1.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
2.
Steering wheel
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A steering wheel is a type of steering control in vehicles and vessels. Steering wheels are used in most modern vehicles, including all mass-production automobiles, as well as buses, light and heavy trucks. The steering wheel is the part of the system that is manipulated by the driver. The first automobiles were steered with a tiller, but in 1894 and that is believed to be one of the earliest employments of the principle. From 1898, the Panhard et Levassor cars were equipped as standard with steering wheels, Charles Rolls introduced the first car in Britain fitted with a steering wheel when he imported a 6 hp Panhard from France in 1898. Arthur Constantin Krebs replaced the tiller with a steering wheel for the Panhard car he designed for the 1898 Paris–Amsterdam–Paris race which ran 7–13 July 1898. Jeffery and his son, Charles T. Jeffery, developed two advanced experimental cars featuring an engine, as well as a steering wheel that was mounted on the left-hand side. However, the automaker adopted a more “conventional” rear-engine and tiller-steering layout for its first mass-produced Ramblers in 1902. The following year, the Rambler Model E was largely unchanged, except that it equipped with a tiller early in the year. By 1904, all Ramblers featured steering wheels, within a decade, the steering wheel had entirely replaced the tiller in automobiles. At the insistence of Thomas B, Jeffery, the position of the driver was also moved to the left-hand side of the car during the 1903 Rambler production. Most other car makers began offering cars with left-hand drive in 1910, soon after, most cars in the U. S. converted to left hand drive. Steering wheels for passenger automobiles are generally circular, and are mounted to the column by a hub connected to the outer ring of the steering wheel by one or more spokes. Other types of vehicles may use the design, a butterfly shape. In addition to its use in steering, the wheel is the usual location for a button to activate the cars horn. The steering wheels were rigid and mounted on non-collapsible steering columns and this arrangement increased the risk of impaling the driver in case of a severe crash. The first collapsible steering column was invented in 1934 but was never successfully marketed, by 1956, Ford came out with a safety steering wheel that was set high above the post with spokes that would flex, but the column was still rigid. In 1968, United States regulations were implemented concerning the acceptable rearward movement of the wheel in case of crash
3.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
4.
Servomechanism
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In control engineering a servomechanism, sometimes shortened to servo, is an automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the action of a mechanism. It usually includes a built-in encoder or other position feedback mechanism to ensure the output is achieving the desired effect, the term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical position, speed or other parameters. For example, a power window control is not a servomechanism. By contrast a cars cruise control uses closed-loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism, a common type of servo provides position control. Commonly, servos are electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic and they operate on the principle of negative feedback, where the control input is compared to the actual position of the mechanical system as measured by some sort of transducer at the output. Any difference between the actual and wanted values is amplified and used to drive the system in the necessary to reduce or eliminate the error. This procedure is one widely used application of control theory, typical servos can give a rotary or linear output. Speed control via a governor is another type of servomechanism, the steam engine uses mechanical governors, another early application was to govern the speed of water wheels. Prior to World War II the constant speed propeller was developed to control engine speed for maneuvering aircraft, fuel controls for gas turbine engines employ either hydromechanical or electronic governing. Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control and marine navigation equipment, other examples are fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the aircrafts control surfaces, and radio-controlled models which use RC servos for the same purpose. Many autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens, a hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with sub-micrometre positioning accuracy. In industrial machines, servos are used to perform complex motion, a servomotor is a specific type of motor that is combined with a rotary encoder or a potentiometer to form a servomechanism. This assembly may in turn part of another servomechanism. Potentiometers are subject to drift when the temperature changes whereas encoders are more stable, servomotors are used for both high-end and low-end applications. On the high end are precision industrial components that use a rotary encoder, on the low end are inexpensive radio control servos used in radio-controlled models which use a free-running motor and a simple potentiometer position sensor with an embedded controller. The term servomotor generally refers to an industrial component while the term servo is most often used to describe the inexpensive devices that employ a potentiometer. Stepper motors are not considered to be servomotors, although they too are used to construct larger servomechanisms, stepper motors have inherent angular positioning, owing to their construction, and this is generally used in an open-loop manner without feedback. They are generally used for medium-precision applications, RC servos are used to provide actuation for various mechanical systems such as the steering of a car, the control surfaces on a plane, or the rudder of a boat
5.
Fly-by-wire
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Fly-by-wire is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an aircraft with an electronic interface. Both systems often require redundant backup to deal with failures, which increases weight, both have limited ability to compensate for changing aerodynamic conditions. The term fly-by-wire implies a purely electrically signaled control system and it is used in the general sense of computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces. This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters, side-sticks, centre sticks, or conventional flight control yokes can be used to fly FBW aircraft. Fly-by wire systems are complex, but their operation can be explained in simple terms. When a pilot moves the control column, a signal is sent to a computer the signal is sent through wires to ensure that the signal reaches the computer. A Triplex is when there are three channels being used, in an Analog system, the computer receives the signals, performs a calculation and adds another channel. These four Quadruplex signals are sent to the control surface actuator. Potentiometers in the actuator send a signal back to the computer reporting the position of the actuator, when the actuator reaches the desired position, the two signals cancel each other out and the actuator stops moving. The computer then commands the flight control surfaces to adopt a configuration that will achieve the flight path. Fly-by-wire control systems allow aircraft computers to perform tasks without pilot input, automatic stability systems operate in this way. Gyroscopes fitted with sensors are mounted in an aircraft to sense movement changes in the pitch, roll, any movement results in signals to the computer, which automatically moves control actuators to stabilize the aircraft. Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed to prevent loss of signals in the case of failure of one or even two channels, pre-flight safety checks of a fly-by-wire system are often performed using built-in test equipment. On programming the system, either by the pilot or groundcrew, any failure will be indicated to the crews. A FBW aircraft can be lighter than a design with conventional controls. These include the vertical and horizontal stabilizers that are at the rear of the fuselage, if these structures can be reduced in size, airframe weight is reduced. The advantages of FBW controls were first exploited by the military, the Airbus series of airliners used full-authority FBW controls beginning with their A320 series, see A320 flight control. Boeing followed with their 777 and later designs, electronic systems require less maintenance, whereas mechanical and hydraulic systems require lubrication, tension adjustments, leak checks, fluid changes, etc
6.
Electrical cable
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A cable is two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or braided together to form a single assembly. In mechanics, cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting, hauling, in electrical engineering cables are used to carry electric currents. An optical cable contains one or more optical fibers in a jacket that supports the fibers. Ropes made of multiple of strands of natural fibers such as, hemp, sisal, manila, by the 19th century, deeper mines as well as construction of larger and larger sailing ships increased demand for stronger ropes. The tight twists, shortened the length of the ropes. By the middle of the 19th century, manufacture of large submarine telegraph cables was done using machines similar to those used for manufacture of mechanical cables, as the move from rope to wire happened, the specific length associated with a cable fell into disuse. In the 19th century and early 20th century, electrical cable was often insulated using cloth, plastic materials are generally used today, except for high-reliability power cables. The term has come to be associated with communications because of its use in electrical communications. Electrical cables are used to two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power from one device to the other. Cables are used for a range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits, long-distance communication takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for transmission of alternating and direct current power. Electrical cables are used in building wiring for lighting, power. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at one time, physically, an electrical cable is an assembly consisting of one or more conductors with their own insulations and optional screens, individual covering, assembly protection and protective covering. Electrical cables may be more flexible by stranding the wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible than solid wires of similar size, bunching small wires before concentric stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, tinning is also used to provide lubrication between strands
7.
