suffered. Rivers of the United Kingdom Lawrence, Rod, the Exe, A River for Wildlife. RSPB reserves, Exminster & Powderham Marshes Dawlish Warren Nature Reserve
11.
Lympstone
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Lympstone is a village and civil parish in East Devon in the English county of Devon. It has a population of 1,754, there is a harbour on the estuary of the River Exe, lying at the outlet of Wotton Brook between cliffs of red breccia. The promontory to the north of the harbour is topped by a pasture, Cliff Field. Lympstone has rail services on the Avocet Line to Exmouth and Exeter from Lympstone Village railway station, near the village is the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines, the principal military training centre for the Royal Marines. The training centre has its own dedicated railway halt, Lympstone Commando, ralph Lane, equerry to Queen Elizabeth I, was born in Lympstone. He was a soldier who went with Sir Walter Raleigh on his expedition to the New World in 1585. He founded a colony on Roanoke Island amidst great hardship and deprivation and he was later present at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Singer and lead guitarist of The Kinks, Dave Davies, lived in Lympstone in the 1990s, Lympstone AFC were formed in 1906, they have sides in the Devon & Exeter Football League. Lympstone has a football club Royal Marines A. F. C. who play at Endurance Park CTCRM. They have since folded in April 2012, the Exeter–Exmouth cycle route passes through the village. The cycle route is popular for commuters and recreational cyclists, prior to the opening of the cycle route the only direct route to cycle between Exmouth and Exeter was along the busy A376. The cycle route passes through the centre of the village bringing custom to the shop, cafe and pubs and adds to the vibrancy and sustainability of the village centre and its businesses. Despite this, a minority group is campaigning to change the route and are concerned it affects the village centre. The 1st Lympstone Sea Scouts Group celebrated its centenary in 2012 and it currently has flourishing Scout and Cub sections. It meets in the Scout HQ on Cliff Field, Lympstone Commando railway station Smith, Rosemary. Lympstone village website Lympstone Village Design Statement, East Devon Council The Early History of Lympstone, Britannia
12.
James Wyatt
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James Wyatt RA was an English architect, a rival of Robert Adam in the neoclassical style and neo-Gothic style. Wyatt spent six years in Italy, 1762–68, in company with Richard Bagot of Staffordshire, in Venice, Wyatt studied with Antonio Visentini as an architectural draughtsman and painter. Back in England, his selection as architect of the proposed Pantheon or Winter Ranelagh in Oxford Street, London, brought him almost unparalleled instant success. His brother Samuel was one of the promoters of the scheme. When the Pantheon was opened in 1772, their choice was at once endorsed by the fashionable public, externally it was unremarkable, but the classicising domed hall surrounded by galleried aisles and apsidal ends, was something new in assembly rooms, and brought its architect immediate celebrity. On the 15 February 1785 Wyatt was elected an Academician of the Royal Academy, in later years, he carried out alterations at Frogmore for Queen Charlotte, and was made Surveyor-General of the Works. Between 1805 and 1808 Wyatt remodelled West Dean House in West Dean, wyatt’s work was remarkable because it is built entirely of flint, even to the door and window openings, which would normally be lined with stone. In 1776, Wyatt succeeded Henry Keene as Surveyor to Westminster Abbey, in 1782 he became, in addition, Architect of the Ordnance. The death of Sir William Chambers brought him the post of Surveyor General, Wyatt was now the principal architect of the day, the recipient of more commissions than he could well fulfil. His widespread practice and the duties of his official posts left him time to give proper attention to the individual needs of his clients. In 1804, Jeffry Wyatt told Farington that his uncle had lost many great commissions by such neglect, Wyatt was a brilliant but facile designer, whose work is not characterized by any markedly individual style. It was not until towards the end of his life that he and his brother Samuel developed the severe, meanwhile, Wyatts reputation as a rival to Robert Adam had been eclipsed by his celebrity as a Gothic architect. Every Georgian architect was called upon from time to time to designs in the medieval style. In the following year, however, he was permitted to add F. S. A. to his name by a majority of one hundred, Wyatt was elected to the Royal Academy in 1785, and took an active part in the politics of the Academy. But his election was never approved by the King. Wyatt was one of the founders of the Architects Club in 1791, in 1802 Wyatt built a new house for the 7th Earl of Bridgewater on the Ashridge estate in Hertfordshire which is now a Grade I listed building. In 1803 Thomas Johnes hired Wyatt to design Saint Michels Hafod Church, Eglwys Newydd, in Ceredigion, Wales. He died on 4 September 1813 as the result of an accident to the carriage in which he was travelling over the Marlborough Downs with his friend and employer, Christopher Codrington of Dodington Park
13.
House of Courtenay
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House of Courtenay is the name of two distinct noble families, both of which descended from Athon. Athon, the first lord of Courtenay, was apparently a descendant of the Counts of Sens and from Pharamond. Peter and Elizabeths descendants were members of the Capetian House of Courtenay, a branch of the House of Capet. Their descendants acquired through marriage the County of Namur and the Latin Empire of Constantinople and this branch became extinct in the male line in 1733, with the name Courtenay passing on to the Bauffremont family. A cadet branch of the Courtenay that participated in the crusades came to rule the County of Edessa and it became extinct in the male line around 1200. See also the Houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset, the House of Bourbon, which acquired the French throne with Henry IV of France, was another cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. Under the Salic law, males descended in male line from Hugh Capet are princes of the blood—i. e and they have the right to succeed to the French throne in the event that the male line of the royal family and of more senior princes die out. Three Bourbon kings in a row - Henri IV, Louis XIII, although the Courtenays protested against this clause, their claims to the princely title were never acknowledged by the Paris Court of Accounts. His son, Robert de Courtenay, feudal baron of Okehampton, Devon, in right of his mother Hawise de Curci, married Mary de Redvers, daughter and heiress of William de Redvers, 5th Earl of Devon. His great-grandson Hugh de Courtenay, 9th Earl of Devon inherited the Earldom of Devon in 1335 on the extinction of the line of the de Redvers family. The title was recreated for Hugh de Courtenay, nephew of Hugh the elder Despenser. The family is one of the most ancient in England, currently headed by Charles Courtenay, Athon Joscelin I of Courtenay, married 1. Reginald of Sidon Isabella of Courtenay, married Thoros II of Armenia Geoffrey Chapalu Cleaveland, a Genealogical History of the Noble and Illustrious Family of Courtenay, Exeter,1735
14.
