1.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
2.
Princeton, New Jersey
–
As of the 2010 United States Census, the municipalitys population was 28,572, reflecting the former townships population of 16,265, along with the 12,307 in the former borough. Princeton was founded before the American Revolution and is best known as the location of Princeton University, Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to major highways that serve both cities, and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jerseys capital city, the governor of New Jerseys official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in the borough became the first Governors mansion. It was later replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a mansion located in the former Township. Morven became a property of the New Jersey Historical Society. Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live, although residents of Princeton traditionally have a strong community-wide identity, the community had been composed of two separate municipalities, a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township, the Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the University campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The Borough and Township had roughly equal populations, the Lenni Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area. Europeans founded their settlement in the part of the 17th century. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the town was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, in this drinking hole representatives of West Jersey and East Jersey met to set boundaries for the location of the township. Originally, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook, James Leonard first referred to the town as Princetown, when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The town bore a variety of names subsequently, including, Princetown, Princes Town, although there is no official documentary backing, the town is considered to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, a royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had similar names, Kingston, Queenstown and Princessville. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property, based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of the town comprised 3,209 persons. Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century, according to the 2010 Census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. Aside from housing the university of the name, the settlement suffered the revolutionary Battle of Princeton on its soil
Princeton, New Jersey
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Nassau Street, Princeton's main street
Princeton, New Jersey
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Princeton highlighted in Mercer County. Inset map: Mercer County highlighted in the State of New Jersey.
Princeton, New Jersey
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Nassau Hall, which briefly served as the capital of the United States of America in 1783
Princeton, New Jersey
–
Battle of Princeton, 1777
3.
Book
–
A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
Book
–
Books
Book
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Sumerian language cuneiform script
clay tablet, 2400–2200 BC
Book
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Egyptian papyrus showing the god
Osiris and the weighing of the heart.
Book
–
A Chinese
bamboo book meets the modern definition of Codex
4.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
Historic districts in the United States
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The federally designated
Sycamore Historic District in
Illinois
Historic districts in the United States
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Walker Hall, part of the
University of Florida Campus Historic District
Historic districts in the United States
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Helvenston House, part of the
Ocala Historic District, in
Ocala, Florida
Historic districts in the United States
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1848 Duncan House,
National Register of Historic Places Cooksville Historic District, Wisconsin
5.
Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity
Contributing property
–
Thomas T. Gaff House, a contributing property to the
Dupont Circle Historic District in
Washington, D.C.
Contributing property
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Plaque acknowledging Little Red Schoolhouse as a contributing property to
Newberry Historic District in Newberry, Florida
Contributing property
–
This medical clinic building in the
East Grove Street Historic District in
Bloomington, Illinois is an example of a non-contributing property.
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
7.
Ernest Flagg
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Ernest Flagg was a noted American architect in the Beaux-Arts style. He was also an advocate for reform and architectures social responsibility. Flagg was born in Brooklyn, New York and his father Jared Bradley Flagg was an Episcopal priest and a notable painter. Ernest left school at 15 to work as a boy on Wall Street. In 1891, Flagg began his practice in New York, greatly influenced by his knowledge of the French ideas of architectural design. During this time he joined with John Prentiss Benson to create Flagg & Benson, fB&B designed St. Lukes Hospital in New York City. In 1894, he established the firm of Flagg & Chambers with Walter B. Chambers, whom he met in Paris, usually, Flagg alone credited for some of the work he and Chambers worked on together, such as the Corcoran Gallery of Art. Louisa Flagg Scribner, Flaggs sister, was the wife of Charles Scribner II, through this familial connection, Flagg designed six structures located in Manhattan for the publishing family. His contributions to zoning and height regulations were essential to New Yorks first laws governing this aspect of the citys architecture, Flagg argued in favor of zoning laws which would regulate the height and setback of buildings, to allow light and air to reach the streets below them. He was a president of the New York Society of Beaux-Arts Architects, a small collection of Flaggs personal and professional papers is held in the Department of Drawings & Archives at Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University. Ernest Flagg married Margaret E. Bonnell on June 27,1899 in New York City and they had one daughter, Betsey Flagg, who married John Melcher and become a well-respected small-scale portrait painter. In 1912, Mr. and Mrs. Ernest Flagg were on their way to a party held by Stowe Phelps, a fellow architect, the couple drove the boy to the hospital but he died en route. Gov. Samuel J. Tilden Monument, New Lebanon, New York, 1895–1896 St. Nicholas Skating Rink,69 West 66th Street, New York –1896 St. Lukes Hospital,1, New York City,1896 Mills House No. 2, New York City,1897 Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C.1897 Indian Neck Hall, estate of Frederick Gilbert Bourne, Oakdale, No.1900 Charlesbank Apartments, Boston, Massachusetts, c. Ernest Flagg at NYC Architecture Ernest Flagg at MIT Press Ernest Flagg information at Structurae Buildings by Ernest Flagg at the Library of Congresss Historic American Buildings Survey database
Ernest Flagg
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Ernest Flagg
Ernest Flagg
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Sheldon Library, 1901
Ernest Flagg
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Lawrence Library, 1901
Ernest Flagg
–
The
Singer Building, once the tallest building in the world
8.