Wire rope
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Wire rope is rope made from wire. It consists of several strands of metal wire laid into a helix, initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes. Historically wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, friction between the individual wires and strands, as a consequence of their twist, further compensates for any flaws. Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s, Wire ropes are used dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for transmission of mechanical power. Wire rope is used to transmit force in mechanisms, such as a Bowden cable or the control surfaces of an airplane connected to levers. Also, aircraft cables are available in smaller diameters than wire rope, for example, aircraft cables are available in 3/64 in. Diameter while most wire ropes begin at a 1/4 in, static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or as guy wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move cargo overhead, modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, Wilhelm Alberts first ropes consisted of three strands consisting of four wires each. In 1840, Scotsman Robert Stirling Newall improved the process further, the decades were witness to a burgeoning increase in deep shaft mining in both Europe and North America as surface mineral deposits were exhausted and miner had to chase layers along inclined layers. To drive their first shafts into lower slopes beginning Lansford and its Schuylkill County twin-town Coaldale, the German engineering firm of Adolf Bleichert & Co. was founded in 1874 and began to build bicable aerial tramways for mining in the Ruhr Valley. Adolf Bleichert & Co. went on to hundreds of aerial tramways around the world, from Alaska to Argentina, Australia. The Bleichert company also built hundreds of aerial tramways for both the Imperial German Army and the Wehrmacht, in the last half of the 19th century, wire rope systems were used as a means of transmitting mechanical power including for the new cable cars. Wire rope systems cost one-tenth as much and had lower friction losses than line shafts, because of these advantages, wire rope systems were used to transmit power for a distance of a few miles or kilometers. In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building, Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope. Steel wires for wire ropes are made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to 0. 95%. The very high strength of the wires enables wire ropes to support large tensile forces
8.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
9.
Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company
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Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Buffalo, New York, which was active from 1901 to 1938. Although best known for its luxury cars, Pierce-Arrow also manufactured commercial trucks, fire trucks, camp trailers, motorcycles. The forerunner of Pierce-Arrow was established in 1865 as Heinz, Pierce, the company was best known for its household items, especially its delicate, gilded birdcages. In 1872 George Norman Pierce bought out the two principals of the company, changed the name to George N. Pierce Company. The company failed in its attempt to build a car in 1900 under license from Overman. In 1903, it produced a car, the Arrow. In 1904 Pierce decided to concentrate on making a larger, more car for the upscale market. This became Pierces most successful product, the solidly built, four-cylinder car won the Glidden Trophy in 1905, an endurance run to celebrate the most reliable car. Thirty-three cars entered the 1100-mile race from New York City to Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, the noted industrial architect Albert Kahn designed the Pierce Arrow Factory Complex at Elmwood Avenue and Great Arrow Avenue in about 1906. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, Pierce sold all rights in the company in 1907, and he died three years later. In 1908, Pierce Motor Company was renamed The Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company, in 1909 US President William Howard Taft ordered two Pierce-Arrows to be used for state occasions, the first official cars of the White House. The Pierce-Arrows engine displacement started at a massive 11.7 L and was increased later to 13.5 L, in 1910 Pierce dropped its other 4-cylinder models and focused exclusively on 6-cylinder cars. The model 6-36, 6-48, and 6-66 continued for the next decade, starting in 1918, Pierce-Arrow adopted a four-valve per cylinder T-head inline-six engine, one of the few, if only, multi-valve flathead design engines ever made. In 1910 George N. Pierce died, in 1912 Herbert M. Dawley joined Pierce-Arrow, and designed almost every model until 1938. Until 1914, Pierce-Arrow also made a line of motorcycles including the Pierce Four and this gave the car an immediately visible distinction in front or side views. At night, the car appeared to have a wider stance, Pierce patented this placement, which endured until the final model of 1938, although Pierce always offered the customer the option of conventional headlamps. Only a minority ordered the option, a restored 1919 Pierce-Arrow is on display at the Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library. An open-bodied Pierce-Arrow carried Woodrow Wilson and Warren G. Harding to Hardings 1921 inauguration, the Pierce-Arrow was a status symbol, owned by many Hollywood stars and tycoons
10.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
11.
Bendix Corporation
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It was also well known for the name Bendix, as used on home clothes washing machines, but never actually made these appliances. Bendix granted permission to his invention which was described as a New York device for the starting of explosive motors and this company made a low cost triple thread screw which could be used in the manufacture of other drive parts. By using this screw with the Eclipse Machine Company, Bendix had a foundation for his future business plans. Bendix in the 1920s owned and controlled many important patents for devices applicable to the industry, for example, brakes, carburetors. It acquired Bragg-Kliesrath brakes in the late 1920s, by 1940 Bendix had sales running around $40 million, and in 1948 General Motors sold its interest in Bendix as it wanted to focus on its expanding automotive operations. Bendix was formally founded in 1924 in South Bend, Indiana, at first it manufactured brake systems for cars and trucks, supplying General Motors and other automobile manufacturers. Bendix manufactured both hydraulic systems and a vacuum booster TreadleVac for its production lines for decades. In 1924 Vincent Bendix had acquired the rights to Henri Perrots patents for drum, in 1956, Bendix introduced Electrojector, a true multipoint electronic fuel injection system, which was optional on several 1958 models of automobiles built by Chrysler Corporation. In the 1960s, Bendix automotive brakes blossomed with the introduction of disc brakes. During the 1960s, Bendix also dabbled in bicycle hardware, producing a reliable, starting in the 1950s or before, Bendix Pacific designed, tested, and manufactured hydraulic components and systems, primarily for the military. In the same facility avionics and other hardware was designed, manufactured. Much of this operation was relocated to a new facility in Sylmar, telemetry components for the RIM-8 Talos surface-to-air missile included transmitters and oscillators in various frequency bands, the missile itself was designed and built by Bendix. They built and installed the system in all the ground stations for the first manned space flights. For this program developed the first cardio tachometer and respiration rate monitor system so that a ground-based physician could observe an astronauts vital signs. MK46 torpedo electronics also came from this facility, other diverse products included radar detectors in aircraft that identified ground missile tracking and ground missile launch at the aircraft. In the 1960s they produced an anti-lock brake system for aircraft using established technology similar to Dunlops earlier Maxaret. The technology is similar to the wheel and reluctor now used in cars. Bendix Scintilla manufactured MIL SPEC electrical connectors of many styles, criteria was met for hostile and non-hostile environments that provided seals against liquids and gasses
12.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
13.
Armored car (military)
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A military armored car is a lightweight wheeled armored fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to horsemen, following the invention of the tank, the armored car remained popular due to its comparatively simplified maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armored cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African Campaign. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield in front of the car protected the driver. However, these were not armored cars as the term is understood today and they were also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, less efficient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they were intended to complement. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16-hp Cannstatt Daimler engine, the armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse. Simms Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, another early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de lAutomobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner, one of the first operational armoured cars with four wheel drive and fully enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armoured with 3-3.5 mm thick curved plates over the body and had a 4mm thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns and it had a 4-cylinder 35 hp 4.4 litre engine giving it average cross country performance. Of note, both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed. The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War, a great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, the cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in units up to squadron size. The cars were armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a platform for antiaircraft guns
14.
Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
15.