Manor
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A manor in English law is an estate in land to which is incident the right to hold a court termed court baron, that is to say a manorial court. The proper unit of tenure under the system is the fee, on which the manor became established through the process of time. The manor is nevertheless often described as the basic unit of tenure and is historically connected with the territorial divisions of the march, county, hundred, parish. And so by continuance of time made a manor, of the portion reserved by the lord for his own use, termed the demesne, part was occupied by villeins, with the duty of cultivating the rest for the lords use. These were originally tenants at will and in a state of semi-serfdom and it is of the essence of copyhold that it should be regulated by the custom of the manor, as evidenced in the manorial roll produced by the manorial court. Manors cannot be created at the present day because manorial courts cannot be established with any legal jurisdiction, the statute did not apply to a tenant-in-chief of the king, who might have alienated his land under a license. When a great baron had granted out smaller manors to others, all land was differentiated by its legal status and by physical characteristics. It should be noted that legal status of land in England, demesne, land retained in-hand by the lord of the manor, without subtenant. Other land could be, Glebe, land not belonging to the reserved for the support of the parish priest. Common land, by open land, over which the lord, certain manorial tenants. For example, a right of estovers may belong to one of groups or all of them. Freehold Copyhold Customary Freehold Leasehold, the Reversion is held by its former freeholder, usually before the sale of land belonging to manors, arable, ploughed land used to grow crops. Pasture, grassland used for grazing livestock, closes, small enclosed fields created by hedge or stone wall boundaries, used for example to house ewes with their lambs requiring close observation. Marsh Woodland, a fuel resource. Furze, a resource used by the lower tenants. Fallow, land resting within the cycle of crop rotation agriculture, fishpond, used to breed fish such as carp A manor was akin to the modern firm or business or other going concern. It was further similar in that its ownership could be transferred, with the licence to alienate having been obtained from the overlord. The administration was self-contained and the new lord needed only to collect its net revenues to form his return on investment, the direction was ultimately provided by the manorial court, presided over by the lords personal steward, whose members included the freehold tenants of the manor
15.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
16.
Hugh de Courtenay, 2nd/10th Earl of Devon
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His chief seats were Tiverton Castle and Okehampton in Devon. Authorities differ in their opinions, and thus alternative ordinal numbers exist, given here. Hugh de Courtenay was born on 12 July 1303, the son of Hugh de Courtenay, 9th Earl of Devon, by his wife Agnes de Saint John, daughter of Sir John de Saint John of Basing. He succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father in 1340 and his elder brother, John de Courtenay, Abbot of Tavistock, as a cleric was unmarried and although he succeeded his father as feudal baron of Okehampton, did not succeed to the earldom. On 20 January 1327 Courtenay was made a knight banneret, in 1333 both he and his father were at the Battle of Halidon Hill. He was summoned to Parliament on 23 April 1337 by writ directed to Hugoni de Courteney juniori, in 1339 he and his father were with the forces which repulsed a French invasion of Cornwall, driving the French back to their ships. The 9th Earl died 23 December 1340 at the age of 64, Courtenay succeeded to the earldom, and was granted livery of his lands on 11 January 1341. In 1342 the Earl was with Edward IIIs expedition to Brittany, richardson states that the Earl took part on 9 April 1347 in a tournament at Lichfield. In 1350 the King granted the Earl permission to travel for a year, in 1352 he was appointed Joint Warden of Devon and Cornwall, and returned to Devon. In 1361 he and his wife were legatees in the will of her brother, Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford, Courtenay made an important contribution to the outcome of the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. Courtenay played little part in the battle as a result of his defensive role, Courtenay retired with a full pension from the King. In 1373 he was appointed Chief Warden of the Royal Forests of Devon and he was one of the least wealthy of the English earls, and did not compare in this respect with his much wealthier fellow warrior lords such as Arundel, Suffolk, and Warwick. He had nevertheless a retinue of 40 knights, esquires and lawyers in Devon and he also held property by entail, including five manors in Somerset, two in Cornwall, two in Hampshire, one in Dorset and one in Buckinghamshire. The earl had stood as patron in the career of John Grandisson and he supported the taking-on of debt to build churches in the diocese of Exeter. He died at Exeter 2 May 1377, and was buried in Exeter Cathedral on the same day and his left a will dated 28 Jan 1391. After the death of Sir Hugh Courtenay, his widow, Elizabeth, married successively John de Mowbray, 3rd Baron Mowbray, Thomas Courtenay, canon of Crediton and Exeter. Sir Edward Courtenay of Godlington, who was born about 1331 at Haccombe, Devon and he married Emeline Dawney, daughter and heiress of Sir John Dawney of Mudford Terry, Somerset, and had issue, Edward Courtenay, 11th Earl of Devon, who married Maud Camoys. The earldom remained in their descendants until their great-grandson, Thomas Courtenay, 14th Earl of Devon, was beheaded at York on 3 April 1461 after the Battle of Towton, Sir Hugh Courtenay of Haccombe and Bampton, whose grandson was Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon
17.
