1.
Laboratory centrifuge
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A laboratory centrifuge is a piece of laboratory equipment, driven by a motor, which spins liquid samples at high speed. There are various types of centrifuges, depending on the size, like all other centrifuges, laboratory centrifuges work by the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration is used to separate substances of greater and lesser density. There are different providers of laboratory centrifuges like Eppendorf, Thermo-Heraeus, Thermo-Sorvall, Hettich, Beckmann-Coulter, MSE, Sigma, centrifuge tubes are precision-made, high-strength tubes of glass or plastic made to fit exactly in rotor cavities. They may vary in capacity from 50 mL down to much smaller capacities used in microcentrifuges used extensively in biology laboratories. They can be cleaned like other laboratory glassware, and can be sterilized by autoclaving and they must be handled with care, since small scratches can cause failure under the strong forces imposed during a run. Glass tubes are inserted into soft rubber sleeves to cushion them during runs, plastic centrifuge tubes, especially tend to be less expensive and, with care, can be just as durable as glass. Water is preferred when plastic centrifuge tubes are used and they are more difficult to clean thoroughly, and are usually inexpensive enough to be considered disposable. Disposable plastic microlitre tubes of 0. 5ml to 2ml are commonly used in microcentrifuges and they are molded from a flexible transparent plastic similar to polythene, are semi-conical in shape, with integral, hinged sealing caps. Larger samples are spun using centrifuge bottles, which range in capacity from 250 to 1000 millilitres, although some are made of heavy glass, centrifuge bottles are usually made of shatterproof plastics such as polypropylene or polycarbonate. Sealing closures may be used for added leak-proof assurance, the load in a laboratory centrifuge must be carefully balanced. This is achieved by using a combination of samples and balance tubes which all have the weight or by using various balancing patterns without balance tubes. Small differences in mass of the load can result in a force imbalance when the rotor is at high speed. This force imbalance strains the spindle and may result in damage to the centrifuge or personal injury, some centrifuges have an automatic rotor imbalance detection feature that immediately discontinues the run when an imbalance is detected. Before starting a centrifuge, a check of the rotor. Centrifuge rotors should never be touched while moving, because a spinning rotor can cause serious injury, modern centrifuges generally have features that prevent accidental contact with a moving rotor as the main lid is locked during the run. Centrifuge rotors have tremendous kinetic energy during high speed rotation, rotor failure, caused by mechanical stress from the high forces imparted by the motor, can occur due to manufacturing defects, routine wear and tear, or improper use and maintenance. Such a failure can be catastrophic failure, especially with larger centrifuges, uncontained rotor failures have shattered laboratory windows and destroyed refrigerators and cabinetry. Another potential hazard is the aerosolization of hazardous samples during centrifugation, to prevent contamination of the laboratory, rotor lids with special aerosol-tight gaskets are available
2.
Nanoparticle
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Nanoparticles are particles between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. In nanotechnology, a particle is defined as an object that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its transport. Particles are further classified according to diameter, scientific research on nanoparticles is intense as they have many potential applications in medicine, physics, optics, and electronics. The U. S. National Nanotechnology Initiative offers government funding focused on nanoparticle research, the term nanoparticle is not usually applied to individual molecules, it usually refers to inorganic materials. However, during the 1990s before the National Nanotechnology Initiative was launched in the USA, nanoparticles can exhibit size-related properties significantly different from those of either fine particles or bulk materials. Nanoclusters have at least one dimension between 1 and 10 nanometers and a size distribution. Nanopowders are agglomerates of ultrafine particles, nanoparticles, or nanoclusters, nanometer-sized single crystals, or single-domain ultrafine particles, are often referred to as nanocrystals. Although nanoparticles are associated with science, they have a long history. In modern times, pottery from the Middle Ages and Renaissance often retains a distinct gold- or copper-colored metallic glitter and this luster is caused by a metallic film that was applied to the transparent surface of a glazing. The luster can still be visible if the film has resisted atmospheric oxidation, the luster originates within the film itself, which contains silver and copper nanoparticles dispersed homogeneously in the glassy matrix of the ceramic glaze. These nanoparticles are created by the artisans by adding copper and silver salts and oxides together with vinegar, ochre, the object is then placed into a kiln and heated to about 600 °C in a reducing atmosphere. In the heat the glaze softens, causing the copper and silver ions to migrate into the layers of the glaze. There the reducing atmosphere reduced the ions back to metals, which came together forming the nanoparticles that give the color. Luster technique showed that ancient craftsmen had an empirical knowledge of materials. The technique originated in the Muslim world, as Muslims were not allowed to use gold in artistic representations, they sought a way to create a similar effect without using real gold. The solution they found was using luster, michael Faraday provided the first description, in scientific terms, of the optical properties of nanometer-scale metals in his classic 1857 paper. The result is white light is now freely transmitted, reflection is correspondingly diminished. Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to van der Waals forces can also give rise to microstructural heterogeneity
3.