Collegiate Gothic
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A form of historicist architecture, it took its inspiration from English Tudor and Gothic buildings. It is for us, as part of our duty as our highest privilege to act, Gothic Revival architecture was used for American college buildings as early as 1829, when Old Kenyon was completed on the campus of Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio. Alexander Jackson Daviss University Hall, on New York Universitys Washington Square campus, was another early example, richard Bonds church-like library for Harvard College, Gore Hall, became the model for other library buildings. James Renwick, Jr. s Free Academy Building, for what is today City College of New York, inspired by Londons Hampton Court Palace, Swedish-born Charles Ulricson designed Old Main at Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois. Richards, architect, Harvard College – Memorial Hall, William Robert Ware and Henry Van Brunt, architects, and Cornell University – Sage Hall, Charles Babcock, architect. In 1871, English architect William Burges designed a row of vigorous French Gothic-inspired buildings for Trinity College – Seabury Hall, Northam Tower, Jarvis Hall – in Hartford, Connecticut. Tastes became more conservative in the 1880s, and collegiate architecture soon after came to prefer a more scholarly, inspired by the architecture of Oxford and Cambridge universities, and historicists but not literal copyists, Cope & Stewardson were highly influential in establishing the Collegiate Gothic style. In 1901, the firm of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge created a plan for a Collegiate Gothic campus for the fledgling University of Chicago. Some of their works, such as the Mitchell Tower, were copies of historic buildings. George Browne Post designed the City College of New Yorks new campus at Hamilton Heights, Manhattan, the style was experienced up-close by a wide audience at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri. The Worlds Fair and 1904 Olympic Games were held on the completed campus of Washington University. The movement gained momentum when Charles Donagh Maginnis designed Gasson Hall at Boston College in 1908. Ralph Adams Cram designed one of the most poetic collections of Collegiate Gothic buildings for the Princeton University Graduate College, james Gamble Rogerss extensive work at Yale University, beginning in 1917, took historicist fantasy to an extreme. He was criticized by the growing Modernist movement, following McMaster Universitys decision to relocate to Hamilton, Ontario, Canadian architect William Lyon Somerville designed its new campus in the style. These buildings are among the most remarkable yet built in America and they are picturesque also, even dramatic, they are altogether wonderful in mass and in composition. If they are not a constant inspiration to those who dwell within their walls or pass through their quads or their vaulted archways, it is not their fault, the tower has been severely criticized as an archaeological abstraction reared to commemorate contemporary American heroism. The criticism seems just to me, though only in a measure, American heroism harks back to English heroism, the blood shed before Manila and on San Juan Hill was the same blood that flowed at Bosworth Field, Flodden, and the Boyne. Therefore the British base of the design is indispensable, for such were the racial foundations, Collegiate Gothic complexes were most often horizontal compositions, save for a single tower or towers serving as an exclamation
Collegiate Gothic
–
Blair Hall (1896-97), Princeton University,
Cope and Stewardson, architects.
Collegiate Gothic
–
"Old Kenyon" (1827-29),
Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio. Architect
Charles Bullfinch designed its steeple.
Collegiate Gothic
–
University Hall (1833-37),
New York University,
Alexander Jackson Davis, architect.
Collegiate Gothic
–
Free Academy Building (1847-49),
City College of New York,
James Renwick, Jr., architect.
