1.
Prefrontal bone
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The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls. It first evolved in the sarcopterygian clade Rhipidistia, which includes lungfish, the prefrontal is found in most modern and extinct lungfish, amphibians and reptiles. The prefrontal is lost in early mammaliaforms and so is not present in modern mammals either. The prefrontal bone is a small bone near the top of the skull, which is lost in many groups of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs and is completely absent in their modern descendants. Conversely, a well developed prefrontal is considered to be a feature in dinosaurs. The prefrontal makes contact with other bones in the skull. The anterior part of the bone articulates with the nasal bone, the posterior part of the bone articulates with the frontal bone and more rarely the palpebral bone. The prefrontal bone sometimes forms part of the margin of the orbit. This bone is part of the roof, which is a set of bones that cover the brain, eyes
2.
Prefrontal scale
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The prefrontal scales on snakes and other reptiles are the scales connected to the frontals towards the tip of the snout which are in contact with the internasals. Elseviers Dictionary of Herpetological and Related Terminology
3.
Brodmann areas
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A Brodmann area is a region of the cerebral cortex, in the human or other primate brain, defined by its cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells. The same Brodmann area number in different species does not necessarily indicate homologous areas, a similar, but more detailed cortical map was published by Constantin von Economo and Georg N. Koskinas in 1925. Many of the areas Brodmann defined based solely on their neuronal organization have since been correlated closely to diverse cortical functions, higher order functions of the association cortical areas are also consistently localized to the same Brodmann areas by neurophysiological, functional imaging, and other methods. Different parts of the cortex are involved in different cognitive. Scientists have constructed maps of areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from Korbinian Brodmann, for example, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex, Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex, and Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex. Many of the brain areas Brodmann defined have their own internal structures. In a number of cases, brain areas are organized into topographic maps, a simple example of this type of correspondence is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue running along the anterior edge of the central sulcus. Motor areas innervating each part of the body arise from a distinct zone, electrical stimulation of the cortex at any point causes a muscle-contraction in the represented body part. This somatotopic representation is not evenly distributed, however, the head, for example, is represented by a region about three times as large as the zone for the entire back and trunk. The size of any zone correlates to the precision of motor control, the areas for the lips, fingers, and tongue are particularly large, considering the proportional size of their represented body parts. In visual areas, the maps are retinotopic, this means they reflect the topography of the retina, in this case too, the representation is uneven, the fovea—the area at the center of the visual field—is greatly overrepresented compared to the periphery. The visual circuitry in the cerebral cortex contains several dozen distinct retinotopic maps. Visual areas farther downstream extract features such as color, motion, in auditory areas, the primary map is tonotopic. Sounds are parsed according to frequency by subcortical auditory areas, as with the visual system, there are a number of tonotopic cortical maps, each devoted to analyzing sound in a particular way. Within a topographic map there can sometimes be finer levels of spatial structure, some of the original Brodmann areas have been subdivided further, e. g. 23a and 23b. Koskinas published in 1925 which had the only detailed description of the human cortex. Brain Cortical area List of regions in the human brain - Brodmann Areas, their functions, Brodmann areas Brodmann areas of cortex involved in language
4.
Superior frontal gyrus
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The superior frontal gyrus makes up about one third of the frontal lobe of the human brain. It is bounded laterally by the superior frontal sulcus, the superior frontal gyrus, like the inferior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus, is more of a region in the frontal gyrus than a true gyrus. In fMRI experiments, Goldberg et al. have found evidence that the frontal gyrus is involved in self-awareness. In 1998, neurosurgeon Itzhak Fried described a 16-year-old female patient who laughed when her SFG was stimulated with electric current during treatment for epilepsy. Electrical stimulation was applied to the surface of AKs left frontal lobe while an attempt was made to locate the focus of her epileptic seizures. Fried identified a 2 cm by 2 cm area on the left SFG where stimulation produced laughter consistently, AK reported that the laughter was accompanied by a sensation of merriment or mirth. AK gave a different explanation for the each time, attributing it to an external stimulus. Thus, laughter was attributed to the picture she was asked to name, or to the sentence she was asked to read, increasing the level of stimulation current increased the duration and intensity of laughter. For example, at low currents only a smile was present, while at higher currents a louder, the laughter was also accompanied by the stopping of all activities involving speech or hand movements
5.
Inferior frontal gyrus
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The inferior frontal gyrus is a part of the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe. It is labelled gyrus frontalis inferior, its Latin name, in the yellow area, its superior border is the inferior frontal sulcus, its inferior border the lateral fissure, and its posterior border is the inferior precentral sulcus. Above it is the frontal gyrus, behind it the precentral gyrus. The inferior frontal gyrus, like the medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, Brodmann area 44 corresponds to Brocas area — for the dominant hemisphere of the brain. The left posterior inferior frontal gyrus is a part of the articulatory network I involved in motor syllable programs, the articulatory network itself contains three cortical areas, the posterior inferior frontal gyrus, the premotor cortex, and the anterior insula. These systems are interrelated but each has specific independent functions in speech comprehension and production and this system acts mostly when the vocal tract opens and closes during syllable production. Considered a controller of the aspect of speech production, the pIFG does not directly interact with the vocal tract, instead. The posterior inferior frontal gyrus, connected to Brodmann Area 44, together, these areas function as a sensory-motor loop for syllable information coding. The predetermined language-calculation network was limited to the inferior frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, superior parietal lobule. It was supported that phonology activated the pIFG and anterior angular gyrus, multiplication mainly implicated the anterior inferior frontal gyrus and these systems are activated through similar neuronal processes but independently placed along the network. The left inferior frontal gyrus is also important for language comprehension and production due to the fact that most language processing takes place in the left hemisphere. Commonly known as Brocas Area, persons with damage in this region often have a type of non-fluent aphasia known as Brocas aphasia, Brocas area is located on the left hemisphere of the brain and encompasses Brodmanns area 44 and 45. Both overall have contributions to verbal fluency, but each has their own specific contribution, Area 44 is involved in the language production and phonological processing due to its connections with motor areas like the mouth and tongue. Area 45 is a part of the inferior frontal gyrus and is involved in semantic processing. Characteristics of Brocas aphasia include agrammatic speech, relatively good language comprehension, poor repetition, persons with Brocas aphasia do not have deficits in language comprehension, however, they speak mostly in short utterances of a few words at a time, comprised mostly of nouns. Their speech is limited to short sentences, and producing sound is a difficult task for those affected. The left IFG has also suggested to play a role in inhibitory processes. For example, TMS to the left IFG has been shown to release such inhibition, the right IFG, also considered Brodmann Area 44, has been implicated in go/no go tasks
6.