Tiverton Castle
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Tiverton Castle is the remains of a medieval castle dismantled after the Civil War and thereafter converted in the 17th century into a country house. It occupies a position above the banks of the River Exe at Tiverton in Devon. Once considerably larger, Tiverton Castle now comprises a group of ruined defensive perimeter walls, towers, a Norman motte was built in 1106 and was then extended and altered in the 12th and 13th centuries. During the Civil War the Castle was a Royalist stronghold, the Culverin, the largest artillery piece used by the New Model Army, was capable of firing up to 2,000 yards. The bulk of the structure was then demolished by Parliamentarian troops to prevent any military re-use of the structure. The primary source is the 1645 narrative by John Rushworth dated Tiverton, at nine a clock at night, entitled, The taking of Tiverton, with the castle, church, and fort, by Sir Thomas Fairfax, on the Lords-day last, Octob. Wherein was taken Colonel Sir Gilbert Talbot, the governour, Major Sadler, major to Col. Talbot. Armes, with store of ammunition, provision, and treasure, also the severall defeats given to Goring, by his Excellency, and all Gorings forces fled before him. Instant, our batteries were finished by the afternoone, and on this day being the Lords day Octob, the castle was verie strong, and the works all regular. A List of what was taken at Tiverton, colonell Sir Gilbert Talbot, the Governour. Major Sadler, Major to Col. Talbot,500 Armes, with store of Ammunition, Provision, and Treasure. In 1106 the large and important manor of Tiverton was granted by King Henry I to Richard de Redvers and his son Baldwin de Redvers, was created 1st Earl of Devon by the Empress Matilda during The Anarchy, probably in early 1141. The 7th Redvers Earl died in 1262, without progeny, whereupon his sister, Isabella de Forz and he was summoned to Parliament in 1299 as Lord Courtenay, which created him a baron by writ, although he was already a feudal baron. In 1335 he was declared to be 1st Earl of Devon, however these connections did not save Catherines son Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, 2nd Earl of Devon from being implicated in a plot and executed in 1539 by King Henry VIII. The Courtenays also held from the 13th-century Okehampton Castle, their seat in England. On the accession of Queen Mary in 1553 Sir Henry Gates was tried for treason, later that year of 1553 he was pardoned, but his lands were not restored to him. Queen Mary restored Tiverton to Edward Courtenay, the son of the executed Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, 2nd Earl of Devon. These sisters had married into the West Country families of Arundell of Talvern, Trethurfe, Mohun and Trelawney, some of the heirs sold their shares
18.
Justice of the peace
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A justice of the peace is a judicial officer, of a lower or puisne court, elected or appointed by means of a commission to keep the peace. In past centuries the term commissioner of the peace was used with the same meaning. Depending on the jurisdiction, such justices dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions, some jurisdictions have varying forms of training for JPs. In 1195, Richard I of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas and they were responsible to the King for ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the Kings peace. Therefore, they were known as keepers of the peace, the title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III. The peace to be guarded is the sovereigns, the maintenance of which is the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative, Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons to be of good behaviour. The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, the justices alternative title of magistrate dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times. Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justices standing within the community, the justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it and this was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown. Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. Now in the UK, 50% of JPs are women, in special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact gubernatorial, in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a concession in the Matabele kingdom. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state, for example, in Queensland, a justice of the peace must complete an exam prior to being eligible for appointment, whereas in Victoria, a person need only prove good character by way of references. Generally speaking, a justice of the peace cannot act in relation to a document which is to be used in a foreign country. One exception to this, however, is that countries in the Commonwealth frequently accept documents so certified, documents which are to be used in a foreign country that does not provide for a foreign JP to witness them should be dealt with by a notary public. This is the same for all countries where the office of justice of the peace exists, notaries public are often solicitors or barristers, and the best way to locate one is to contact your local law society. Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace, usually in remote aboriginal communities, in Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP
19.
Manor house
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A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era. They were sometimes fortified, but this was intended more for show than for defence. Manor houses existed in most European countries where feudalism existed, where they were known as castles, palaces. Many buildings, such as schools, are named Manor, the reason behind this is because the building was or is close to a manor house. The lord of the manor may have several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom. A large and suitable building was required within the manor for such purpose, generally in the form of a hall. This also gave the opportunity for the manor house to be cleaned, especially important in the days of the cess-pit. Thus such non-resident lords needed to appoint a steward or seneschal to act as their deputy in such matters, the day-to-day administration was carried out by a resident official in authority at each manor, who in England was called a bailiff, or reeve. Although not typically built with strong fortifications as were castles, many manor-houses were fortified and they were often enclosed within walls or ditches which often also included agricultural buildings. The primary feature of the house was its great hall. A late 16th-century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France, the Tudor period of stability in England saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. During the second half of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and under her successor King James I the first mansions designed by architects not by mere masons or builders, began to make their appearance. Such houses as Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known of this period, nearly every large mediaeval manor house had its own deer-park adjoining, emparked by royal licence, which served primarily as a store of food in the form of venison. Within these licensed parks deer could not be hunted by royalty and this gave them more privacy and space. Court was a suffix which came into use in the 16th century, the obvious origin of the suffix would appear to be that the building was the location where the manorial courts were held. True castles, when not royal castles, were generally the residences of feudal barons, the manor on which the castle was situated was termed the caput of the barony, thus every true ancient defensive castle was also the manor house of its own manor. The suffix -Park came into use in the 18th and 19th centuries, the usage is often a modern catch-all suffix for an old house on an estate, true manor or not
20.