9.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of
Nassau Hall
Princeton University
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Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
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John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906
10.
Academia
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Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
Academia
–
Students and scholars at the entrance to the
University of Concepción,
Chile.
Academia
–
Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in
Bihar,
India from 427 to 1197
11.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
Society
–
A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by
Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time.
Society
Society
–
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae)
social ethology.
Society
–
Canis lupus
social ethology
12.
Charles Scribner II
–
Charles Scribner II was the president of Charles Scribners Sons and a trustee at Skidmore College. He was born in New York City on October 18,1854 and he joined his fathers publishing company in 1875 after his Princeton graduation. When the other partners in the sold their stake to the family. In 1884, Scribners younger brother, Arthur Hawley Scribner, joined Charles Scribners Sons, the book publishing business was highly successful, and in 1886 Scribners Magazine was relaunched. It too was a great success, in 1889, Scribner was a founding member of the American Publishers Association. He was a trustee at Skidmore College and he died on April 19,1930. His summer house in Cornwall, New York, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Scribners brother-in-law, Ernest Flagg, was an architect and designed two Beaux-Arts buildings for the firms New York headquarters
Charles Scribner II
–
Portrait of Charles Scribner II by V. Floyd Campbell
13.
Printing press
–
A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
Printing press
–
Recreated
Gutenberg press at the
International Printing Museum, Carson, California
Printing press
–
Medieval university class (1350s)
Printing press
–
Early modern
wine press. Such
screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press.
14.
John Witherspoon
–
John Witherspoon was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister and a Founding Father of the United States. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and he was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration. Later, he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution, in 1789 he was Convening Moderator of the First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. This latter claim of Knox descent though ancient in origin is long disputed and he attended the Haddington Grammar School, and obtained a Master of Arts from the University of Edinburgh in 1739. He remained at the University to study divinity, in 1764, he was awarded an honorary doctorate degree in divinity by the University of St. Andrews. Witherspoon was a staunch Protestant, nationalist, and supporter of republicanism, consequently, he was opposed to the Roman Catholic Legitimist Jacobite rising of 1745–1746. Following the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Falkirk, he was imprisoned at Doune Castle. He became a Church of Scotland minister at Beith, Ayrshire and they had ten children, with five surviving to adulthood. From 1758–1768, he was minister of the Laigh kirk, Paisley, Witherspoon became prominent within the Church as an Evangelical opponent of the Moderate Party. During his two pastorates he wrote three works on theology, notably the satire Ecclesiastical Characteristics, which opposed the philosophical influence of Francis Hutcheson. Thus, Witherspoon and his emigrated to New Jersey in 1768. At the age of 45, he became the sixth President of the college, upon his arrival, Witherspoon found the school in debt, with weak instruction, and a library collection which clearly failed to meet student needs. He immediately began fund-raising—locally and back home in Scotland—added three hundred of his own books to the library, and began purchasing scientific equipment. Witherspoon also instituted a number of reforms, including modeling the syllabus and university structure after that used at the University of Edinburgh and he also firmed up entrance requirements, which helped the school compete with Harvard and Yale for scholars. Witherspoon taught personally courses in Eloquence or Belles Lettres, Chronology, however, none was more important than Moral Philosophy. An advocate of Natural Law within a Christian and republican Cosmology, Witherspoon considered Moral Philosophy vital for ministers, lawyers, firm but good-humored in his leadership, Witherspoon was very popular among both faculty and students. Witherspoon had been a prominent evangelical Presbyterian minister in Scotland before accepting the Princeton position, as the Colleges primary occupation at the time was training ministers, Witherspoon became a major leader of the early Presbyterian church in America. He also helped organize Nassau Presbyterian Church in Princeton, N. J, nonetheless, Witherspoon transformed a college designed predominantly to train clergymen into a school that would equip the leaders of a new Protestant country
John Witherspoon
–
John Witherspoon
John Witherspoon
–
In
John Trumbull 's famous painting, Witherspoon is the second seated figure from the (viewer's) right among those shown in the background facing the large table.
John Witherspoon
–
John Witherspoon Statue, Paisley, Scotland
John Witherspoon
–
Doctor John Witherspoon,
Washington, D.C.
15.