Artery
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Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. While most arteries carry oxygenated blood, there are two exceptions to this, the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, the effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the level, and microscopic anatomy. The outermost layer is known as the tunica externa, also known as tunica adventitia, inside this layer is the tunica media, or media, which is made up of smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, which is in contact with the flow of blood, is the tunica intima. This layer is made up of endothelial cells. The hollow internal cavity in which the flows is called the lumen. Arterial formation begins when endothelial cells begin to express specific genes. Arteries form part of the circulatory system and they carry blood that is oxygenated after it has been pumped from the heart. Arteries also aid the heart in pumping blood, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues, except for pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Veins and pulmonary veins carry deoxygenated blood. )The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs and it is unique because the blood in it is not oxygenated, as it has not yet passed through the lungs. The other unique artery is the artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from a fetus to its mother. Arteries have a blood pressure than other parts of the circulatory system. The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle and it is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary adjustable nozzles in the system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The larger arteries are generally elastic and the smaller ones tend to be muscular, systemic arteries deliver blood to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged. After travelling from the aorta, blood travels through peripheral arteries into smaller arteries called arterioles, arterioles help in regulating blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and deliver blood to the capillaries
7.
Middle cerebral artery
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The middle cerebral artery is one of the three major paired arteries that supply blood to the cerebrum. The MCA arises from the carotid and continues into the lateral sulcus where it then branches. It also supplies blood to the temporal lobes and the insular cortices. The MCAs are not considered a part of the Circle of Willis, the middle cerebral artery can be classified into 4 parts, M1, The sphenoidal segment, so named due to its origin and loose lateral tracking of the sphenoid bone. Although known also as the segment, this may be misleading since the segment may descend, remain flat. The M1 segment perforates the brain with numerous anterolateral central arteries, M2, Extending anteriorly on the insula, this segment in known as the insular segment. It is also known as the Sylvian segment when the segments are included. The MCA branches may bifurcate or sometimes trifurcate into trunks in this segment which then extend into branches that terminate towards the cortex, M3, The opercular segments and extends laterally exteriorly from the insula towards the cortex. This segment is sometimes grouped as part of M2, m4, These finer terminal or cortical segments irrigate the cortex. They begin at the external of the Sylvian fissure and extend distally away on the cortex of the brain, the M2 and M3 segments may each split into 2 or 3 main trunks with an upper trunk, lower trunk and occasionally a middle trunk. Bifurcations and trifurcations occurs in 50% and 25% of the cases respectively, other cases include duplication of the MCA at the internal carotid artery or an accessory MCA which arise not from the ICA but as a branch from the anterior cerebral artery. The branches of the MCA can be described by the areas that they irrigate, lateral frontobasal, This artery branches out anteriorly, superiorly and laterally to vascularize the inferior frontal gyrus. The arteries fan superiorly over the pars triangularis and vascularize the inferior, near the superior frontal gyrus these arteries anastamose with branches from the pericallosal artery of the anterior cerebral artery. This artery branches once or twice and is relatively invariant across anatomies, rolandic arteries, The artery extends out and exits from the central portion of the operculum then passes inside the central sulcus. This artery bifurcates in 72% of individuals and irrigates the posterior pre-central gyrus, Anterior parietal, This artery usually originates from the anterior or middle MCA trunk. In some cases it branches from the artery or from the posterior parietal artery. It extends the length of interparietal sulcus and descends slightly posteriorly, posterior parietal, Emerges from the posterior end of the Sylvian fissure and extends first posteriorly, and then anteriorly along the posterior of the parietal lobe. It also branches to the supramarginal gyrus, angular, The angular artery is a significant terminal branch of the anterior or middle trunk of the MCA
8.
Vein
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Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the back to the heart, exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins. In contrast to veins, arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins are less muscular than arteries and are often closer to the skin. There are valves in most veins to prevent backflow, veins are present throughout the body as tubes that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are classified in a number of ways, including superficial vs. deep, pulmonary vs. systemic, superficial veins are those closer to the surface of the body, and have no corresponding arteries. Deep veins are deeper in the body and have corresponding arteries, perforator veins drain from the superficial to the deep veins. These are usually referred to in the limbs and feet. Communicating veins are veins that directly connect superficial veins to deep veins, pulmonary veins are a set of veins that deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Systemic veins drain the tissues of the body and deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart, most veins are equipped with valves to prevent blood flowing in the reverse direction. Veins appear blue because the subcutaneous fat absorbs low-frequency light, permitting only the highly energetic blue wavelengths to penetrate through to the dark vein and reflect back to the viewer. The colour of a vein can be affected by the characteristics of a skin, how much oxygen is being carried in the blood. When a vein is drained of blood and removed from an organism, the largest veins in the human body are the venae cavae. These are two large veins which enter the right atrium of the heart from above and below. The superior vena cava carries blood from the arms and head to the atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava carries blood from the legs. The inferior vena cava is retroperitoneal and runs to the right, large veins feed into these two veins, and smaller veins into these. Together this forms the venous system, whilst the main veins hold a relatively constant position, the position of veins person to person can display quite a lot of variation. The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, the superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively. The portal venous system is a series of veins or venules that directly connect two capillary beds, examples of such systems include the hepatic portal vein and hypophyseal portal system
9.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
10.
Medical Subject Headings
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Medical Subject Headings is a comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences, it serves as a thesaurus that facilitates searching. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine, it is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database, MeSH is also used by ClinicalTrials. gov registry to classify which diseases are studied by trials registered in ClinicalTrials. gov. MeSH was introduced in 1960, with the NLMs own index catalogue, the yearly printed version of MeSH was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed, originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages. The 2009 version of MeSH contains a total of 25,186 subject headings, most of these are accompanied by a short description or definition, links to related descriptors, and a list of synonyms or very similar terms. This additional information and the structure make the MeSH essentially a thesaurus. The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy, a given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as numbers. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated, every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change. Most subject headings come with a description or definition. See the MeSH description for diabetes type 2 as an example, the explanatory text is written by the MeSH team based on their standard sources if not otherwise stated. References are mostly encyclopaedias and standard textbooks of the subject areas, references for specific statements in the descriptions are not given, instead readers are referred to the bibliography. In addition to the hierarchy, MeSH contains a small number of standard qualifiers. For example, Measles is a descriptor and epidemiology is a qualifier, the epidemiology qualifier can be added to all other disease descriptors. Not all descriptor/qualifier combinations are allowed some of them may be meaningless. In all there are 83 different qualifiers, in addition to the descriptors, MeSH also contains some 139,000 supplementary concept records. These do not belong to the vocabulary as such, instead they enlarge the thesaurus. Many of these records describe chemical substances, by default, a search for a descriptor will include all the descriptors in the hierarchy below the given one
11.