Keep
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A keep is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility. The Anglo-Normans and French rulers began to stone keeps during the 10th and 11th centuries, these included Norman keeps, with a square or rectangular design. Stone keeps carried considerable political as well as military importance and could take up to a decade to build, during the 12th century, new designs began to be introduced – in France, quatrefoil-shaped keeps were introduced, while in England polygonal towers were built. In Spain, keeps were increasingly incorporated into both Christian and Islamic castles, although in Germany tall towers called Bergfriede were preferred to keeps in the western fashion, in the second half of the 14th century, there was a resurgence in the building of keeps. In France, the keep at Vincennes began a fashion for tall, heavily machicolated designs, meanwhile, tower keeps in England became popular amongst the most wealthy nobles, these large keeps, each uniquely designed, formed part of the grandest castles built during the period. By the 16th century, however, keeps were slowly falling out of fashion as fortifications, many were destroyed in civil wars between the 17th and 18th centuries, or incorporated into gardens as an alternative to follies. During the 19th century, keeps became fashionable once again and in England, despite further damage to many French and Spanish keeps during the wars of the 20th century, keeps now form an important part of the tourist and heritage industry in Europe. Since the 16th century, the English word keep has commonly referred to large towers in castles. The word originates from around 1375 to 1376, coming from the Middle English term kype, meaning basket or cask, the term came to be used for other shell keeps by the 15th century. By the 17th century, the word keep lost its reference to baskets or casks. Early on, the use of the keep became associated with the idea of a tower in a castle that would serve both as a fortified, high-status private residence and a refuge of last resort. By the 19th century, Victorian historians incorrectly concluded that the etymology of the keep and tenazza were linked. As a result of evolution in meaning, the use of the term keep in historical analysis today can be problematic. Contemporary medieval writers used various terms for the buildings we would today call keeps, in Latin, they are variously described as turris, turris castri or magna turris – a tower, a castle tower, or a great tower. The 12th-century French came to them a donjon, from the Latin dominarium lordship, linking the keep. Similarly, medieval Spanish writers called the buildings torre del homenaje, in England, donjon turned into dungeon, which initially referred to a keep, rather than to a place of imprisonment. This ambiguity over terminology has made historical analysis of the use of keeps problematic, while the term remains in common academic use, some academics prefer to use the term donjon, and most modern historians warn against using the term keep simplistically. The fortifications that we would today call keeps certainly did not necessarily part of a unified medieval style
21.
Moat
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A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams. In older fortifications, such as hillforts, they are referred to simply as ditches. In later periods, moats or water defences may be largely ornamental and they could also act as sewerage. Some of the earliest evidence of moats has been uncovered around ancient Egyptian castles, one example is at Buhen, a castle excavated in Nubia. Other evidence of ancient moats is found in the ruins of Babylon, and in reliefs from ancient Egypt, Assyria, and other cultures in the region. Evidence of early moats around settlements has been discovered in archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, including Noen U-Loke, Ban Non Khrua Chut, Ban Makham Thae. The use of the moats could have been either for defensive or agriculture purposes, moats were excavated around castles and other fortifications as part of the defensive system as an obstacle immediately outside the walls. In suitable locations they might be filled with water, a moat made access to the walls difficult for siege weapons, such as siege towers and battering rams, which needed to be brought up against a wall to be effective. A water-filled moat made the practice of mining, digging tunnels under the castles in order to effect a collapse of the defences, segmented moats have one dry section and one section filled with water. Dry moats cut across the part of a spur or peninsula are called neck ditches. Moats separating different elements of a castle, such as the inner and outer wards are cross ditches, the shared derivation implies that the two features were closely related and possibly constructed at the same time. The term moat is also applied to natural formations reminiscent of the artificial structure, the walls were further protected from infantry attack by wet or dry moats, sometimes in elaborate systems. When this style of fortification was superseded by lines of forts in the mid-19th century. The Walls of Benin were a combination of ramparts and moats, called Iya and it was considered the largest man-made structure lengthwise, second only to the Great Wall of China and the largest earthwork in the world. With more recent work by Patrick Darling, it has established as the largest man-made structure in the world. It enclosed 6,500 km² of community lands and its length was over 16,000 km of earth boundaries. It was estimated that earliest construction began in 800 and continued into the mid-15th century, the walls are built of a ditch and dike structure, the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart
22.
Curtain wall (fortification)
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A curtain wall is a defensive wall between two towers of a castle, fortress, or town. In medieval castles, the area surrounded by a curtain wall, the outermost walls with their integrated bastions and wall towers together make up the enceinte or main defensive line enclosing the site. In earlier designs of castle and town, the walls were often built to a considerable height and were fronted by a ditch or moat to make assault difficult. Evidence for curtain walls or a series of walls surrounding a town or fortress can be found in the sources from Assyria. Some notable examples are ancient Lachish and Buhen, enceinte Curry, Anne, Hughes, Michael, eds. The Popular Encyclopedia, or, Conversations Lexicon, I, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and London, Blackie & Son, p.444
23.
Barbican
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A barbican is a fortified outpost or gateway, such as an outer defense to a city or castle, or any tower situated over a gate or bridge which was used for defensive purposes. Usually barbicans were situated outside the line of defences and connected to the city walls with a walled road called the neck. In the 15th century, with the improvement in siege tactics and artillery, however, several barbicans were built even in the 16th century. Fortified or mock-fortified gatehouses remained a feature of ambitious French and English residences into the 17th century, fortifications in East Asia also featured similar structures. Called literally jar walls, they are referred to as barbicans in English. Barbican Estate, London Barbican, Plymouth Gatehouse Kraków barbican Warsaw Barbican Saint Laurence Gate, Drogheda Media related to Barbicans at Wikimedia Commons Barbican
24.