Energy
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In physics, energy is the property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on – or to heat – the object, and can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. Mass and energy are closely related, for example, with a sensitive enough scale, one could measure an increase in mass after heating an object. Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fuels, nuclear fuel. The processes of Earths climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun, the total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of energy, electric energy. Many of these overlap, for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic. Some types of energy are a mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is energy which is the sum of kinetic. Whenever physical scientists discover that a phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation. Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, in general we cannot measure how much heat or work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from, the distinctions between different kinds of energy is not always clear-cut. In contrast to the definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two, in 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term energy instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described kinetic energy in 1829 in its modern sense, the law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat and these developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson as the field of thermodynamics
4.
Pigment
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A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
5.
Water treatment
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Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. Substances that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment include suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common practice to keep residual disinfectants in the water to kill bacteriological contamination during distribution. World Health Organization guidelines are a set of standards intended to apply where better local standards are not implemeted. More rigorous standards apply across Europe, the USA and in most other developed countries, followed throughout the world for drinking water quality requirements. Disinfection for killing bacteria viruses and other pathogens, technologies for potable water and other uses are well developed, and generalized designs are available from which treatment processes can be selected for pilot testing on the specific source water. In addition, a number of companies provide patented technological solutions for treatment of specific contaminants. Automation of water and waste-water treatment is common in the developed world, source water quality through the seasons, scale and environmental impact can dictate capital costs and operating costs. End use of the treated water dictates the necessary quality monitoring technologies, biological processes can be employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge or slow sand filters. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure, some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of solids from liquids, by progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced. Two of the processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment. A lack of water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated, scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health. With the proper treatment, a significant proportion of industrial on-site wastewater might be reusable, corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity
6.
Crystallization
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Crystallization is the process where a solid forms where the atoms or molecules are highly organized in a structure known as a crystal. Some of the ways which crystals form are through precipitating from a solution, crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer, crystallization is therefore related to precipitation, although the result is not amorphous or disordered, but a crystal. The crystallization process consists of two events, nucleation and crystal growth which are driven by thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties. These stable clusters constitute the nuclei, therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order to become stable nuclei. Such critical size is dictated by different factors. The crystal growth is the subsequent size increase of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size, crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atoms precipitate out of solution, and dissolve back into solution. Supersaturation is one of the forces of crystallization, as the solubility of a species is an equilibrium process quantified by Ksp. Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant over the other, many compounds have the ability to crystallize with some having different crystal structures, a phenomenon called polymorphism. Each polymorph is in fact a different thermodynamic solid state and crystal polymorphs of the compound exhibit different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape, melting point. For this reason, polymorphism is of importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products. Additionally, crystal phases can sometimes be interconverted by varying factors such as temperature, there are many examples of natural process that involve crystallization. Geological time scale process examples include, Natural crystal formation, Stalactite/stalagmite, usual time scale process examples include, Snow flakes formation, Honey crystallization. Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first type of crystals are composed of a cation and anion, also known as a salt, the second type of crystals are composed of uncharged species, for example menthol. The formation of a solution does not guarantee crystal formation. A typical laboratory technique for crystal formation is to dissolve the solid in a solution in which it is partially soluble, the hot mixture is then filtered to remove any insoluble impurities. The filtrate is allowed to slowly cool, crystals that form are then filtered and washed with a solvent in which they are not soluble, but is miscible with the mother liquor. The process is repeated to increase the purity in a technique known as recrystallization
7.