NeuroNames
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NeuroNames is an integrated nomenclature for structures in the brain and spinal cord of the four species most studied by neuroscientists, human, macaque, rat and mouse. It offers a standard, controlled vocabulary of common names for structures, terms in the standard vocabulary have been selected for ease of pronunciation, mnemonic value, and frequency of use in recent neuroscientific publications. Structures and their relations to each other are defined in terms of the standard vocabulary, currently NeuroNames contains standard names, synonyms and definitions of some 2,500 neuroanatomical entities. The nomenclature is maintained by the University of Washington and is the component of a tool called BrainInfo. BrainInfo helps one identify structures in the brain, Information can be accessed by any of some 16,000 synonyms in eight languages. NeuroNames is a vocabulary of the Metathesaurus of the Unified Medical Language System. It is described in depth in the three scientific articles, D. M. Bowden & R. F. Martin. D. M. Bowden & M. F. Dubach, D. M. Bowden, E. Song, J. Kosheleva, M. F. Dubach. NeuroNames, An Ontology for the BrainInfo Portal to Neuroscience on the Web, neuroLex Neuroscience Information Framework Talairach coordinates Overview of NeuroNames BrainInfo NeuroNames Direct Link
12.
NeuroLex
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NeuroLex is a dynamic lexicon of neuroscience concepts. It is a structured as a wiki, using Semantic MediaWiki. NeuroLex is supported by the Neuroscience Information Framework project, one of the big roadblocks to data integration in neuroscience is the inconsistent use of terminology in databases and other resources like the literature. When one uses the terms to mean different things, one cannot easily ask questions that span across multiple resources. For example, if three databases have information about what genes are expressed in cortex, but they all use different definitions of cerebral cortex, the NIF enables discovery and access to public research data and tools worldwide through an open source, networked environment. The Framework is an inventory of neuroscience databases, annotated and integrated with a unified system of biomedical terminology. NIF supports concept-based queries across multiple scales of biological structure and multiple levels of function, making it easier to search for. As part of the NIF, an interface to many different sources of neuroscience information. To make this more effective, the NIF is constructing ontologies to help organize neuroscience concepts into category hierarchies. This allows users to more effective searches and also to organize. But an important adjunct to this activity is to define all of the terms that are used to describe data, e. g. anatomical terms, techniques. The initial entries in the NeuroLex were built from the NIFSTD ontologies which subsumed an earlier vocabulary BIRNLex and it currently contains concepts that span gross anatomy, cells of the nervous system, subcellular structures, diseases, functions and techniques. NIF is soliciting community input to add content and correct what is there. The NIFSTD and BIRNLex vocabularies, building comprehensive ontologies for neuroscience, archived from the original on February 12,2009. The neuroscience information framework, a data and knowledge environment for neuroscience, Gardner D, Goldberg DH, Grafstein B, Robert A, Gardner EP. Terminology for neuroscience data discovery, multi-tree syntax and investigator-derived semantics. Gupta A, Bug W, Marenco L, Qian X, Condit C, Rangarajan A, Müller HM, Miller PL, Sanders B, Grethe JS, Astakhov V, Shepherd G, Sternberg PW, federated access to heterogeneous information resources in the Neuroscience Information Framework. Halavi M, Polavaram S, Donohue DE, Hamilton G, Hoyt J, Smith KP, neuroMorpho. Org implementation of digital neuroscience, dense coverage and integration with the NIF
13.
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
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This article attempts to provide definitions to a number of anatomical terminology, definitions and abbreviations, pertinent to the description of the Central Nervous System, particularly in humans. It aims to further information to the description of orientation in neuroanatomy. To understand the terms used for anatomical localisation, consider an animal with a straight CNS, in such animals the terms rostral, caudal, ventral and dorsal mean respectively towards the rostrum, towards the tail, towards the belly and towards the back. For a full discussion of terms, see anatomical terms of location. For many purposes of description, positions and directions are relative to the standard anatomical planes and axes. Such reference to the planes and axes is called the stereotactic approach. However, in humans and most other primates the axis of the CNS is bent and these are shown in the accompanying illustrations and annotations. In particular the anatomical planes and axes that apply to most vertebrate nervous systems need considerable modification before they can be of use in describing the human brain. For example in reference to the brain, rostral still means towards the face, or at any rate. However, in the brain caudal means not towards the tail, alternative terms for this rostro-caudal axis of the brain include medial or antero-posterior axis. Dorsal means in the direction away from the spinal cord i. e. in the direction of the roof of the cranial cavity, ventral means downwards towards floor of the cranial cavity and thence to the body. They lie on the superior-inferior or Dorsoventral axis, the third axis passes through the ears, and is called the left-right, or lateral axis. These three axes of the human brain match the three planes within which they lie, even though the terms for the planes have not been changed from the terms for the bodily planes. The most commonly used reference planes are, Axial, the plane that is horizontal and it contains the lateral and the medial axes of the brain. Coronal, a plane that passes through both ears, and contains the lateral and dorsoventral axes. Sagittal, a plane that passes from between the nostrils, and between the cerebral hemispheres, dividing the brain into left and right halves. It contains the dorsoventral and medial axes of the brain, a parasagittal plane is any plane parallel to the sagittal plane. Afferent An afferent nerve fiber is a fibre originating at the present point, for example a striatal afferent is an afferent originating at the striatum
14.
Mammalian brain
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The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
15.
Cerebral cortex
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The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain, in humans and other mammals. It is separated into two cortices, by the fissure that divides the cerebrum into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are joined beneath the cortex by the corpus callosum, the cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory, attention, perception, awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. In large mammals, the cortex is folded, giving a much greater surface area in the confined volume of the skull. A fold or ridge in the cortex is termed a gyrus, in the human brain more than two-thirds of the cerebral cortex is buried in the sulci. The human cerebral cortex is 2 to 4 millimetres thick, the cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, consisting mainly of cell bodies and capillaries. It contrasts with the white matter, consisting mainly of the white myelinated sheaths of neuronal axons. The most recent part of the cortex to develop in the evolutionary history of mammals is the neocortex. Neurons in various layers connect vertically to form small microcircuits, called cortical columns, Different neocortical regions known as Brodmann areas are distinguished by variations in their cytoarchitectonics and functional roles in sensation, cognition and behavior. The different cortical layers each contain a distribution of neuronal cell types. There are direct connections between different cortical areas and indirect connections via the thalamus, for example, one of the clearest examples of cortical layering is the stria of Gennari in the primary visual cortex. This is a band of tissue that can be observed with the naked eye in the fundus of the calcarine sulcus of the occipital lobe. The Stria of Gennari is composed of axons bringing visual information from the thalamus into layer four of the visual cortex, during development Cajal-Retzius and subpial granular layer cells are present in this layer. Also, some spiny stellate cells can be found here, inputs to the apical tufts are thought to be crucial for the ‘‘feedback’’ interactions in the cerebral cortex involved in associative learning and attention. Layer II, the granular layer, contains small pyramidal neurons. Layer V, the internal pyramidal layer, contains large pyramidal neurons which give rise to axons leaving the cortex and that is, layer VI neurons from one cortical column connect with thalamus neurons that provide input to the same cortical column. These connections are both excitatory and inhibitory, neurons send excitatory fibers to neurons in the thalamus and also send collaterals to the thalamic reticular nucleus that inhibit these same thalamus neurons or ones adjacent to them. One theory is that because the output is reduced by cholinergic input to the cerebral cortex
16.