Chrysler Imperial
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The Chrysler Imperial, introduced in 1926, was Chryslers top of the line vehicle for much of its history. Models were produced with the Chrysler name until 1954, and again from 1990 to 1993, the company positioned the cars as a prestige marque to rival Cadillac, Lincoln, and Packard. According to an article in AACAs magazine The adjective ‘imperial’ according to Webster’s Dictionary means sovereign, supreme. The word imperial thus justly befits Chrysler’s highest priced quality model, Chrysler decided to compete with North American marques Cadillac, Lincoln, Packard, and Duesenberg in the luxury car field. Chrysler offered a variety of styles, a two/four-passenger roadster, a four-seat coupé, five-passenger sedan and phaeton. The limo had a glass partition between the front and rear passenger compartments, the Imperials new engine was slightly larger than the companys standard straight 6. It was a 288.6 cu in six-cylinder with seven bearing blocks, springs were semi-elliptic in the front. The car set a speed record in the year it was introduced. The car was chosen as the car for the 1926 Indianapolis 500. The model was designated E-80, the 80 being after the guaranteed 80 miles per hour all-day cruising speed, acceleration was also brisk breaking 20 seconds to 60 miles per hour. Four-speed transmission was added in 1930, the attention to luxury and multiple bodystyles was a similar approach used by Mr. Chryslers time as President of the Buick Motor Company, his previous employer from 1911-1919. When the second generation Imperial was introduced in 1931, the first generation was given minor updates and was called the Chrysler Six, the Chrysler Imperial was redesigned in 1931. The car received a new engine, a 384. 84-cubic inch Straight-eight engine, marketing materials for this generation of Imperial referred to the car as the Imperial 8, in reference to the new in-line 8-cylinder engine. The engine would be found in many other Chrysler vehicles, the Imperial Custom had rust-proof fenders, automatic heater control and safety glass. The limo even came with a Dictaphone, the redesign also saw the introduction of new wire wheels that became a standard wheel treatment until the 1940s. Stock car driver Harry Hartz set numerous speed records with an Imperial sedan at Daytona Beach and it was introduced shortly after the Rolls-Royce Phantom II, Mercedes-Benz 770, Packard Eight, Duesenberg Model J, Cadillac Series 355, and Lincoln K-series appeared in the 1930s. The 1934 to 1936 Chrysler Imperial ushered in the Airflow design, the car was marketed with the slogan The car of tomorrow is here today. It featured eight passenger seating and again an eight-cylinder engine and this was the first car to be designed in a wind tunnel
16.
Cadillac
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
17.
Tire
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A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped vehicle component that covers the wheels rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock. The materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black. They consist of a tread and a body, the tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers. The etymology of tire is that the word is a form of attire. The spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron, nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using tire. The Times newspaper in Britain was still using tire as late as 1905, the spelling tyre began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. However, over the course of the 20th century, tyre became established as the standard British spelling, the earliest tires were bands of leather, then iron, placed on wooden wheels, used on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a fire, placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work, the outer ring served to tie the wheel segments together for use, providing also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word tire thus emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the bands used to tie wheels. The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by the Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson, however, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 on May Street, Belfast, by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop and it was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie, while riding his tricycle on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy, Fagan participated in designing the first pneumatic tires. In Dunlops tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles, in September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself
18.
Hydraulic drive system
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A hydraulic drive system is a drive or transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to power hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy flow and pressure. A hydraulic drive system consists of three parts, The generator, driven by a motor, a combustion engine or a windmill, valves, filters, piping etc. Pascals law is the basis of hydraulic drive systems, as the pressure in the system is the same, the force that the fluid gives to the surroundings is therefore equal to pressure × area. In such a way, a small piston feels a small force, the same principle applies for a hydraulic pump with a small swept volume that asks for a small torque, combined with a hydraulic motor with a large swept volume that gives a large torque. In such a way a transmission with a ratio can be built. Most hydraulic drive systems use of hydraulic cylinders. Here the same principle is used — a small torque can be transmitted into a large force. By throttling the fluid between the part and the motor part, or by using hydraulic pumps and/or motors with adjustable swept volume. In case throttling is used, the efficiency of the transmission is limited, in case adjustable pumps and motors are used, the efficiency, however, is very large. In fact, up to around 1980, a drive system had hardly any competition from other adjustable drive systems. Nowadays, electric drive systems using electric servo-motors can be controlled in an excellent way, Hydraulic cylinders are, in fact, without competition for linear forces. For these cylinders, hydraulic systems will remain of interest and if such a system is available, it is easy and logical to use this system for the drives of the cooling systems. An important advantage of a drive is its high power density. Hydraulic drives are divided into three classes. A hydraulic press is a machine using a cylinder to generate a compressive force. It uses the equivalent of a mechanical lever, and was also known as a Bramah press after the inventor, Joseph Bramah. He invented and was issued a patent on this press in 1795, as Bramah installed toilets, he studied the existing literature on the motion of fluids and put this knowledge into the development of the press
19.
Rotary vane pump
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A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases these vanes can have variable length and/or be tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates and it was invented by Charles C. Barnes of Sackville, New Brunswick, who patented it on June 16,1874. There have been improvements, including a variable vane pump for gases The simplest vane pump has a circular rotor rotating inside a larger circular cavity. The centers of two circles are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes are allowed to slide into and out of the rotor and seal on all edges, on the intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in volume. These increasing-volume vane chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the inlet pressure, inlet pressure is actually the pressure from the system being pumped, often just the atmosphere. On the discharge side of the pump, the chambers are decreasing in volume. The action of the vane drives out the volume of fluid with each rotation. Multistage rotary-vane vacuum pumps can attain pressures as low as 10−6 mbar, Vane pumps are commonly used as high-pressure hydraulic pumps and in automobiles, including supercharging, power-steering and automatic-transmission pumps. Pumps for mid-range pressures include applications such as carbonators for fountain soft-drink dispensers, furthermore, vane pumps can be used in low-pressure gas applications such as secondary air injection for auto exhaust emission control, or in low-pressure chemical vapor deposition systems. Rotary-vane pumps are also a type of vacuum pump, with two-stage pumps able to reach pressures well below 10−6 bar. In the vane pump, the gas and the oil are mixed within the pump. Therefore, the inlet and the outlet have a chamber, maybe with swirl. Sometimes the inlet has a venetian blind cooled by the air to condense cracked pumping oil and water. When these pumps are used in systems, a significant concern is contamination of the entire system by molecular oil backstreaming. The centerline distance from the rotor to the ring is used to determine the pumps displacement. By allowing the eccentric ring to pivot or translate relative to the rotor and it is even possible for a vane pump to pump in reverse if the eccentric ring moves far enough. However, performance cannot be optimized to pump in both directions and this can make for a very interesting hydraulic-control oil pump
20.
Hydraulic cylinder
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A hydraulic cylinder is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment, manufacturing machinery, Hydraulic cylinders get their power from pressurized hydraulic fluid, which is typically oil. The hydraulic cylinder consists of a barrel, in which a piston connected to a piston rod moves back. The barrel is closed on one end by the cylinder bottom, the piston has sliding rings and seals. The piston divides the inside of the cylinder into two chambers, the chamber and the piston rod side chamber. Flanges, trunnions, clevises, Lugs are common cylinder mounting options, the piston rod also has mounting attachments to connect the cylinder to the object or machine component that it is pushing / pulling. A hydraulic cylinder is the actuator or motor side of this system, the generator side of the hydraulic system is the hydraulic pump which brings in a fixed or regulated flow of oil to the hydraulic cylinder, to move the piston. The piston pushes the oil in the chamber back to the reservoir. The cylinder rod reduces the area of the piston and reduces the force that can be applied for the retraction stroke. For double-acting, double-rod cylinders, when the surface area is equally covered by a rod of equal size on both sides of the head, there is no force difference. Such cylinders typically have their cylinder body affixed to a stationary mount, a hydraulic cylinder consists of the following parts, The main function of cylinder body is to hold cylinder pressure. The cylinder barrel is made from a seamless tube. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed internally with a surface finish of 4 to 16 microinch. The piston reciprocates in the cylinder, the main function of the cap is to enclose the pressure chamber at one end. The cap is connected to the body by means of welding, threading, bolts, caps also perform as cylinder mounting components. Cap size is determined based on the bending stress, a static seal / o-ring is used in between cap and barrel. The main function of the head is to enclose the chamber from the other end. The head contains an integrated rod sealing arrangement or the option to accept a seal gland, the head is connected to the body by means of threading, bolts, or tie rod
21.