Bastion
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A bastion is an angular structure projecting outward from the curtain wall of a fortification, most commonly at the corners. The fully developed bastion consists of two faces and two flanks with fire from the flanks being able to protect the wall and also the adjacent bastions. It is one element in the style of fortification dominant from the mid 16th to mid 19th centuries, Bastion fortifications offered a greater degree of passive resistance and more scope for ranged defense in the age of gunpowder artillery compared with the medieval fortifications they replaced. By the middle of the 15th century, artillery pieces had become powerful enough to make the traditional medieval round tower, during the Eighty Years War Dutch military engineers developed the concepts further lengthening the faces and shortening the curtain walls of the bastions. To augment this change they placed v shaped outworks in front of the bastions, Bastions differ from medieval towers in a number of respects. Bastions are lower than towers and are normally of similar height to the adjacent curtain wall, the height of towers, although making them difficult to scale, also made them easy for artillery to destroy. A bastion would normally have a ditch in front, the side of which would be built up above the natural level then slope away gradually. This glacis shielded most of the bastion from the cannon while the distance from the base of the ditch to the top of the bastion meant it was still difficult to scale. In contrast to late medieval towers, bastions were flat sided rather than curved. This eliminated dead ground making it possible for the defenders to fire upon any point directly in front of the bastion, Bastions also cover a larger area than most towers. This allows more cannons to be mounted and provided space for the crews to operate them. Surviving examples of bastions are usually faced with masonry, unlike the wall of a tower this was just a retaining wall, cannonball were expected to pass through this and be absorbed by a greater thickness of hard-packed earth or rubble behind. The top of the bastion was exposed to fire. If a bastion was successfully stormed, it could provide the attackers with a stronghold from which to further attacks. Some bastion designs attempted to minimise this problem and this could be achieved by the use of retrenchments in which a trench was dug across the rear of the bastion, isolating it from the main rampart. Various kinds of bastions have been used throughout history, solid bastions are those that are filled up entirely, and have the ground even with the height of the rampart, without any empty space towards the centre. Void or hollow bastions are those that have a rampart, or parapet, only around their flanks and faces, so that a void space is left towards the centre. The ground is so low, that if the rampart is taken, no retrenchment can be made in the centre, but what will lie under the fire of the besieged
25.
Charles Fowler
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Charles Fowler was an English architect, born and baptised at Cullompton, Devon. He is especially noted for his design of buildings, including Covent Garden Market in London. Fowler was born at Cullompton, Devon on 17 May 1792 and he then set up his own practice, working from an address in Great Ormond Street, and later, from 1830, at 1, Gordon Square. Fowler generally worked in a style, often freely interpreted. Thomas Leverton Donaldson described him as gifted with a rather than an imaginative turn of mind. An important early work was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall Street and this was a substantial brick building, raised over a granite basement and stuccoed in imitation of rusticated stonework. It had a courtyard, two sides of which had open arcades, supported on granite columns. In 1822 Fowler entered the competition to design the new London Bridge, however, the scheme was rejected by a committee of the House of Commons, and the commission awarded to John Rennie. Four years later he rebuilt the bridge across the River Dart at Totnes in his native Devon, in 1818 Fowler began work on the new market at Gravesend in Kent, with a pair of colonnades,80 feet long, connected by a covered building at one end. In around 1826, the Duke of Bedford commissioned him to buildings to house the market in the Piazza at Covent Garden. There, as in other of his buildings, he used Haytor granite mined in Dartmoor, partly for its strength. Just across the Strand, on a site sloping down towards the Thames, fowlers building was finally opened in 1833. In this building, Fowler demonstrated his preference for lightweight construction and he later added an iron roof over the main courtyard. Later in the 19th century the building was demolished to make way for Charing Cross Station, in 1827 he designed and built a Conservatory at Syon House for the Duke of Northumberland. This however had to be replaced due to the amount of condensation it collected. His other ecclesiastical work included a chapel at Kilburn, St John The Evangelist, Hyde Park St Andrews church at Charmouth, all these except the chapel at Kilburn were in the Gothic style. In around 1842, after winning a competition, Fowler built the Devon County Lunatic Asylum and he was also responsible for the London Fever Hospital. This commission he received due to the influence of the Earl of Devon and he entered many architectural competitions, coming third in the contest for the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square with a proposal submitted jointly with the sculptor R. W. Sievier
26.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
27.
Wars of the Roses
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The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. With the Duke of Yorks passing, the transferred to his heir, Edward. His son reigned for 86 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IVs younger brother, the two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London. The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, after assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into use in the nineteenth century. Badges were not always distinct, at the Battle of Barnet, Edwards sun was very similar to the Earl of Oxfords Vere star, which caused fateful confusion. Another example, Henry Tudors forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon, although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchies had little to do with these cities. Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans, several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest Yorks influence. Fighting resumed more violently in 1459, York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England. When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, Yorks eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461. After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464 and Henry was captured once again, Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick after Edwards unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it clear that Edward was favoring his wifes family
28.
Baron Bonville
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The title of Baron Bonville was created once in the Peerage of England. On 23 September 1449, William Bonville was summoned to Parliament, from her death in 1529 to the forfeiture in 1554, the baronies were merged with the title of Marquess of Dorset. He was found guilty of treason, attainted and all of his honours forfeit in 1554 and it also became abeyant in 1889 while still under attainder. Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages The Peerage. com
29.