Brodmann area
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A Brodmann area is a region of the cerebral cortex, in the human or other primate brain, defined by its cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells. The same Brodmann area number in different species does not necessarily indicate homologous areas, a similar, but more detailed cortical map was published by Constantin von Economo and Georg N. Koskinas in 1925. Many of the areas Brodmann defined based solely on their neuronal organization have since been correlated closely to diverse cortical functions, higher order functions of the association cortical areas are also consistently localized to the same Brodmann areas by neurophysiological, functional imaging, and other methods. Different parts of the cortex are involved in different cognitive. Scientists have constructed maps of areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from Korbinian Brodmann, for example, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex, Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex, and Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex. Many of the brain areas Brodmann defined have their own internal structures. In a number of cases, brain areas are organized into topographic maps, a simple example of this type of correspondence is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue running along the anterior edge of the central sulcus. Motor areas innervating each part of the body arise from a distinct zone, electrical stimulation of the cortex at any point causes a muscle-contraction in the represented body part. This somatotopic representation is not evenly distributed, however, the head, for example, is represented by a region about three times as large as the zone for the entire back and trunk. The size of any zone correlates to the precision of motor control, the areas for the lips, fingers, and tongue are particularly large, considering the proportional size of their represented body parts. In visual areas, the maps are retinotopic, this means they reflect the topography of the retina, in this case too, the representation is uneven, the fovea—the area at the center of the visual field—is greatly overrepresented compared to the periphery. The visual circuitry in the cerebral cortex contains several dozen distinct retinotopic maps. Visual areas farther downstream extract features such as color, motion, in auditory areas, the primary map is tonotopic. Sounds are parsed according to frequency by subcortical auditory areas, as with the visual system, there are a number of tonotopic cortical maps, each devoted to analyzing sound in a particular way. Within a topographic map there can sometimes be finer levels of spatial structure, some of the original Brodmann areas have been subdivided further, e. g. 23a and 23b. Koskinas published in 1925 which had the only detailed description of the human cortex. Brain Cortical area List of regions in the human brain - Brodmann Areas, their functions, Brodmann areas Brodmann areas of cortex involved in language
17.
Brodmann area 8
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Brodmann area 8 is one of Brodmanns cytologically defined regions of the brain. It is involved in planning complex movements, Brodmann area 8, or BA8, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated just anterior to the cortex, it includes the frontal eye fields. Damage to this area, by stroke, trauma or infection and this finding occurs during the first few hours of an acute event such as cerebrovascular infarct or hemorrhage. The term Brodmann area 8 refers to a defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Located rostral to the sulcus, it was not considered by Brodmann-1909 to be topographically homologous to the intermediate frontal area 8 of the human. The area is involved in the management of uncertainty, an alternative interpretation is that this activation in frontal cortex encodes hope, a higher-order expectation positively correlated with uncertainty. Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain
18.
Brodmann area 9
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Brodmann area 9, or BA9, is part of the frontal cortex in the brain of humans and other primates. It contributes to the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex, the term Brodmann area 9 refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Brodmann-1909 regarded it on the whole as topographically and cytoarchitecturally homologous to the frontal area 9. The area found on the left hemisphere is at least partially responsible for empathy, idioms, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self criticisms, proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Https, //web. archive. org/web/20141104204919/http, //www. skiltopo. com/1/index. htm#BA9L For Neuroanatomy of this area see BrainInfo
19.
Brodmann area 10
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Brodmann area 10 is the anterior-most portion of the prefrontal cortex in the human brain. BA10 is the largest cytoarchitectonic area in the human brain and it has been described as one of the least well understood regions of the human brain. Present research suggests that it is involved in processes in memory recall. During human evolution, the functions in this area resulted in its expansion relative to the rest of the brain, the volume of the human BA10 is about 14 cm3 and constitutes roughly 1. 2% of total brain volume. This is twice what would be expected in a hominoid with a human-sized brain, by comparison, the volume of BA10 in bonobos is about 2.8 cm3, and makes up only 0. 74% of its brain volume. In each hemisphere, area 10 contains an estimated 250 million neurons, BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the frontal gyrus. In humans, on the aspect of the hemisphere it is bounded ventrally by the superior rostral sulcus. It does not extend as far as the cingulate sulcus, area 10 lies on top of a bony air sinus which has limited Electrophysiology research upon it. In humans the frontal area of the prefrontal cortex includes not only area 10. BA10 also extends beyond the area into its ventromedial side. In Guenon monkeys, the area is filled by BA12. In humans the six layers of area 10 have been described as having a remarkably homogeneous appearance. All of them are readily identified, relative to each other, layer I is thin to medium in width making up 11% of the depth of area 10. Layer II is thin and contains small granular and pyramidal medium to dark staining cells which colors RNA and DNA and its pyramidal neurons are smaller nearer the above layer II than the below layer IV. Like layer II its cells are medium to dark, layers II and III make up 43% of the cortex depth. Layer IV has clear borders with layers III above and V below and its cells are pale to medium in staining. Layer V is wide and contains two distinct sublayers, Va and Vb, the density of cells Va is greater than in Vb and have darker staining
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Brodmann area 11
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Brodmann area 11 is one of Brodmanns cytologically defined regions of the brain. It is involved in making and processing rewards, planning, encoding new information into long-term memory. Brodmann area 11, or BA11, is part of the cortex in the human brain. BA11 is the part of the cortex that covers the medial portion of the ventral surface of the frontal lobe. Prefrontal area 11 of Brodmann-1909 is a subdivision of the lobe in the human defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. Defined and illustrated in Brodmann-1909, it included the areas subsequently illustrated in Brodmann-10 as prefrontal area 11, area 11 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex of the human. As illustrated in Brodmann-10, It constitutes most of the orbital gyri, gyrus rectus and it is bounded medially by the inferior rostral sulcus and laterally approximately by the frontomarginal sulcus. In an earlier map, the area labeled 11, i. e. prefrontal area 11 of Brodmann-1909, was larger, brodmann area 11 is a subdivision of the frontal lobe of the guenon monkey defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain For Neuroanatomy of this area in guenon see BrainInfo For Neuroanatomy of this area in human see BrainInfo
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Brodmann area 12
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Brodmann area 12 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex of the guenon defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. It occupies the most rostral portion of the frontal lobe, brodmann-1909 did not regard it as homologous, either topographically or cytoarchitecturally, to rostral area 12 of the human. It is indirectly connected to the global palladius as well as the substantia nigra, glutaminergic input is turned into GABAergic input there, which allows the frontal lobes to exhibit some control over basal ganglia activity. Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain For Neuroanatomy of this area see BrainInfo
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Brodmann area 13