Force
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In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity and it is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F. The original form of Newtons second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts, such internal mechanical stresses cause no accelation of that body as the forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of materials, or flow in fluids. In part this was due to an understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction. A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years, the Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known, in order of decreasing strength, they are, strong, electromagnetic, weak, high-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotles view, the sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different natural places therein. Aristotle believed that objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground. He distinguished between the tendency of objects to find their natural place, which led to natural motion, and unnatural or forced motion
22.
Torsion bar suspension
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A torsion bar suspension, also known as a torsion spring suspension, is a general term for any vehicle suspension that uses a torsion bar as its main weight bearing spring. Vertical motion of the causes the bar to twist around its axis and is resisted by the bars torsion resistance. The effective spring rate of the bar is determined by its length, cross section, shape, material, manufacturers change the torsion bar or key to adjust the ride height, usually to compensate for heavier or lighter engines. Over-rotating the torsion bars can cause the suspension to hit the bump-stop prematurely. Aftermarket forged-metal torsion key kits use relocked adjuster keys to prevent over-rotation, the main advantages of a torsion bar suspension are durability, easy adjustability of ride height, and small profile along the width of the vehicle. It takes up less of the interior volume than coil springs. Torsion bars reached the height of their popularity on mass-production road cars in the middle of the 20th century at the time that unitary construction was being adopted. Using MacPherson struts to achieve independent front suspension with coil springs meant providing strong turrets in the structure of the car. A disadvantage is that torsion bars, unlike coil springs, usually provide a progressive spring rate. In most torsion bar systems, ride height may be changed by simply adjusting bolts that connect the torsion bars to the steering knuckles, in most cars with this type of suspension, swapping torsion bars for a different spring rate is usually an easy task. Some vehicles use torsion bars to provide automatic levelling, using a motor to pre-stress the bars to provide resistance to load and, in some cases. Height adjustable suspension has been used to implement a wheel-change mode where the vehicle is raised on three wheels so that the wheel is lifted off the ground without the aid of a jack. Before World War II, the front wheel drive Citroen Traction Avant had independent front torsion bar suspension, the flexibility of the axle beam provided wheel location features like a twist beam axle. The Czechoslovakian Tatra cars designed by Professor Hans Ledwinka in the mid-1930s used all round independent torsion bar suspension, also in the 1930s, prototypes of the first Volkswagen Beetle incorporated torsion bars—especially its transverse mounting style. The system first saw use in the Swedish Stridsvagn L-60 tank of 1934. It was used extensively in European cars Renault, Citroën and Volkswagen, the Packard used torsion bars at both front and rear, and interconnected the front and rear systems to improve ride quality. Morris Minor and Oxford from the late 1940s onwards used a front torsion bar system very similar to the Citroen, the single torsion bar was mounted through the frame sides behind the rear axle and then attached by arms and links to the front side of the spring U-bolt plates. Axle Flex was discontinued for the 1936 model year, the designer of these cars, Alec Issigonis was inspired by the Traction Avants suspension although the Morris cars were rear-wheel drive and used conventional leaf springs for their rear axles
23.
Hydraulic fluid
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Hydraulic fluid, also called hydraulic liquid, are the medium by which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on oil or water. Hydraulic systems like the mentioned above will work most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has zero compressibility. The primary function of a fluid is to convey power. In use, however, there are other important functions of fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components. Today most hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil base stocks, natural oils such as rapeseed are used as base stocks for fluids where biodegradability and renewable sources are considered important. Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as for fire resistance, some examples include, glycol, esters, organophosphate ester, polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils. NaK-77, an alloy of sodium-potassium, can be used as a hydraulic fluid in high-temperature and high-radiation environments. Its bulk modulus at 1000 °F is 310,000 psi and its lubricity is poor, so positive-displacement pumps are unsuitable and centrifugal pumps have to be used. Addition of caesium shifts the temperature range to -95 to 1300 °F. The NaK-77 alloy was tested in hydraulic and fluidic systems for the Supersonic Low Altitude Missile, environmentally sensitive applications may benefit from using biodegradable hydraulic fluids based upon rapeseed vegetable oil when there is the risk of an oil spill from a ruptured oil line. Typically these oils are available as ISO32, ISO46, ASTM standards ASTM-D-6006, Guide for Assessing Biodegradability of Hydraulic Fluids and ASTM-D-6046, Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for Environmental Impact are relevant. Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling point, under the heat of braking, both free water and water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible vapor, resulting in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly reduce the point over time. Mineral oil and silicone based fluids are not hygroscopic, power steering fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid. Most are mineral oil or silicone based fluids, while some use automatic transmission fluid, use of the wrong type of fluid can lead to failure of the power steering pump. Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids, water-gycol and polyol-ester are some of these specialized fluids that contain excellent thermal and hydrolitic properties, which aid in fire resistance. The hydraulic actuators are controlled by valves, these in turn are operated directly by input from the aircrew or by computers obeying control laws, Hydraulic power is used for other purposes
24.
Pressure
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Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure, Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure, the atmosphere is equal to this pressure and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol for it is p or P, the IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used. The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and momentum. Mathematically, p = F A where, p is the pressure, F is the normal force and it relates the vector surface element with the normal force acting on it. It is incorrect to say the pressure is directed in such or such direction, the pressure, as a scalar, has no direction. The force given by the relationship to the quantity has a direction. If we change the orientation of the element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly. Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, equal to one newton per square metre and this name for the unit was added in 1971, before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch, the CGS unit of pressure is the barye, equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre, but using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere is 1 kgf/cm2, since a system under pressure has potential to perform work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related to density and may be expressed in units such as joules per cubic metre. Similar pressures are given in kilopascals in most other fields, where the prefix is rarely used
25.
Mineral oil
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A mineral oil or paraffin oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum. The name mineral oil by itself is imprecise, having used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinum liquidum. Baby oil is a mineral oil. Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and this type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3, mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names reflects usage by buyers and sellers who did not know, and usually did not need to care about, the precise chemical makeup. Prior to the late 19th century, the science to determine such makeup was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the white metal. Mineral oil, sold widely and cheaply in the USA, is not sold as such in Britain, instead British pharmacologists use the terms Paraffinum perliquidum for light mineral oil and Paraffinum liquidum or Paraffinum subliquidum for somewhat thicker varieties. The term Paraffinum Liquidum is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil, British aromatherapists commonly use the term white mineral oil. The FSA did not identify any specific safety concerns due to inks. People can be exposed to oil mist in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure. At levels of 2500 mg/m3, mineral oil mist is immediately dangerous to life, mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering microdrops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a laxative for pets
26.
Steering
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Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches provide the steering function. The primary purpose of the system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle. Other arrangements are found on different types of vehicles, for example. The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions and this is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. The angle the wheels make with the plane also influences steering dynamics as do the tires. The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a degree of feedback. A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, BMW began to use rack and pinion steering systems in the 1930s, and many other European manufacturers adopted the technology. American automakers adopted rack and pinion steering beginning with the 1974 Ford Pinto, older designs use two main principles, the worm and sector design and the screw and nut. Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction, for screw and nut it is the ball mechanism. The steering column turns a large screw which meshes with nut by recirculating balls and this design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The worm and sector was a design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles. To reduce friction the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating pins on the rocker shaft arm, other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its power to assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems, or more correctly power-assisted steering, there are two types of power steering systems, hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible, a hydraulic power steering uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the type, road speed. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage, an outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed
27.