The Daily Princetonian
–
The Daily Princetonian is the award-winning daily independent student newspaper of Princeton University. Founded in 1876 and daily since 1892, the Prince is among the oldest college newspapers in the country and its alumni have pursued careers in journalism at The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal and have won the Pulitzer Prize. In addition to the print and online editions, the Prince publishes The Prox, a blog, Intersections. The Daily Princetonian, nicknamed the Prince, was the college newspaper in America to publish daily. The paper, founded in 1876 as a publication named The Princetonian. Produced by a staff of nearly 200 undergraduate students, the organization has a budget of more than $600,000. The Prince has a print circulation of 2,000. The Prince is fully independent from Princeton University and it is directed by a graduate board of trustees, consisting of former editors and business staffers. The paper supports itself financially and does not receive support from the university or from alumni donations. The paper currently has an endowment of 1.3 million dollars, no staff member on the Prince is paid. The papers editorial staff consists entirely of Princeton students, Daily operations at the Prince are run by the Editor-in-Chief, who directs the editorial side of the paper, and the Business Manager, who directs the business and financial side. The Business Manager and the Editor-in-Chief report independently to the board of trustees, in order to prevent business. The Editor-in-Chief and Business Manager are chosen in December and appoint the remainder of their respective boards, the current Editor-in-chief is Sarah Sakha and the business manager is Matt McKinlay. Those boards take control of the newspaper with the beginning of the second semester, the editorial boards serve for two semesters. Typically, the Editor-in-Chief and Business Manager begin their service in the spring of their junior year and this staggered system was created in part to allow graduating seniors time to finish their senior theses. The first woman elected editor of the Prince was Anne C. Mackay- Smith, Class of 1980, Judy E. Piper, the staff is grouped into several sections, including news, sports, opinion, photography, copy editing, multimedia, design, business and web. In December 2006, Larry DuPraz, an employee of the newspaper who directed its publication and guided its editors from 1946 to 1987. In 2012, the papers digitized archives was launched and named in his honor
The Daily Princetonian
–
The Daily Princetonian, February 22, 2012
The Daily Princetonian
–
Academics
16.
Pulitzer Prize
–
The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
Pulitzer Prize
–
Pulitzer Prize
17.
George F. Kennan
–
George Frost Kennan was an American diplomat and historian. He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he reversed himself. He lectured widely and wrote histories of the relations between USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy known as The Wise Men. During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and these texts provided justification for the Truman administrations new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions. Soon after his concepts had become U. S. policy, subsequently, prior to the end of 1948, Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government. His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennans influence was marginalized, Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments. In 1950, Kennan left the Department of State—except for two brief stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia—and became a realist critic of U. S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101. Mrs. Kennan died two months due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother, he was never close to his father or stepmother, however, at the age of eight he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. Johns Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely. After receiving his bachelors degree in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school and he passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, in 1929 Kennan began his program on history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the University of Berlins Oriental Institute. During the course of his career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese. In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, from his job, Kennan grew to mature interest in Russian affairs. When the U. S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied ambassador William C
George F. Kennan
–
George F. Kennan
George F. Kennan
–
Kennan in 1947
18.
Historical document
–
Significant historical documents can be deeds, laws, accounts of battles, or the exploits of the powerful. Though these documents are of historical interest, they do not detail the lives of ordinary people. It is this information allows them to try to understand. Greek ostraka provide good examples of documents from among the common people. Many documents that are produced today, such as letters, pictures, contracts, newspapers. However most of these will be lost in the future since they are printed on ordinary paper which has a limited lifespan, or even stored in digital formats. Diplomatics Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet History Sourcebooks Project, collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly for educational use
Historical document
–
A copy of the
United States Declaration of Independence
Historical document
–
A Gutenberg Bible on display at the US Library of Congress
19.