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Brodmann area 13 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex as defined on the guenon monkey and on the basis of cytoarchitecture. Brodmann area 13 is found in humans, however, it seems to act as a bridge between the lateral and medial layers of the brain, thus it is sometimes misidentified as not being a Brodmann area. Located in the part of the insular cortex, Brodmann area 13 shares with other parts of the insular cortex a wide molecular layer. The external granular layer is relatively dense, the external lamina pyramidalis externa has a central stripe of less cellular density that separates two sublayers, IIIa and IIIb. The internal granular layer is sufficiently wide and dense to separate clearly sublayer IIIb from layer V, often the spindle cells are arrayed horizontally as in the claustrum, which Brodmann considered a likely extension of layer VI beyond the extreme capsule. Brodmann areas List of regions in the human brain BrainInfo - Brodmann Area 13 Brodmannarea. info
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Brodmann area 14
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Brodmann Area 14 is one of Brodmanns subdivisions of the cerebral cortex in the brain. It was defined by Brodmann in the guenon monkey, while Brodmann, writing in 1909, argued that no equivalent structure existed in humans, later work demonstrated that area 14 has a clear homologue in the human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Brodmann areas were defined based on rather than function. Area 14 differs most clearly from Brodmann area 13-1905 in that it lacks an internal granular layer. Its anatomical inputs also suggest that it helps to aggregate autonomic information, Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain For internal structures and additional information on area 14 see BrainInfo
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Brodmann area 24
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Brodmann area 24 is part of the anterior cingulate in the human brain. In the human this area is known as ventral anterior cingulate area 24 and it occupies most of the anterior cingulate gyrus in an arc around the genu of the corpus callosum. Its outer border corresponds approximately to the cingulate sulcus, francis Crick, one of the discoverers of DNA, listed area 24 as the seat of free will because of its centrality in abulia and amotivational syndromes. In the guenon this area is referred to as area 24 of Brodmann-1905 and it includes portions of the cingulate gyrus and the frontal lobe. Note that Brodmann later divided this area into two areas, area 24 of Brodmann-1909 and area 25 of Brodmann-1909, the area has been subdivided further, and Vogt et al
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Brodmann area 25
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Brodmann area 25 is an area in the cerebral cortex of the brain and delineated based on its cytoarchitectonic characteristics. It is also called the area, area subgenualis or subgenual cingulate. It is the 25th Brodmann area defined by Korbinian Brodmann, BA25 is located in the cingulate region as a narrow band in the caudal portion of the subcallosal area adjacent to the paraterminal gyrus. The posterior parolfactory sulcus separates the paraterminal gyrus from BA25, rostrally it is bound by the prefrontal area 11 of Brodmann. Brodmann described this area as it is labeled now in 1909, originally in 1905, Brodmann labeled the area as part of area 24. In 1909, he divided the area into area 24 and 25 and this region is particularly implicated in the normal processing of sadness. One study found that BA25 is metabolically overactive in treatment-resistant depression, another recent study has found that the responses of area 25 to viewing sad stimuli are affected by cortisol. This suggests that depression related changes in the activity in area 25 could be due to Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation, Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain Biology of depression
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Brodmann area 32
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The Brodmann area 32, also known in the human brain as the dorsal anterior cingulate area 32, refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of cerebral cortex. In the human it forms an arc around the anterior cingulate gyrus. The cingulate sulcus defines approximately its inner boundary and the superior rostral sulcus its ventral boundary, the dorsal region of the anterior cingulate gyrus is associated with rational thought processes, most notably active during the Stroop task. In the guenon, Brodmann area 32 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of cerebral cortex and this area was named 25 in Brodmann-1905 and labeled 25 in a figure contributed by Brodmann in Mauss-1908. In Brodmann-1909, however, the area was labeled 32 and the name area 25 was attached to the area that has since been the accepted area 25 of Brodmann-1909. Brodmann-1909 regarded area 32 as topologically, but not cytoarchitecturally, homologous to the dorsal anterior cingulate area 32. Brodmann area See BrainInfo for Brodmann area 32 3D representation
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Brodmann area 44
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Brodmann area 44, or BA44, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated just anterior to premotor cortex and on the lateral surface and this area is also known as pars opercularis, and it refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. In the human it corresponds approximately to the part of inferior frontal gyrus. Thus, it is bounded caudally by the inferior precentral sulcus, in the depth of the lateral sulcus it borders on the insula. Cytoarchitectonically it is bounded caudally and dorsally by the frontal area 6, dorsally by the granular frontal area 9. Together with left-hemisphere BA45, the left hemisphere BA44 comprises Brocas area a region involved in semantic tasks, some data suggest that BA44 is more involved in motor aspect of speech. Some recent findings also suggest the implication of this region in music perception, recent neuroimaging studies show BA44 involvement in selective response suppression in go/no- go tasks and is therefore believed to play an important role in the suppression of response tendencies. Neuroimaging studies also demonstrate that area 44 is related to hand movements, scott Flansburg of San Diego, California is a human calculator who can perform complex arithmetic in his head. Profiled on the TV show Stan Lees Superhumans, his brain was scanned using fMRI while doing complex calculations, instead there was activity somewhat higher from area 44 and closer to the motor cortex. Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain For Neuroanatomy of this area visit BrainInfo
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Brodmann area 45
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Brodmann area 45, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated on the surface, inferior to BA9 and adjacent to BA46. This area is known as pars triangularis. In the human, it occupies the part of inferior frontal gyrus and, surrounding the anterior horizontal limb of lateral sulcus. Bounded caudally by the ascending limb of lateral sulcus, it borders on the insula in the depth of the lateral sulcus. In terms of cytoarchitecture, it is bounded caudally by the opercular area 44, rostrodorsally by the frontal area 46. Together with BA44, it comprises Brocas area, a region that is active in semantic tasks, such as semantic decision tasks, the precise role of BA45 in semantic tasks remains controversial. For some researchers, its role would be to subserve semantic retrieval or semantic working memory processes, under this view, BA44 and BA45 would together guide recovery of semantic information and evaluate the recovered information with regard to the criterion appropriate to a given context. A slightly modified account of this view is that activation of BA45 is needed only under controlled semantic retrieval, for other researchers, BA45s role is not restricted to semantics per se, but to all activities that require task-relevant representations from among competing representations. Lesions of the BA45 lead to the findings of expressive aphasia in individuals who are left hemispheric dominant. A strong correlation has been found between speech-language and the anatomically asymmetric pars triangularis, the human brain has two hemispheres, and each one looks similar to the other, that is, it looks like one hemisphere is a mirror image of the other. This is not actually the way it works, foundas, et al. found that the part of Brocas area we call pars triangularis is actually bigger than the same region in the right side of the brain. Interestingly, this leftward asymmetry corresponded both in form and function and this means that the part of the brain that is active during language processing is bigger. In almost all the test subjects, this was the left side, in fact, the only subject tested that had right-hemispheric language dominance was found to have a rightward asymmetry of the pars triangularis. Certain other researchers, however, have found no volumetric asymmetries in the pars triangularis and that is, these regions tend to vary in size and shape much more than other areas of the brain, such as deep cortical nuclei. At least one study demonstrated a degree of connectivity between the three subregions of the inferior frontal gyrus. Also, stimulation of one region of the pars triangularis elicited a response in distinct regions of the pars triangularis, additionally, The pars triangularis was implicated in semantic processing of language. By measuring the response of the brain by electroencephalography as it responded to different sentence types, to understand this one would only need to imagine a person being told something they did not understand