Mercury Park Lane
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The Mercury Park Lane is a fullsize automobile which was produced by the Mercury division of Ford Motor Company. While not officially introduced as the replacement of the Mercury Turnpike Cruiser, the second-generation Park Lane was positioned above the Mercury Montclair. In 1969 the Mercury Marquis was expanded to a model line. In 1956, the Park Lane name was used by the Ford division as it created a station wagon intended as a competitor for the Chevrolet Nomad. The Mercury Park Lane was introduced for the 1958 model year as a model line for the division. Sharing its chassis with the Colony Park station wagon, the Park Lane had a 125-inch wheelbase, in 1959, the Park Lane wheelbase was stretched to 128 inches. For 1960, the Park Lane wheelbase was again changed, matching the 126 inches of the standard Mercury line, the Park Lane was powered by a single engine, a 430 cubic-inch Ford MEL V8. Initially rated at 360 hp for 1958, the Super Marauder engine option package allowed any Mercury with the 430 to increase its output to 400 hp. For 1959, the Super Marauder was discontinued, with the engine rated at 345 hp. All Park Lanes were equipped with a 3-speed Merc-O-Matic automatic transmission, in 1961, the Park Lane name was dropped as the division reorganized its marketing efforts towards the better-selling Monterey alongside the introduction of the Mercury Comet compact. For the 1964 model year, the Mercury Park Lane made its return as the Mercury division expanded its model line, above the Monterey and newly reintroduced Montclair, the Park Lane again topped the Mercury line. In contrast to the generation, the Park Lane used the same wheelbase as other Mercury lines. As the highest-priced, premium trim, many Park Lanes were fitted with the option of a breezeway reverse-slant retractable rear window. In addition, Mercury offered the Park Lane with a fastback roofline as part of Marauder option package, for 1965, the chassis of full-size Ford and Mercury cars were redesigned, the Mercury line was given a much more slab-sided appearance. For 1967, to complement the Mercury Marquis, the Park Lane Brougham was introduced as a sub-model of the Park Lane, for an option on hardtop coupe/convertible models, the Brougham introduced yacht deck paneling body trim, yacht deck paneling was a rarely ordered option. As the division redesigned its full-size line for 1969, the Marquis was expanded to a model range. The Park Lane Brougham was the Ford Motor Companys flagship Mercury model during its run from 1967-1968. Powerful and luxurious, it was offered as a four-door sedan, viewers of the 1968-1980 CBS crime drama Hawaii Five-O may recall Jack Lords character frequently squealing tires throughout Honolulu in a triple-black 1968 Mercury Park Lane Brougham 4-door hardtop
28.
Toyota MR2
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The Toyota MR2 is a two-seat, mid-engined, rear-wheel-drive sports car manufactured in Japan and marketed globally by Toyota from 1984 to 2007 over three generations, W10, W20 and W30. Conceived as a small, economical and sporty car, the MR2 employed straightforward design elements, including MacPherson strut front and rear suspensions, the name MR2 stands for either mid-ship, run-about, 2-seater or mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive, 2-seater. The MR2 derived from a 1976 Toyota design project with the goal of a car which would be enjoyable to drive, design work began in 1979 when Akio Yoshida from Toyotas testing department started to evaluate alternatives for engine placement and drive method, finalizing a mid-transverse engine placement. Toyota called the 1981 prototype SA-X, from its original design, the car evolved into a sports car, and further prototypes were tested both in Japan and in California. Significant testing was performed on race circuits including Willow Springs, where former Formula One driver Dan Gurney tested the car, all three generations were in compliance with Japanese Government regulations concerning exterior dimensions and engine displacement. The MR2 appeared around the time as the Honda CR-X, the Nissan EXA, the VW Scirocco and Fiat X1/9 from Europe. Toyota debuted its SV-3 concept car in October 1983 at the Tokyo Motor Show, gathering press, the car, scheduled for a Japanese launch in the second quarter of 1984 under the name MR2, was to become the first mass-produced mid-engined car from a Japanese manufacturer. In France the MR2 name was shortened to MR to avoid the similarity in pronunciation of MR2 with the French words est merdeux, Toyota introduced the first-generation MR2 in 1984, designating it the model code W10. When fitted with the 1. 5-liter 3A engine, it was known as the AW10, likewise, the 1. 6-liter 4A version is identified by the AW11 code. In Japan, the MR2 was marketed exclusively via Toyotas Vista Stores, at its introduction in 1984, the MR2 won the Car of the Year Japan. As Toyota engineered the MR2 to accommodate a 2-liter engine, its features included its light body, strong handling and lightly powered. The car is referred to as the AW11, referring to the chassis code of the most common 1. 6-litre. The MR2s suspension and handling were designed by Toyota with the help of Lotus engineer Roger Becker, Toyotas cooperation with Lotus during the prototype phase can be seen in the AW11, and it owes much to Lotuss sports cars of the 1960s and 1970s. Toyotas active suspension technology called TEMS was not installed, with five structural bulkheads, the MR2 was quite heavy for a two-seater of its size. Toyota employed the naturally aspirated 4A-GE1,587 cc inline-four engine, Japanese models were later downrated to 120 PS. The engine had already introduced earlier on the AE86 Corolla. A five-speed manual transmission was standard and an automatic was optional. Road tests delivered 0-60 mph times in the mid- to high-8 second range, in the home market, the AW10 base model was offered, which used the more economical 1452 cc 3A-U engine rated at 61 kilowatts
29.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
30.
Volkswagen
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Volkswagen, shortened to VW, is a German automaker founded on May 28,1937 by the German Labour Front and headquartered in Wolfsburg. It is the flagship marque of the Volkswagen Group and is the largest automaker worldwide, Volkswagen is German for peoples car, and the companys current international advertising slogan is just Volkswagen. American English pronunciation is approximately volks wagon, for vehicle timeline tables, see, Volkswagen. Volkswagen was originally established in 1937 by the German Labour Front, in the early 1930s, the German auto industry was still largely composed of luxury models, and the average German could rarely afford anything more than a motorcycle. As a result, only one German out of 50 owned a car, seeking a potential new market, some car makers began independent peoples car projects – the Mercedes 170H, Adler AutoBahn, Steyr 55, and Hanomag 1. 3L, among others. The trend was not new, as Béla Barényi is credited with having conceived the design in the mid-1920s. Josef Ganz developed the Standard Superior, in Germany, the company Hanomag mass-produced the 2/10 PS Komissbrot, a small, cheap rear engined car, from 1925 to 1928. Also, in Czechoslovakia, the Hans Ledwinkas penned Tatra T77, Ferdinand Porsche, a well-known designer for high-end vehicles and race cars, had been trying for years to get a manufacturer interested in a small car suitable for a family. He felt the cars at the time were just stripped down big cars. He wanted his German citizens to have the access to a car as the Americans. The Peoples Car would be available to citizens of the Third Reich through a plan at 990 Reichsmark —about the price of a small motorcycle. Despite heavy lobbying in favor of one of the existing projects, thus, Hitler chose to sponsor an all-new, state-owned factory using Ferdinand Porsches design. The intention was that ordinary Germans would buy the car by means of a savings scheme, however, the entire project was financially unsound, and only the corruption and lack of accountability of the Nazi regime made it possible. Prototypes of the car called the KdF-Wagen, appeared from 1938 onwards, the car already had its distinctive round shape and air-cooled, flat-four, rear-mounted engine. The VW car was just one of many KdF programs, which included such as tours. The prefix Volks— was not just applied to cars, but also to products in Germany. On May 28,1937, Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH, more than a year later, on September 16,1938, it was renamed to Volkswagenwerk GmbH. Erwin Komenda, the longstanding Auto Union chief designer, part of Ferdinand Porsches hand-picked team, developed the car body of the prototype and it was one of the first cars designed with the aid of a wind tunnel—a method used for German aircraft design since the early 1920s
31.
Audi
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Audi is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, the company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning listen in German, becomes audi in Latin, the four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audis predecessor company, Auto Union. Audis slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning Advancement through Technology, however, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan Truth in Engineering. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes are among the luxury automobile brands in the world. Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG, another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimlers four-wheeler. On 14 November 1899, August Horch established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th,1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, after troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement, the German Reichsgericht in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. Since August Horch was prohibited from using Horch as a name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company, during this meeting, Franzs son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Horch. in German means Hark. or hear, which is Audi in the imperative form of audire – to listen – in Latin. The idea was accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau was entered in the register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year. Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model and these cars were successful even in sporting events
32.