Shute, Devon
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Shute is a village, parish and former manor located 3 miles west of Axminster in East Devon, off the A35 road. It is surrounded by farmland and woodland beneath 163-metre Shute Hill, st Michaels Church dates from the 13th Century and contains many monuments to the Pole family, including a marble statue of Sir William Pole, 4th Baronet, Master of the Household to Queen Anne. Century member of the family, Margaret Pole, is commemorated by an alabaster sculptured panel depicting her greeting her daughters at the gates of heaven, the village was the scene of the murder of 84-year-old Ivy Batten in 1987. The West of England Main Line passes through Seaton Junction to the south of the village, media related to Shute, Devon at Wikimedia Commons
30.
William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville
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William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, KG, of Shute, Devon, was an English nobleman, soldier, and administrator. The Bonvilles were an old West Country family, the date of William Bonvilles birth is uncertain. Cokayne states that he was born 30 August 1393, while Richardson states that various documents indicate he was four years of age in 1397,16 years of age in 1408, and 21 years of age in 1414. He was born at Shute, Devon, the son of Sir John Bonville, son and heir apparent of Sir William Bonville of Shute by his first wife, Margaret DAumarle, the daughter of Sir William DAumarle. Bonvilles mother was Elizabeth FitzRoger, the child and sole heiress of John FitzRoger of Chewton, Somerset. John FitzRoger was the 3rd son of Sir Henry FitzRoger of Chewton by his wife Elizabeth de Holland, Elizabeth de Holland was a daughter of Robert de Holland, 1st Baron Holand, by his wife Maud la Zouche. Maud la Zouche was a daughter of Alan la Zouche, 1st Baron la Zouche of Ashby. ), Bonville had a brother and one sister of the whole blood, Thomas Bonville. Isabel Bonville, wife of Sir Richard Champernoun of Modbury, Devon, son of Sir Richard Champernoun by his wife, Katherine Daubeney. As Bonvilles father, Sir John Bonville, had predeceased his own father, Bonville was heir to his grandfather, Sir William Bonville and he was also heir to his mother, Elizabeth FitzRoger, at her death on 15 April 1414. Bonville was knighted before 1417 during the campaigns in France of King Henry V and he was Knight of the Shire for Somerset in 1421, and for Devon in 1422,1425 and 1427. In 1423 he was appointed by the king as Sheriff of Devon and he was Seneschal of Aquitaine at various times from 1442 to 1453, and Governor of Exeter Castle from 1453–61. In 1443 Bonville was retained to serve King Henry VI for a one-year term, on 8 February 1461 he was nominated to the Order of the Garter. According to Richardson, Bonville was to all outward appearances loyal to King Henry VI during the Wars of the Roses until he joined the Yorkist side at the Battle of Northampton in July 1460. Both his son, William Bonville, and his grandson, William Bonville, the two men had kept guard over King Henry VI during the battle to see that he came to no harm. The King had been held in captivity by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, and transported in the train of the latters army, in return for their gallantry the King promised the two men immunity. Disregarding the Kings promise of immunity, she gave orders for the beheading of Lord Bonville and it is alleged that she put the men on trial and appointed as presiding judge her seven-year-old son, Prince Edward. Fair son, Margaret is said to have inquired, what death shall these knights die, the young prince replied that they were to have their heads cut off, an act which was swiftly carried out, despite the Kings pleas for mercy. Bonville was not attainted, as three weeks of his death the Yorkist King Edward IV came to the throne
31.
Thomas de Courtenay, 5th/13th Earl of Devon
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Thomas Courtenay, 5th/13th Earl of Devon was an English nobleman who was involved in the Wars of the Roses. His seat was Colcombe Castle, near Colyton, Devon, much of his life was spent in armed territorial struggle against his near-neighbour in Devon Sir William Bonville of Shute, Devon, at a time when central control over the provinces was weak. He had been married off as an infant to Margaret Beaufort, granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, on the demise of the Beaufort party he abandoned it in favour of the Duke of York. When York sought the support of Courtenays arch-enemy Bonville, Courtenay fell out of favour with York. The Wars of the Roses led to the deaths and executions of all three of his sons, successively 6th, 7th, and 8th Earls of Devon, and the eventual attainder of his titles and forfeiture of his lands. The Earldom was however revived in 1485 for his distant cousin Sir Edward Courtenay, KG, authorities differ in their opinions, and thus alternative ordinal numbers exist, given here. Courtenay was born in 1414, the surviving son of Hugh Courtenay, 12th Earl of Devon. He inherited the earldom in 1422 at the age of eight and he may at some time before have become a ward of the all-powerful Duke of Exeter. It appears that no inquisition of proof of age, customary for a tenant in chief, was taken for his father. Based on his family’s history and standing and on his own position as the landowner of the county. His income of £1500 p. a. was lower than that of most nobles of comparable rank, the relationship was complicated by Bonvilles second marriage in 1430 to Elizabeth Courtenay, Courtenays aunt. With the decline of Beaufort power, Courtenay became increasingly associated with Richard Plantagenet, in 1441, Courtenay was appointed as Steward of the Duchy of Cornwall, a nearly identical post to Royal Steward for Cornwall which had been granted to Sir William Bonville in 1437, for life. A week later in May 1441, the warrant was retracted, disputes arose between the two which contemporary records portray as reaching the status of a private war. Two men wearing Courtenay livery attacked Sir Philip Chetwynd, a friend of Bonville, on the road to London, Courtenay and Bonville were summoned before the King in December 1441, and were publicly reconciled. This is one of the few times that Courtenay served abroad, for he had refused in March 1443, seemingly preferring to spend his time bolstering his position in Devon or at court. While Bonville was abroad, the King released Devon from his debts, including the recognisance for good behaviour, probably remitted by the influence of father-in-law, John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset. 1445 marked a high point in Courtenay’s fortunes, with his appointment as High Steward of England at Queen Margaret’s coronation on 25 May. Only the year before, March 1444, Bonville had identified himself with Suffolk, Sir William Bonville enjoyed links with Suffolk and married his daughter to William Tailboys, one of the Dukes closest associates
32.