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Brodmann area 46
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Brodmann area 46, or BA46, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. It is between BA10 and BA45, BA46 is known as middle frontal area 46. In the human brain it occupies approximately the third of the middle frontal gyrus. Brodmann area 46 roughly corresponds with the prefrontal cortex, although the borders of area 46 are based on cytoarchitecture rather than function. The DLPFC also encompasses part of frontal area 9, directly adjacent on the dorsal surface of the cortex. Cytoarchitecturally, BA46 is bounded dorsally by the frontal area 9, rostroventrally by the frontopolar area 10. There is some discrepancy between the extent of BA8 and the area as described by Walker The DLPFC plays a role in sustaining attention. Lesions to the DLPFC impair short-term memory and cause difficulty inhibiting responses, lesions may also eliminate much of the ability to make judgements about relevance of a stimulus, as well as causing problems in organization. The DLPFC has recently found to be involved in exhibiting self-control. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is one of the few areas deactivated during REM sleep, so the desired effect of this method would be to strengthen synaptic transmission for long-term potentiation during post stimulation of the DLPFC, a key to learning. Yet due to the lack of coherent resources and data of the experiment, some applications being discuss is using tDCS adjunctively with cognitive remediation to enhance WM in neurologic and psychiatric conditions. A recent study found that targeting Transcranial magnetic stimulation to Brodmann area 46 has better clinical efficacy treating depression, Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain Petrides, M. Pandya, D. M. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, comparative analysis in the human and the macaque brain. Andrews S, Hoy K, Enticott P, Daskalakis Z, improving working memory, The effect of combining cognitive activity and anodal transcranial direct current stimulation to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Http, //search. ebscohost. com. leo. lib. unomaha. edu/login. aspx. direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2010-16899-001&site=ehost-live For Neuroanatomy of the area visit BrainInfo
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Brodmann area 47
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Brodmann area 47, or BA47, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Curving from the surface of the frontal lobe into the ventral frontal cortex. It is below areas BA10 and BA45, and beside BA11 and this cytoarchitectonic region most closely corresponds to the gyral region pars orbitalis, although these regions are not equivalent. Pars orbitalis is not based on cytoarchitectonic distinctions, and rather is defined according to gross anatomical landmarks, despite a clear distinction, these two terms are often used liberally in peer-reviewed research journals. BA47 is also known as orbital area 47, in the human, on the orbital surface it surrounds the caudal portion of the orbital sulcus from which it extends laterally into the orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus. Cytoarchitectonically it is bounded caudally by the triangular area 45, medially by the prefrontal area 11 of Brodmann-1909, BA47 has been implicated in the processing of syntax in oral and sign languages, musical syntax, and semantic aspects of language. Brodmann area List of regions in the human brain Petrides, M, Pandya, comparative cytoarchitectonic analysis of the human and the macaque ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and corticocortical connection patterns in the monkey. Musical structure is processed in language areas of the brain, A possible role for Brodmann Area 47 in temporal coherence, for Neuroanatomy of this area visit BrainInfo
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Planning
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Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well, as such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. Also, planning has a process and is necessary for multiple occupations. In each field there are different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency, an important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future look like. Planning combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to them, Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is preparing a sequence of steps to achieve some specific goal. If a person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary time, when following a plan, a person can see how much they have progressed towards their project goal and how far they are from their destination. Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight and Extremely Low BirthWeight are at risk for various cognitive deficits including planning ability. There are a variety of tests which can be used to measure variance of planning ability between the subject and controls. Tower of Hanoi, a puzzle invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, there are different variations of the puzzle, the classic version consists of three rods and usually seven to nine discs of subsequently smaller size. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, no disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk. Tower of London is another test that was developed in 1992 specifically to detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe, test participants with damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits. In test participants with damage to the anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the frontal lobes showed no impairment. Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, in many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as planning and the professionals which operate the system are known as planners. It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity and it is an anticipatory decision making process that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives and it is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions
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Decision making
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This article deals with decision-making as analyzed in psychology. In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities. Every decision-making process produces a final choice, it may or may not prompt action, decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity terminated by a solution deemed to be satisfactory and it is therefore a process which can be more or less rational or irrational and can be based on explicit or tacit knowledge. Cognitive, the decision-making process regarded as a continuous process integrated in the interaction with the environment, normative, the analysis of individual decisions concerned with the logic of decision-making, or communicative rationality, and the invariant choice it leads to. A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the decision-maker when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Another task might be to find the best alternative or to determine the relative priority of each alternative when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis and this leads to the formulation of a decision-making paradox. Logical decision-making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in an area to make informed decisions. For example, medical decision-making often involves a diagnosis and the selection of appropriate treatment and they may follow a recognition primed decision that fits their experience and arrive at a course of action without weighing alternatives. The decision-makers environment can play a part in the decision-making process, for example, environmental complexity is a factor that influences cognitive function. A complex environment is an environment with a number of different possible states which come. Studies done at the University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments correlate with cognitive function. One experiment measured complexity in a room by the number of objects and appliances present. Cognitive function was greatly affected by the measure of environmental complexity making it easier to think about the situation. Research about decision-making is also published under the label problem solving and it is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision-making. Traditionally, it is argued that problem analysis must be done first, information overload is a gap between the volume of information and the tools we have to assimilate it