Peugeot
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For the article about the bicycle manufacturer, see Cycles Peugeot. Peugeot is a French car manufacturer, part of Groupe PSA, the family business that preceded the current Peugeot company was founded in 1810, and manufactured coffee mills and bicycles. On 20 November 1858, Émile Peugeot applied for the lion trademark, due to family discord, Armand Peugeot in 1896 founded the Société des Automobiles Peugeot. The Peugeot company and family are originally from Sochaux, France, Peugeot retains a large manufacturing plant and Peugeot museum there. In February 2014, the agreed to a recapitalisation plan, in which Dongfeng Motors. Peugeot has received international awards for its vehicles, including five European Car of the Year awards. In 2013 and 2014, Peugeot ranked the second lowest for average CO2 emissions among generalist brands in Europe, the Renault car maker group being ranked first, with 114. 9g CO2/km. Peugeot is known as a very reliable brand, citing how its 1950s and 1960s models are running in Africa and Cuba in the 2010s. Peugeot has been involved in sport for more than a century. In 2015, Peugeot returned to the Dakar Rally after its four victories in the 1980s, the Peugeot family of Valentigney, Montbéliard, Franche-Comté, France, began in the manufacturing business in the 19th century. In 1842, they added production of coffee, pepper, the companys entry into the vehicle market was by means of crinoline dresses, which used steel rods, leading to umbrella frames, saw blades, chisels, wire wheels, and bicycles. Armand Peugeot introduced his Le Grand Bi penny-farthing in 1882, along with a range of other bicycles, the car company and bike company parted ways in 1926 but Peugeot bicycles continued to be built until very recently. Armand Peugeot became interested in the early on and, after meeting with Gottlieb Daimler. The first Peugeot automobile, a three-wheeled, steam-powered car designed by Léon Serpollet, was produced in 1889, steam power was heavy and bulky and required lengthy warmup times. In 1890, after meeting Daimler and Émile Levassor, steam was abandoned in favour of a car with a petrol-fuelled internal combustion engine built by Panhard under Daimler licence. The car was more sophisticated than many of its contemporaries, with a three-point suspension, an example was sold to the young Alberto Santos-Dumont, who exported it to Brazil. More cars followed,29 being built in 1892,40 in 1894,72 in 1895,156 in 1898 and these early models were given type numbers. Peugeot became the first manufacturer to fit rubber tyres to a petrol-powered car, Peugeot was an early pioneer in motor racing, with Albert Lemaître winning the worlds first motor race, the Paris–Rouen, in a 3 hp Peugeot
33.
SEAT
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SEAT, S. A. is a Spanish automobile manufacturer with its head office in Martorell, Spain. It was founded on May 9,1950, by the Instituto Nacional de Industria and it is currently a wholly owned subsidiary of the German Volkswagen Group. The headquarters of SEAT, S. A. are located at SEATs industrial complex in Martorell near Barcelona, SEAT today is the only major Spanish car manufacturer with the ability and the infrastructure to develop its own cars in-house. The plant was opened by King Juan Carlos of Spain on February 22,1993, a rail connection between SEATs Martorell and Zona Franca complexes facilitates vehicle and parts transportation between the two sites. In Wolfsburg, Germany, in the middle of a lake inside the Autostadt, in its 60 years, there was only a short period from 1953 to 1965 when the firm produced its cars exclusively for the domestic Spanish market. Until the early 1980s, however, most SEAT exports were sold with Fiat badging, as a response to SEATs bid for independence, Fiat committed themselves to selling 200,000 SEAT-built cars a year from 1981, compared to 120,000 the year before. At the end of 1983, just after SEAT had won its legal battle with Fiat, in Europe, they were represented in West Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Austria, and Greece. The UK, Ireland, and various Scandinavian markets were planned to be added in 1984 and this was in spite of the company only being able to export the Ronda, with the Fura to follow. Its core market remains Europe, while the most successful market outside of Europe in terms of sales for SEAT is currently Mexico, in Europe the brand has been launched in almost 40 countries across Northern, Western, Southern, Eastern Europe and Russia. In the years to come SEAT plans expanding in even more markets, SEATs further expansion plans in more markets outside of Europe have yet to be realised. In the past the company was considering a launch in the United States although this move has never been carried out. SEAT has been present in the Russian Federation since 2007, In India all Volkswagen group brands are assembled or imported except SEAT, Spain is the worlds eighth largest producer of automobiles and its car market stands among the largest in Europe. In this period there was only limited car production and only a few low volume local manufacturers catering mainly to the end of the market. The situation greatly deteriorated with the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939, the lack of interest shown by the foreign firms in the weakened post civil war Spanish market opened an opportunity for local interests. The initial Banco Urquijos project aimed at running the S. I. A. T, with the rest of Europe having entered the World War II, and Spain itself in ruins from its civil war, the project was delayed but not abandoned due to its strategic importance. The favoured bidders were Germanys Volkswagen and Italys Fiat, Fiats collaboration with the French company Simca proved Fiats ability to manage complex international projects. In Italy, Fiat dominated the market for vehicles under 12 horsepower, in 1947, the Banco Urquijo group had revived the S. I. A. T. The Banco Urquijo group, although a minority share holder, looked forward to assuming a role in the future as soon as the company was privatesed
34.
Suzuki
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In 2014, Suzuki was thought to be the ninth biggest automaker by production worldwide. In addition, motorcycle is the third largest in the sales volume, outboard motor. In 1909, Michio Suzuki founded the Suzuki Loom Works in the small seacoast village of Hamamatsu, business boomed as Suzuki built weaving looms for Japans giant silk industry. In 1929, Michio Suzuki invented a new type of weaving machine, the companys first 30 years focused on the development and production of these machines. Despite the success of his looms, Suzuki believed that his company would benefit from diversification, based on consumer demand, he decided that building a small car would be the most practical new venture. The project began in 1937, and within two years Suzuki had completed several compact prototype cars and these first Suzuki motor vehicles were powered by a then-innovative, liquid-cooled, four-stroke, four-cylinder engine. It had a cast aluminum crankcase and gearbox and generated 13 horsepower from a displacement of less than 800cc, with the onset of World War II, production plans for Suzukis new vehicles were halted when the government declared civilian passenger cars a non-essential commodity. At the conclusion of the war, Suzuki went back to producing looms, Loom production was given a boost when the U. S. government approved the shipping of cotton to Japan. Suzukis fortunes brightened as orders began to increase from domestic textile manufacturers, but the joy was short-lived as the cotton market collapsed in 1951. Faced with this challenge, Suzuki returned to the production of motor vehicles. After the war, the Japanese had a great need for affordable, reliable personal transportation, a number of firms began offering clip-on gas-powered engines that could be attached to the typical bicycle. Suzukis first two-wheeled vehicle was a bicycle fitted with a motor called, designed to be inexpensive and simple to build and maintain, the 1952 Power Free had a 36 cc, one horsepower, two-stroke engine. The new double-sprocket gear system enabled the rider to either pedal with the engine assisting, pedal without engine assist, or simply disconnect the pedals, the patent office of the new democratic government granted Suzuki a financial subsidy to continue research in motorcycle engineering. By 1954, Suzuki was producing 6,000 motorcycles per month and had changed its name to Suzuki Motor Co. Ltd. Following the success of its first motorcycles, Suzuki created a more successful automobile. The Suzulight sold with front-wheel drive, four-wheel independent suspension and rack-and-pinion steering, Volkswagen held a 19. 9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3. 8bn to complete the stock buy-back in September 2015, Michio Suzuki was intent on making better, more user-friendly looms and, for 30 years his focus was on the development of these machines
35.