Porphyrin
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Porphyrins are a group of heterocyclic macrocycle organic compounds, composed of four modified pyrrole subunits interconnected at their α carbon atoms via methine bridges. The parent porphyrin is porphin, and substituted porphines are called porphyrins, the porphyrin ring structure is aromatic, with a total of 26 electrons in the conjugated system. Various analyses indicate that not all atoms of the ring are involved equally in the conjugation or that the overall nature is substantially based on several smaller conjugated systems. Many porphyrins are naturally occurring, one of the best-known porphyrins is heme, the pigment in red blood cells, porphyrins are the conjugate acids of ligands that bind metals to form complexes. The metal ion usually has a charge of 2+ or 3+. A schematic equation for these syntheses is shown, H2porphyrin + 2+ → MLn−4 +4 L +2 H+ where M = metal ion, some iron-containing porphyrins are called hemes. Heme-containing proteins, or hemoproteins, are found extensively in nature, hemoglobin and myoglobin are two O2-binding proteins that contain iron porphyrins. Several other heterocycles are related to porphyrins and these include corrins, chlorins, bacteriochlorophylls, and corphins. Chlorins are more reduced, contain more hydrogen than porphyrins, and this structure occurs in a chlorophyll molecule. Replacement of two of the four subunits with pyrrolinic subunits results in either a bacteriochlorin or an isobacteriochlorin. Some porphyrin derivatives follow Hückels rule, but most do not, a benzoporphyrin is a porphyrin with a benzene ring fused to one of the pyrrole units. E. g. verteporfin is a benzoporphyrin derivative, a geoporphyrin, also known as a petroporphyrin, is a porphyrin of geologic origin. They can occur in oil, oil shale, coal. Abelsonite is possibly the only geoporphyrin mineral, as it is rare for porphyrins to occur in isolation, in plants, algae, bacteria and archaea, it is produced from glutamic acid via glutamyl-tRNA and glutamate-1-semialdehyde. The enzymes involved in this pathway are glutamyl-tRNA synthetase, glutamyl-tRNA reductase and this pathway is known as the C5 or Beale pathway. Two molecules of dALA are then combined by porphobilinogen synthase to give porphobilinogen, four PBGs are then combined through deamination into hydroxymethyl bilane, which is hydrolysed to form the circular tetrapyrrole uroporphyrinogen III. This molecule undergoes a number of further modifications, intermediates are used in different species to form particular substances, but, in humans, the main end-product protoporphyrin IX is combined with iron to form heme. Bile pigments are the products of heme
8.
Metallurgy
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The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically
9.
Potassium chloride
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Potassium chloride is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chloride. It is odorless and has a white or colorless vitreous crystal appearance, the solid dissolves readily in water and its solutions have a salt-like taste. KCl is used as a fertilizer, in medicine, scientific applications, food processing and it occurs naturally as the mineral sylvite and in combination with sodium chloride as sylvinite. The version for injection is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the majority of the potassium chloride produced is used for making fertilizer, since the growth of many plants is limited by their potassium intake. As a chemical feedstock, it is used for the manufacture of potassium hydroxide and it is also used in medicine, lethal injections, scientific applications, food processing, and as a sodium-free substitute for table salt for persons concerned about the health effects of sodium. Potassium is vital in the body, and potassium chloride by mouth is the common means to treat low blood potassium. It can be used as a substitute for food, but due to its weak, bitter, unsalty flavor. The addition of 1 ppm of thaumatin considerably reduces this bitterness, complaints of bitterness or a chemical or metallic taste are also reported with potassium chloride used in food. It is sometimes used in water as a fluid in petroleum and natural gas operations. KCl is useful as a radiation source for calibration of radiation monitoring equipment. One kilogram of KCl yields 16350 becquerels of radiation consisting of 89. 28% beta and 10. 72% gamma with 1.46083 MeV. Potassium chloride is used in some de-icing products that are designed to be safer for pets and plants and it is also used in various brands of bottled water, as well as in bulk quantities for fossil fuel drilling purposes. Potassium chloride was used as a fire extinguishing agent, used in portable. Known as Super-K dry chemical, it was more effective than sodium bicarbonate-based dry chemicals and was compatible with protein foam and this agent fell out of favor with the introduction of potassium bicarbonate dry chemical in the late 1960s, which was much less corrosive and more effective. It is rated for B and C fires, along with sodium chloride and lithium chloride, potassium chloride is used as a flux for the gas welding of aluminium. Potassium chloride is also a crystal with a wide transmission range from 210 nm to 20 µm. While cheap, KCl crystal is hygroscopic and this limits its application to protected environments or short-term uses such as prototyping. Exposed to free air, KCl optics will rot, whereas KCl components were formerly used for infrared optics, it has been entirely replaced by much tougher crystals such as zinc selenide
10.
Gold
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Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