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Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
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Executive system
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These are basic cognitive processes such as attentional control, cognitive inhibition, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Higher order executive functions require the use of multiple basic executive functions and include planning. Executive functions gradually develop and change across the lifespan of an individual, similarly, these cognitive processes can be adversely affected by a variety of events which affect an individual. Both Neuropsychological tests and rating scales are used to measure executive functions and they are usually performed as part of a more comprehensive assessment to diagnose neurological and psychiatric disorders. The prefrontal cortex is necessary but not solely sufficient for executive functions, for example, cognitive control is impaired in addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and a number of other central nervous system disorders. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses that are associated with a rewarding stimulus tend to dominate ones behavior in an addiction. Historically, the functions have been seen as regulated by the prefrontal regions of the frontal lobes. This means that both frontal and non-frontal brain regions are necessary for intact executive functions, probably the frontal lobes need to participate in basically all of the executive functions, but it is not the only brain structure involved. Neuroimaging and lesion studies have identified the functions which are most often associated with the regions of the prefrontal cortex. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved with processing of information such as integrating different dimensions of cognition. The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in emotional drives, experience, associated cognitive functions include inhibition of inappropriate responses, decision making and motivated behaviours. The orbitofrontal cortex plays a key role in control, maintenance of set, monitoring ongoing behaviour. The orbitofrontal cortex also has roles in representing the value of rewards based on sensory stimuli, lesions can cause disinhibition, impulsivity, aggressive outbursts, sexual promiscuity and antisocial behaviour. Furthermore, in their review, Alvarez and Emory state that, The frontal lobes have multiple connections to cortical, subcortical, thus, the concept of executive function must be broad enough to include anatomical structures that represent a diverse and diffuse portion of the central nervous system. The cerebellum also appears to be involved in mediating certain executive functions, a prepotent response is a response for which immediate reinforcement is available or has been previously associated with that response. The executive functions are often invoked when it is necessary to override these prepotent responses that might otherwise be automatically elicited by stimuli in the external environment. For example, on being presented with a rewarding stimulus, such as a tasty piece of chocolate cake. However, where such behavior conflicts with plans, the executive functions might be engaged to inhibit that response
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Cytoarchitectonics
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Cytoarchitecture, also known as cytoarchitectonics, is the study of the cellular composition of the bodys tissues under the microscope. The study of the parcellation of nerve fibers into layers forms the subject of myeloarchitectonics, defining cerebral cytoarchitecture began with the advent of histology—the science of slicing and staining brain slices for examination. It is credited to the Viennese psychiatrist Theodor Meynert, who in 1867 noticed regional variations in the structure of different parts of the gray matter in the cerebral hemispheres. Paul Flechsig was the first to present the cytoarchitecture of human brain into 40 areas, alfred Walter Campbell, then, present the cytoarchitecture of the human brain into 14 areas. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, a New South Wales native working in Cairo, korbinian Brodmann worked on the brains of diverse mammalian species and developed a division of the cerebral cortex into 52 discrete areas. Brodmann used numbers to categorize the different architectural areas and he believed each of these regions served a unique functional purpose. Constantin von Economo and Georg N. Koskinas, two neurologists in Vienna, produced a work in brain research by defining 107 cortical areas on the basis of cytoarchitectonic criteria. They used letters to categorize the architecture, e. g. F for areas of the frontal lobe, the Nissl staining technique is commonly used for determining the cytoarchitectonics of neuroanatomical structures, using common agents such as thionin, cresyl violet, or neutral red. These dyes intensely stain Nissl bodies, which are abundant in neurons, other common staining techniques used by histologists in other tissues leave brain tissue appearing largely homogenous and do not reveal the level of organization apparent in a Nissl stain
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Gyrus
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In neuroanatomy, a gyrus is a ridge on the cerebral cortex. It is generally surrounded by one or more sulci, gyri and sulci create the folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals. The gyri are part of a system of folds and ridges that create a surface area for the human brain. Because the brain is confined to the skull, brain size is limited, ridges and depressions create folds allowing a larger cortical surface area, and greater cognitive function, to exist in the confines of a smaller cranium. The human brain undergoes gyrification during fetal and neonatal development, in embryonic development, all mammalian brains begin as smooth structures derived from the neural tube. A cerebral cortex without surface convolutions is lissencephalic, meaning smooth-brained, as development continues, gyri and sulci begin to take shape on the fetal brain, with deepening indentations and ridges developing on the surface of the cortex. Changes in the structure of gyri in the cortex are associated with various diseases. The abnormal formation is associated with epilepsy and mental dysfunctions. Pachygyria is a malformation of the cerebral hemisphere, resulting in unusually thick gyri in the cerebral cortex. Pachygyria is used to describe brain characteristics in association with neuronal migration disorders. Lissencephaly is a rare congenital brain malformation caused by defective neuronal migration during the 12th to 24th weeks of fetal gestation resulting in a lack of development of gyri and sulci
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Alfred Walter Campbell
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Alfred Walter Campbell was regarded as Australias first neurologist. Campbell was born at Cunningham Plains, near Harden, New South Wales, at age 18, he enrolled at the University of Edinburgh to study medicine, graduating four years later in 1889. Campbell worked in London, Vienna and Prague, developing his neurological speciality and he became fluent in French, German and Italian. In 1892, Campbell was awarded a doctorate by the University of Edinburgh for his thesis The Pathology of Alcoholic Insanity, campbells longest post in the UK was the thirteen years he spent working at Rainhill Asylum, Liverpool. He was Resident Medical Officer and Directory of the Pathology Laboratory, during his time there, Campbell and the laboratory became internationally known, leading to visitors from all parts of the world. At the age of 37, in 1905, he returned to Australia and his focus shifted from neuroanatomy and neuropathology to working clinically as a neurologist. Shortly after his return, Campbell married a friend, Jenny Mackay. He became a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1907, Campbell enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force and served as Major in the army in Egypt during the First World War. On his return, he studied the Australian disease, which became known as Murray Valley encephalitis. He died, of cancer, in his home at Rose Bay, degenerations consequent on experimental lesions of the cerebellum. A Contribution to the Morbid Anatomy and Pathology of the Neuro-muscular Changes in General Paresis of the Insane, on vacuolation of the nerve cell of the human cerebral cortex. Histological Studies on the Localisation of Cerebral Function, timeline of tuberous sclerosis Eadie MJ. A W Campbell, Australias First Neurologist, the Flowering of a Waratah, A History of Australian Neurology and of the Australian Association of Neurologists. Eadie MJ. A. W. Campbell, Australias first neurologist
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Grafton Elliot Smith