Clyst Heath
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Today Clyst Heath is a suburb to the south east of the city of Exeter, Devon, England. An area of high ground to the west of the River Clyst. Two notable battles took place on the heath, in 1455 and 1549, the 1,25000 Ordnance Survey map shows the conventional symbol for both battles at grid reference SX965912. The Courtenay family of Tiverton Castle and Colcombe Castle, who had been earls of Devon since 1335, were challenged in the 15th century by the rise of the Bonville family of Shute. In the evening of 5 August 1549, during the Prayer Book Rebellion, John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford and Lord William Grey and their troops had pitched camp on Clyst Heath. Russell and Grey were concerned about the burden of the number of rebel prisoners that had been captured from previous encounters at Fenny Bridges, Woodbury Common. An order was issued that the prisoners should be killed, which was done, according to John Hayward, more than nine hundred prisoners were slain. The following day the rebels attacked the camp of the Royal army and the subsequent battle lasted the entire day, with heavy losses on both sides
33.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
34.
Cavalier
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It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
35.
Roundhead
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Roundhead was the name given to the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against Charles I of England and his supporters, the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy, the goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration. Most Roundheads sought constitutional monarchy in place of the absolutist monarchy sought by Charles I, englands many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents. However many Roundheads were Church of England, as were many Cavaliers, Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist Diggers, the diverse group known as the Levellers and the apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists. Some Puritans, but by no means all, wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat, during the war and for a time afterwards, Roundhead was a term of derision—in the New Model Army it was a punishable offence to call a fellow soldier a Roundhead. This contrasted with the term Cavalier to describe supporters of the Royalist cause, Roundheads appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster. The demonstrators included London apprentices and Roundhead was a term of derision for them because the regulations to which they had agreed included a provision for closely cropped hair. However, Richard Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a made by Queen Henrietta Maria of France at the trial of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. Referring to John Pym, she asked who the man was. The principal advisor to Charles II, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, remarked on the matter and they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called Cavaliers, and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads. By the end of this period some Independent Puritans were again using the term Roundhead to refer to the Presbyterian Puritans. Likewise during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Cavalier was replaced with Tory, an Irish term introduced by their opponents, the History of England from the Accession of James II. Historical Memorials Relating to the Independents Or Congregationalists, From Their Rise to the Restoration of the Monarchy, religious Thought in England, from the Reformation to the End of Last Century, A Contribution to the History of Theology. Heavy Words Lightly Thrown, The Reason Behind Rhyme, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Anonymous
36.
Thomas Fairfax
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Fairfax became unhappy with Cromwells policy and publicly refused to take part in Charless show trial. Eventually he resigned, leaving Cromwell to control the republic and his dark hair and eyes and a swarthy complexion earned him the nickname Black Tom. Thomas Fairfax was born at Denton Hall, halfway between Ilkley and Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 17 January 1612, the eldest son of Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He studied at St Johns College, Cambridge, and Grays Inn, in the Second Bishops War the following year the English army was routed at the Battle of Newburn. Fairfax fled with the rest of the army but was nevertheless knighted for his services in January 1641. His distant cousin was Sir Thomas Fairfax of Gilling Castle - the common ancestor of both Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and her husband, Prince William and this was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of the kings saddle. When the civil war broke out in 1642, his father, Lord Fairfax, was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in Yorkshire. A gathering of national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle. The younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded managed to join Oliver Cromwell, one of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed in the action. But the Marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs, the city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted to the Parliament. In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still strong, the war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform. This involved the removal of the Earl of Essex from the supreme command and this was followed by the New Model Ordinance, which replaced the locally raised Parliamentary regiments with a unified army. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater, the whole west was soon reduced. Fairfax arrived in London on 12 November 1645, in his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, in January 1647 he was delivered up by the Covenanters to the commissioners of Englands parliament
37.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
38.
Longcase clock
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A longcase clock, also tall-case clock, floor clock, or grandfather clock, is a tall, freestanding, weight-driven pendulum clock with the pendulum held inside the tower or waist of the case. Clocks of this style are commonly 1. 8–2.4 metres tall, the case often features elaborately carved ornamentation on the hood, which surrounds and frames the dial, or clock face. The English clockmaker William Clement is credited with the development of this form in 1670, today they are kept mainly for their decorative and antique value. The advent of the clock is due to the invention of the anchor escapement mechanism by Robert Hooke around 1658. Prior to that, pendulum clock used an older verge escapement mechanism. Long pendulums with such wide swings could not be fitted within a case, the anchor mechanism reduced the pendulums swing to around 4° to 6°, allowing clockmakers to use longer pendulums, which had slower beats. These consumed less power allowing clocks to run longer between windings, caused friction and wear in the movement, and were more accurate. Almost all longcase clocks use a seconds pendulum meaning that each swing takes one second and these are about a metre long, requiring a long narrow case. The long narrow case actually predated the anchor clock by a few decades, however, once the seconds pendulum began to be used, this long weight case proved perfect to house it as well. British clockmaker William Clement, who disputed credit for the escapement with Robert Hooke. Within the year Thomas Tompion, the most prominent British clockmaker, was making them too, modern longcase clocks use a more accurate variation of the anchor escapement called the deadbeat escapement. Traditionally, longcase clocks were made two types of movement, eight-day and one-day movements. A clock with a movement required winding only once a week. Eight-day clocks are driven by two weights – one driving the pendulum and the other the striking mechanism, which usually consisted of a bell or chimes. Such movements usually have two keyholes, one on side of the dial to wind each one. By contrast, 30-hour clocks often had a weight to drive both the timekeeping and striking mechanisms. Some 30-hour clocks were made with false keyholes, for customers who wished that guests to their home would think that the household was able to afford the more expensive eight-day clock, all modern striking longcase clocks have eight-day movements. Most longcase clocks are cable-driven, meaning that the weights are suspended by cables, if the cable were attached directly to the weight, the load would cause rotation and untwist the cable strands, so the cable wraps around a pulley mounted to the top of each weight
39.