Opel
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Adam Opel AG is a German automobile manufacturer headquartered in Rüsselsheim, Hesse, Germany. It is a subsidiary of General Motors but is soon to be part of the French automotive company Groupe PSA, Opel traces its roots to a sewing machine manufacturer founded by Adam Opel in 1862. The company began manufacturing bicycles in 1886 and produced its first automobile in 1899, Opel became a share-limited company in 1929, General Motors took a majority stake in Opel that same year. General Motors assumed full control in 1931, and today Adam Opel AG is an owned subsidiary of General Motors Company. Although Adam Opel AG continues to be a company, shares of the company are not publicly listed. Adam Opel AG is the parent company of General Motors UK Limited, better known as Vauxhall, during the 1970s and 1980s, Opel and Vauxhall ranges were rationalised into one consistent range across Europe. Opel withdrew from China, where it had a network of 22 dealers, furthermore, GM is responsible to pay about US$400 million annually for 15 years to fund the existing German and U. K. pension plans. The company was founded in Rüsselsheim, Hessen, Germany, on January 21,1862, at the beginning, Opel just produced sewing machines in a cowshed in Rüsselsheim. Above all, his success was based on his perfectly customized sewing machines, because of the quick growth of his business, in 1888, the production was relocated from the cowshed to a more spacious building in Rüsselsheim. Encouraged by success, Adam Opel launched a new product in 1886, He began to sell high-wheel bicycles, besides, Opels two sons participated in high-wheel bicycle races, thus promoting this means of transportation. Therefore, the production of high-wheel bicycles soon exceeded the production of sewing machines, at the time of Opels death in 1895, he was the leader in both markets. These cars were made up of Opel bodies mounted on Darracq chassis, the company first showed cars of its own design at the 1902 Hamburg Motor Show, and started manufacturing them in 1906, with Opel Darracq production being discontinued in 1907. In 1909, the Opel 4/8 PS model, known as the Doktorwagen was produced and its reliability and robustness were greatly appreciated by physicians, who drove a lot to see their patients, back when hard-surfaced roads were still rare. The Doktorwagen sold for only 3,950 marks, about half as much as the models of its day. In 1911, the factory was virtually destroyed by fire. In the early 1920s, Opel became the first German car manufacturer to incorporate a mass-production assembly line in the building of their automobiles, in 1924, they used their assembly line to produce a new open two-seater called the Laubfrosch. The Laubfrosch was finished exclusively in green lacquer. The car sold for an expensive 4,500 marks, but by the 1930s, this type of vehicle would cost a mere 1,990 marks – due in part to the assembly line, but also due to the skyrocketing demand for cars
36.
Mini (marque)
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Mini is a British automotive marque owned by BMW which specialises in small cars. The original Mini was a line of iconic British small cars manufactured by the British Motor Corporation and their models included the Morris Mini-Minor and the Austin Seven, the Countryman, Moke, 1275GT and Clubman. Performance versions of models used the name Cooper, due to a partnership with racing legend John Cooper. The original two-door Mini continued in production until 2000, Development of a successor began in 1995 and the new generation car was launched in 2001. The current Mini range includes the Hardtop/Hatch/Convertible, Clubman, Countryman, Coupe/Roadster, the Mini was originally a product of the British Motor Corporation, which in 1966 became part of British Motor Holdings. British Motor Holdings merged with Leyland Motors in 1968 to form British Leyland, Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969. In the 1980s, British Leyland was broken-up and in 1988 Rover Group, in 1994, Rover Group was acquired by BMW. In 2000, Rover Group was broken up by BMW, with BMW retaining the Mini brand, jochen Goller of BMW currently serves as the managing director of the Mini division. The Mini Hatch/Hardtop, Clubman, Convertible, Coupe and Roadster are assembled at BMWs Plant Oxford in Cowley, England, a total of 301,526 Mini vehicles were sold worldwide in 2012. Mini vehicles have been active in rallying and the Mini Cooper S won the Monte Carlo Rally on three occasions, in 1964,1965 and 1967, Mini has participated in the World Rally Championship since 2011 through the Prodrive WRC Team. The original two-door Mini was a car produced by the British Motor Corporation. It is considered an icon of the 1960s, and its space-saving front-wheel-drive layout influenced a generation of car-makers, the vehicle is in some ways considered the British equivalent to its German contemporary, the Volkswagen Beetle, which enjoyed similar popularity in North America. In 1999 the Mini was voted the second most influential car of the 20th Century and this distinctive two-door car was designed for BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. The Mini Mark I had three major UK updates, the Mark II, the Clubman and the Mark III, within these was a series of variations including an estate car, a pickup truck, a van and the Mini Moke—a jeep-like buggy. Initially Minis were marketed under the Austin and Morris names, as the Austin Seven and Morris Mini-Minor, the Mini was again marketed under the Austin name in the 1980s. In the 1990s, BMW was seeking to broaden its range through the addition of compact cars. This sparked a series of compact car concept vehicles from the company during the early 1990s, the first were the E1 and Z13, powered by an electric motor and a rear-mounted 1100 cc BMW motorcycle engine, respectively. In early 1994, BMW acquired the Rover Group from British Aerospace, BMW insisted that even a compact model must feature iconic BMW characteristics to uphold the companys standards and image
37.
Toyota
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Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japanese automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In March 2014, the corporation consisted of 338,875 employees worldwide and. As of 2016, Toyota is the worlds second-largest automotive manufacturer behind German Volkswagen Group, Toyota was the worlds first automobile manufacturer to produce more than 10 million vehicles per year which it has done since 2012, when it also reported the production of its 200-millionth vehicle. As of July 2014, Toyota was the largest listed company in Japan by market capitalization, Toyota is the worlds market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, and one of the largest companies to encourage the mass-market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models achieved the 10 million milestone in January 2017 and its Prius family is the worlds top selling hybrid nameplate with over 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017. The company was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937, as a spinoff from his fathers company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries, it created its first product, the Type A engine, and, in 1936, its first passenger car, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation produces vehicles under five brands, including the Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, TMC is part of the Toyota Group, one of the largest conglomerates in the world. Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, the main headquarters of Toyota is located in a 4-story building in Toyota. As of 2006, the office has the Toyopet Toyota logo. Vinod Jacob from The Hindu described the headquarters building as modest. In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the due to the lack of amenities in the city. Its Tokyo office is located in Bunkyo, Tokyo and its Nagoya office is located in Nakamura-ku, Nagoya. In addition to manufacturing automobiles, Toyota provides financial services through its Toyota Financial Services division, since 1950, the two entities had existed as separate companies as a prerequisite for reconstruction in postwar Japan. Shoichiro Toyoda presided over Toyota Motor Sales in preparation for the consummation of the merger occurred in 1982. Shoichiro then succeeded his uncle Eiji as the President of the organization that then became known as Toyota Motor Corporation. Announced the appointment of board members, this was a first for the corporation. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, Toyota is publicly traded on the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Sapporo exchanges under company code TYO,7203
38.