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Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, FRS FRCP was an Australian-British anatomist, Egyptologist and a proponent of the hyperdiffusionist view of prehistory. He believed in the idea that cultural innovations occur only once, based on this, he traced the origins of many cultural and traditional practices across the world, including the New World, to ideas that he believed came from Egypt and in some instances from Asia. An expert on anatomy, he was the first to study Egyptian mummies using radiological techniques. He took an interest in extinct humanoids and was embroiled in controversy over the authenticity of the Piltdown Man, Smith was born in Grafton, New South Wales to Stephen Sheldrick Smith who had moved to Australia from London in 1860 and Mary Jane, née Evans. He received his education from Grafton Public School where his father was headmaster. When the family moved to Sydney in 1883 he went to Darlington Public School before joining Sydney Boys High School and he attended evening classes on physiology by Thomas Anderson Stuart and took an early interest in biology. In an autobiographical note Smith noted that Stuart had shown them the convolutions of the human brain, Smith decided at that point that he would work towards understanding them. He received a James King travelling scholarship and went to St Johns College, Cambridge, afterwards he catalogued the human brain-collection of the British Museum. Smith obtained an appointment at the Cairo School of Medicine in 1900 on the suggestion of his anthropologist friend Alexander Macalister, Smith became archaeological advisor to the archaeological survey of Nubia in the wake of plans to construct the Aswan Dam which threatened to drown numerous archaeological sites. Smith conducted investigations on the brains of Egyptian mummies and he was the first to non-destructively use x-rays to study mummies. Smith took a special interest in the pathologies indicated in ancient skeletal remains and he noted for instance that many Egyptian skulls had biparietal thinning which had been common in European aristocrats in the past. Smith hypothesized this was the result of wearing heavy wigs or headgear, from 1909 to 1919 he was Professor in anatomy in Manchester, 1919–1937 he held the chair of Anatomy at the University College London. He was elected President of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain, during World War I he took an interest in the neurology of shell shock, visiting military hospitals and serving on the British General Medical Council. Smith was the leading specialist on the evolution of the brain of his day, many of his ideas on the evolution of the primate brain still form the core of present scholarship. He became Fellow of the Royal Society in 1907, FRCP, cross of the French Legion of Honour, British anthropologists Arthur Keith and Grafton Elliot Smith both supported the European origin of humankind as opposed to models of Asian and African origin. In several of his works, Smith argued that Europe was the cradle of humanity and his cradle was large, as he claimed the Mediterranean race had occupied the Levant, Egypt and western Europe, including the British isles. He especially linked the Mediterranean race to the civilization of Egypt, Smiths arguments later became known as his theory of diffusionism. According to Smith and William James Perry, Egypt was the source of all cultural innovations, according to Smith, Man did not become truly erect until his brain had developed in a very particular way to make it possible for him to use his hands
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Korbinian Brodmann
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Korbinian Brodmann was a German neurologist who became famous for his definition of the cerebral cortex into 52 distinct regions from their cytoarchitectonic characteristics, known as Brodmann areas. Brodmann was born in Liggersdorf, Province of Hohenzollern, and studied medicine in Munich, Würzburg, Berlin and Freiburg, subsequently he studied at the Medical School in the University of Lausanne in Switzerland, and then worked in the University Clinic in Munich. He got a doctor of medicine degree from the University of Leipzig in 1898 and he worked also in the Psychiatric Clinic in the University of Jena, with Ludwig Binswanger, and in the Municipal Mental Asylum in Frankfurt, from 1900 to 1901. There, he met Alois Alzheimer, who was influential in his decision to pursue neuroscientific basic research, in 1915 he joined the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Hirnforschung. In 1909 he published his research on cortical cytoarchitectonics in Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Großhirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues. In 1916 he moved to Halle in order to work in the Nietleben Municipal Hospital, finally, in 1918, he accepted an invitation from the University of Munich to direct the group of histology at Psychiatric Research Center. He died in Munich rather suddenly of a septic infection following pneumonia. The areas he depicted on the brain are now referred to as Brodmann areas. There are a total of 52 areas grouped into 11 histological areas, Brodmann used a variety of criteria to map the human brain, including attention to gross anatomical features as well as the examination of cortical micro-structures. Brodmann postulated that these areas with different structures performed different functions and his work on identifying areas of cytoarchitecture was strongly influenced by Oskar Vogt, who postulated over 200 distinct areas in the brain. Korbinian Brodmann article by Professor Laurence Garey microscope for brain sections from the University of Tübingen, attributed to Korbinian Brodmanns work Korbinian Brodmann WhoNamedIt
40.
Constantin von Economo
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Constantin Freiherr von Economo was an Austrian psychiatrist and neurologist of Greek origin. He is mostly known for his discovery of encephalitis lethargica and his atlas of cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex, Constantin Economo von San Serff was born in Brăila, Romania, to Johannes and Helene Economo, a wealthy family with large holdings in Thessaly and Macedonia. The Economo family originated from Edessa, in the Ottoman Sanjak of Salonica where some of Constantins ancestors were notables, in 1877, the family moved to Trieste, Austria-Hungary, and Constantin spent his childhood and youth in Trieste. He was a student, speaking several languages fluently. In 1906, his family was ennobled and Economo obtained the title Freiherr, at the request of his father, Economo began his study of mechanical engineering at the Polytechnic University of Vienna in 1893 but switched to medicine after two years. His first scientific work, Zur Entwicklung der Vogelhypophyse was published in 1899, Economo worked as an assistant for Sigmund Exner from 1900 until 1903. He received his degree in 1901. From 1903 to 1904, he was a resident at the Clinic of Internal Medicine under Carl Wilhelm Hermann Nothnagel, subsequently, he travelled through Europe for two years and worked for several scientists. He studied neurology, histology, and psychiatry in Paris, in Nancy, he was introduced to hypnosis, in Strasbourg he became familiar with methods of microscopic research of the nervous system. In Munich, von Economo worked with Emil Kraepelin and Alois Alzheimer and he also worked in the psychiatry of Berlin under Theodor Ziehen and in the neurologic ambulatory under Hermann Oppenheim and, finally, did experimental animal research in Trieste. After these two years, he returned to Vienna and worked as assistant at the Clinic for Psychiatry, Von Economo obtained his habilitation in 1913. In 1919 at age 43, he married Princess Karoline von Schönburg-Hartenstein, in 1921, von Economo was appointed Professor of Psychiatry and Neurology. He was to conduct his research in the Clinic for Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases in Vienna for the rest of his life, Von Economo was not only an eminent scientist but also a passionate pilot. In 1907, he developed an interest in aeronautics and balloon-flying, from 1910 until 1926 he was President of the Austrian Aero-Club and chairman of the Aviation Board at the Austrian Ministry of Commerce and Transport. During World War I, he served first in the corps at the Russian front. In the same year, at the request of his parents, here, he saw his first cases of Encephalitis lethargica. In 1931, von Economo died in Vienna, aged 55 and he was honored by an Austrian stamp in 1976. Since 1966, a bust portraying him can be found in the Arkadenhof of the University of Vienna, Economo published about 150 articles and books
41.
Georg N. Koskinas
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Georg N. Koskinas was a Greek neurologist-psychiatrist. He was born on December 1,1885 in Geraki, near Sparta, between 1916 and 1927 he worked at the University of Vienna in neuropathology and neuroanatomy. At the Neurological Institute, his mentors in neuropathology were Heinrich Obersteiner, in 1925 Koskinas published, with neurologist Constantin von Economo, the monumental Cytoarchitektonik der Hirnrinde des erwachsenen Menschen. Following his repatriation to Greece in 1927, he founded private clinics and practised psychiatry and neurology in Kifissia, georg N. Koskinas died on July 8,1975 in Athens at the age of 89
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. PMID 20435951. doi:10.1177/0956797610370159.