Totnes
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Totnes is a market town and civil parish at the head of the estuary of the River Dart in Devon, England within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is about 22 miles south southwest of the city of Exeter and is the centre of the South Hams District Council. Totnes has a recorded history, dating back to AD907 when its first castle was built. Indications of its wealth and importance are given by the number of merchants houses built in the 16th and 17th centuries. Today, the town is a centre for music, art, theatre. It has an alternative and New Age community, and is known as a place where one can live a bohemian lifestyle. Their combined populations at the 2011 census was 8,076, set into the pavement of Fore Street is the Brutus Stone, a small granite boulder onto which, according to local legend, Brutus first stepped from his ship. As he did so, he was supposed to have declaimed, Here I stand, and this town shall be called Totnes. The stone is far above the highest tides and the tradition is not likely to be of great antiquity, also according to the Historia, Ambrosius Aurelius and his brother Uther Pendragon landed at Totnes to win back the throne of Britain from the usurper Vortigern. The site was chosen because it was on an ancient trackway which forded the river at low tide, between the reigns of Edgar and William II Totnes intermittently minted coins. Juhel did not retain his lordship for long, however, as he was deprived of his lands in 1088 or 1089, the name Totnes comes from the Old English personal name Totta and ness or headland. Before reclamation and development, the areas around this hill were largely marsh or tidal wetland. By 1523, according to a tax assessment, Totnes was the second richest town in Devon, in 1553, King Edward VI granted Totnes a charter allowing a former Benedictine priory building that had been founded in 1088 to be used as Totnes Guildhall and a school. In 1624, the Guildhall was converted to be a magistrates court, until 1887, the Guildhall was also used as the town prison with the addition of prison cells. It remained a court until 1974. Totnes borough charter was granted by King John, probably around 1206, at any rate, Totnes lost its borough status in local government reorganisation in 1974. Totnes was served by Totnes electoral borough from 1295 until the act of 1867. In August 2009, Totnes became the first constituency to select the Conservative PPC through a primary that was organised by the local Conservative Association
40.
Brussels tapestry
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Sophie Schneebalg-Perelmans attribution to Brussels of The Lady and the Unicorn at the Musée de Cluny may well be correct. Leo must have motivated by the already high technical quality of Brussels tapestries. A Hunts of Maximilian suite, depicting hunting in each of the months, was woven to cartoons by Bernard van Orley ca1531-33, van Orleys pupils, Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Michiel Coxie, also provided cartoons for Brussels looms under the general influence of Italian painting. A set of Seven Deadly Sins, of which four survive, are recognized as Pieter Coecke van Aelsts masterpieces, Brussels quickly took pre-eminence in tapestry weaving. In 1528 a city decree ordained that each piece of Brussels tapestry over a certain size bear the mark of a red shield flanked by two Bs, this aids in identifying Brussels production. Each tapestry was to include the woven mark of the maker or the merchant who commissioned the tapestry for resale, the public market for tapestry sales was Antwerp. Though he was the arch-rival of the Habsburgs, Francis I of France commissioned tapestries from Brussels and Antwerp in the early years of his reign. The prominent Brussels weaver Peter de Pannemaker executed for Francis that same year a suite enriched with silver and gold thread, to designs by Matteo del Nassaro of Verona, an engraver of gems. There were other commissions and purchases by Francis of Brussels tapestry until the establishment, about 1540 of a manufactory at Fontainebleau, the Valois tapestries depicting festivities at the court of France were woven in the Spanish Netherlands, likely in Brussels, shortly after 1580. Other nobles continued to support Brussels manufacture in the 16th century, only 136 tapestries from the initial original collection of 356 pieces remain today, from which the largest part was commissioned in Brussel. In England, both Cardinal Wolsey and Henry VIII amassed large tapestry collections, Wolsey furnished his palaces at York Place and Hampton Court with rich tapestries. Many of the cardinals acquisitions illustrate Biblical texts, but he also acquired secular works, one was purchased from the executors of the Bishop of Durham and one was commissioned directly by Wolsey. Evidence associates this later set with a partial set now in the Victoria & Albert Museum, the Seven Deadly Sins panels woven for Wolseys bedroom at Hampton Court are also thought to be Brussels work. By the time of his fall in 1529, Wolseys collection included over 600 tapestry pieces, old, but despite his commissions to the weavers of Brussels, his tastes were conventional, and none of his acquisitions seem to have been in the new style pioneered by van Orley. Conversely, Henry VIII embraced the new Italianate style, in October 1528, Henry acquired a small set of the Twelve Months and a much larger ten-piece set of The Story of David measuring 743 1/2 ells from the merchant Richard Gresham. Two of these, The Triumph of Hercules and the Triumph of Bacchus, the prominent atelier of Jan Raes the Elder and Younger had executed a set of Animals in Landscapes for Cardinal Montalto. and a suite of the History of Samson. Other leading Brussels ateliers of the 17th century were directed by Martin Reymbouts, rubenss pupil Jacob Jordaens also provided many cartoons for tapestries. Kermesse subjects drawn from life in the manner of the Teniers, father
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