Honda
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Honda Motor Co. Ltd. is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles, aircraft, motorcycles, and power equipment. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world behind General Motors, Volkswagen Group, Toyota, Hyundai Motor Group, Ford, Nissan, and PSA Peugeot Citroën in 2011. Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a luxury brand, Acura. Aside from their automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft and power generators. Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and they have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012. Honda has three joint-ventures in China, in 2013, Honda invested about 5. 7% of its revenues in research and development. Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, throughout his life, Hondas founder, Soichiro Honda had an interest in automobiles. He worked as a mechanic at the Art Shokai garage, where he tuned cars, in 1937, with financing from his acquaintance Kato Shichirō, Honda founded Tōkai Seiki to make piston rings working out of the Art Shokai garage. After initial failures, Tōkai Seiki won a contract to supply piston rings to Toyota, Honda also aided the war effort by assisting other companies in automating the production of military aircraft propellers. The relationships Honda cultivated with personnel at Toyota, Nakajima Aircraft Company, with a staff of 12 men working in a 16 m2 shack, they built and sold improvised motorized bicycles, using a supply of 500 two-stroke 50 cc Tohatsu war surplus radio generator engines. When the engines ran out, Honda began building their own copy of the Tohatsu engine and this was the Honda A-Type, nicknamed the Bata Bata for the sound the engine made. In 1949, the Honda Technical Research Institute was liquidated for ¥1,000,000, or about US$5,000 today, at about the same time Honda hired engineer Kihachiro Kawashima, and Takeo Fujisawa who provided indispensable business and marketing expertise to complement Soichiro Hondas technical bent. The close partnership between Soichiro Honda and Fujisawa lasted until they stepped down together in October 1973, the first complete motorcycle, with both the frame and engine made by Honda, was the 1949 D-Type, the first Honda to go by the name Dream. Honda Motor Company grew in a time to become the worlds largest manufacturer of motorcycles by 1964. The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, powered by a small 356-cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket. The first production car from Honda was the S500 sports car and its chain-driven rear wheels pointed to Hondas motorcycle origins. Over the next few decades, Honda worked to expand its line and expanded operations. In 1986, Honda introduced the successful Acura brand to the American market in an attempt to ground in the luxury vehicle market
39.
Mazda
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Mazda Motor Corporation, commonly referred to as simply Mazda, is a Japanese multinational automaker based in Fuchū, Aki District, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. In 2011, Mazda was the fifteenth biggest automaker by production worldwide, Mazdas company website states that its name is derived from Ahura Mazda, the Avestan word for God, which is also the name of God to Zoroastrians. Specifically, the states that The name was also associated with Ahura Mazda. The company website further notes that the name derives from the name of the companys founder. Mazda began as the Toyo Cork Kogyo Co, Ltd, founded in Hiroshima, Japan,30 January 1920. Toyo Cork Kogyo renamed itself to Toyo Kogyo Co. Ltd. in 1927, in the late 1920s the company had to be saved from bankruptcy by Hiroshima Saving Bank and other business leaders in Hiroshima. In 1931 Toyo Kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles with the introduction of the Mazda-Go autorickshaw, Toyo Kogyo produced weapons for the Japanese military throughout the Second World War, most notably the series 30 through 35 Type 99 rifle. The company formally adopted the Mazda name in 1984, though every automobile sold from the bore that name. The Mazda R360 was introduced in 1960, followed by the Mazda Carol in 1962, both piston-powered and rotary-powered models made their way around the world. The R100 and the RX series led the companys export efforts, during 1968, Mazda started formal operations in Canada although Mazdas were seen in Canada as early as 1959. In 1970, Mazda formally entered the American market and was successful there. To this day, Mazda remains the only automaker to have produced a Wankel-powered pickup truck, additionally, it is also the only marque to have ever offered a rotary-powered bus or station wagon. After nine years of development, Mazda finally launched its new model in the U. S. in 1970, Mazdas rotary success continued until the onset of the 1973 oil crisis. As American buyers quickly turned to vehicles with fuel efficiency. Combined with being the least-efficient automaker in Japan, inability to adjust to excess inventory and over-reliance on the U. S. market, the company suffered a huge loss in 1975. Fortunately, the company had not totally turned its back on piston engines, the smaller Familia line in particular became very important to Mazdas worldwide sales after 1973, as did the somewhat larger Capella series. Mazda refocused its efforts and made the engine a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant. Starting with the lightweight RX-7 in 1978 and continuing with the modern RX-8 and this switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered Mazda Roadster, inspired by the concept jinba ittai
40.
Driving
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Driving is the controlled operation and movement of a motorized vehicle with wheels, such as a car, motorcycle, truck, or bus by either a human or computer controller. The origin of the driver, as recorded from the 15th century, refers to the occupation of driving working animals. The verb to drive in origin means to force to move and it is first recorded of electric railway drivers in 1889 and of a motor-car driver in 1896. Early alternatives were motorneer, motor-man, motor-driver or motorist, french favors conducteur, while German influenced areas adopted Fahrer, and the verbs führen, lenken, steuern —all with a meaning steer, guide, navigate— translating to conduire. Her official reason was that she wanted to visit her mother, but unofficially she intended to generate publicity for her husbands invention, the automobile took off greatly afterwards and the Benzs family business eventually evolved into the present day Mercedes-Benz company. The 7. 6-mile journey took two hours, the descent was accomplished by putting the engine in low gear and doing lots of braking. In certain countries, especially the Scandinavian countries, driving and its equivalent word in the language has become a colloquialism for action in a general sense. For instance, the phrase Lets drive means roughly the same thing as the more common Lets go, Driving in traffic is more than just knowing how to operate the mechanisms which control the vehicle, it requires knowing how to apply the rules of the road. An effective driver also has an understanding of the basics of vehicle handling. Although direct operation of a bicycle and an animal are commonly referred to as riding. Driving over a distance is referred to as a road trip. A driver must have physical skills to be able to control direction, acceleration, another survey indicated that music could adversely affect a drivers concentration. Seizure disorders and Alzheimers disease are among the leading causes of mental impairment among drivers in the United States. Whether or not physicians should be allowed, or even required, to such conditions to state authorities. Driveability of a means the smooth delivery of power, as demanded by the driver. Typical causes of driveability degradation are rough idling, misfiring, surging, hesitation, a driver is subject to the laws of the jurisdiction in which he or she is driving. Most countries also have differing laws against driving while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, aggressive driving and road rage have become problems for drivers in some areas. Some countries require a vision screening test for individuals to acquire or renew a drivers license, a 2010 systematic review found insufficient evidence to assess the effects of vision screening tests on subsequent motor vehicle crash reduction
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Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
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Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
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National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
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The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is an agency of the Executive Branch of the U. S. government, part of the Department of Transportation. It describes its mission as Save lives, prevent injuries, reduce vehicle-related crashes, the agency has asserted preemptive regulatory authority over greenhouse gas emissions, but this has been disputed by such state regulatory agencies as the California Air Resources Board. Another of NHTSAs major activities is the creation and maintenance of the data maintained by the National Center for Statistics. In particular, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, has become a resource for traffic safety research not only in the United States, research contributions using FARS by researchers from many countries appear in many non-U. S. Technical publications, and provide a significant database and knowledge bank on the subject, even with this database, conclusive analysis of crash causes often remains difficult and controversial, with experts debating the veracity and statistical validity of results. In 1966, Congress held a series of highly publicized hearings regarding highway safety, passed legislation to make installation of seat belts mandatory, 89–670 which created the U. S. Department of Transportation on October 15,1966. NHTSA was officially established in 1970 by the Highway Safety Act of 1970, in 1972, the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act expanded NHTSAs scope to include consumer information programs. Since then, automobiles have become far better in protecting their occupants in vehicle impacts, the number of deaths on American highways hovers around 33,000 annually, a lower death rate per vehicle-mile traveled than in the 1960s. The agency has introduced a proposal to mandate Electronic Stability Control on all vehicles by the 2012 model year. This technology was first brought to attention in 1997, with the Swedish moose test. S. Because of the unavailability in America of certain models, a gray market arose in the late 1970s. This provided an alternate, legal method to acquire vehicles only sold overseas, the success of the gray market, however, ate into the business of Mercedes-Benz of North America Inc. S. In practice the gray market involved a few thousand cars annually. In 1998, NHTSA exempted vehicles older than 25 years from the rules it administers, in 1999, certain very low production volume specialist vehicles were also exempt for Show and Display purposes. This has driven U. S. industry to adopt less visible forms of restrictions in the form of technical regulations different. NHTSA disapproved the SM due to its high-performance, low-glare, steerable headlamps which were not of the sealed beam design mandatory in the U. S. In the mid-1960s when the framework was established for US vehicle safety regulations, the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards are contained in the United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Part 571. This is commonly referred to as 49CFR571, with any particular FMVSS appended after a period, additional federal vehicle standards are contained elsewhere in the CFR