Einstein Papers Project
–
The Einstein Papers Project was established in 1986 to assemble, preserve, translate, and publish papers selected from the literary estate of Albert Einstein and from other collections. Sponsored by the Princeton University Press and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem since its inception, the project is also supported by endowments from individuals and universities, the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. The Project is now located in Pasadena, California at the California Institute of Technology, in late 2014, the related universities and archives announced the release of documents of Albert Einstein, available online at The Digital Einstein Papers. In the first two decades of the Einstein Papers Project, the Princeton University Press has published ten of the twenty five volumes in the series. Introductions, headnotes, footnotes, etc. are provided in English, the Press simultaneously publishes English translations of previously untranslated documents when it releases each volume in the series. The Early Years, 1879-1902 is the first volume in the series, Correspondence, letters, travel diaries, calendars, documents about Einstein by third parties, etc. Includes many previously unpublished documents, e. g. class notes for Heinrich Friedrich Webers lectures on thermodynamics and electromagnetism during Einsteins second year at ETH Zurich, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 1, The Early Years, 1879-1902. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 2, The Swiss Years, Writings, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 3, The Swiss Years, Writings, 1909-1911. Editors, Martin J. Klein et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 4, The Swiss Years, Writings, 1912-1914. Editors, Martin J. Klein et al, correspondents included Max von Laue, Paul Ehrenfest, Alfred Kleiner, Fritz Haber, Walther Nernst, etc. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 5, The Swiss Years, Correspondence, editors, Martin J. Klein et al. Includes papers describing Einsteins only experimental physics investigation, a study of André-Marie Ampères molecular current theory of electromagnetism with Wander Johannes de Haas, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 6, The Berlin Years, Writings, 1914-1917. Editors, A. J. Kox et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 7, The Berlin Years, Writings, 1918-1921. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 8, The Berlin Years, Correspondence, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 9, The Berlin Years, Correspondence, January 1919 - April 1920. Editors, Diana Kormos Buchwald et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 10, The Berlin Years, Correspondence, May–December 1920, and Supplementary Correspondence, 1909-1920. Editors, Diana Kormos Buchwald et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 11, Cumulative Index, Bibliography, List of Correspondence, Chronology, and Errata to Volumes 1 -10. Editors, Diana Kormos Buchwald et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 12, The Berlin Years, Correspondence, January - December 1921. Editors, Diana Kormos Buchwald et al, the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 13, The Berlin Years, Writings & Correspondence, January 1922 - March 1923
Einstein Papers Project
–
Einstein Papers Project in
Pasadena, California.
Einstein Papers Project
–
Albert Einstein.
20.
Henry David Thoreau
–
Henry David Thoreau was an American essayist, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, and historian. Thoreaus books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes and he was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreaus aunt each wrote that Thoreau is pronounced like the word thorough, Edward Waldo Emerson wrote that the name should be pronounced Thó-row, with the h sounded and stress on the first syllable. Among modern-day American speakers, it is more commonly pronounced thə-ROH—/θəˈroʊ/—with stress on the second syllable. Thoreau was a man, with a nose that he called my most prominent feature. Of his appearance and disposition, Ellery Channing wrote, His face, once seen, Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau in Concord, Massachusetts, into the modest New England family of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was born in Jersey and his maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvards 1766 student Butter Rebellion, the first recorded student protest in the American colonies. David Henry was named after his recently deceased uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college and he had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr. and a younger sister, Sophia. Thoreaus birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord, the house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust, a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at Harvard College between 1833 and 1837 and he lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric, classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. He was a member of the Institute of 1770, according to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. He commented, Let every sheep keep its own skin, a reference to the tradition of using sheepskin vellum for diplomas, after he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer corporal punishment. He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a school in Concord in 1838. They introduced several concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops. The school closed when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving, upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson through a mutual friend. Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a periodical, The Dial. Thoreaus first essay published in The Dial was Aulus Persius Flaccus and it consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emersons suggestion
Henry David Thoreau
–
Thoreau in 1856
Henry David Thoreau
–
Thoreau's birthplace –
Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse in
Concord
Henry David Thoreau
–
1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau, designed by
Leonard Baskin
Henry David Thoreau
–
Original title page of Walden featuring a picture drawn by Thoreau's sister Sophia
21.
Woodrow Wilson
–
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
Woodrow Wilson
–
President Wilson in 1919
Woodrow Wilson
–
Wilson c. mid 1870s
Woodrow Wilson
–
Ellen Axson Wilson (1883)
Woodrow Wilson
–
daughters Jessie and Margaret
22.
Paul Mellon
–
Paul Mellon was an American philanthropist and an owner/breeder of thoroughbred racehorses. He is one of five people ever designated an Exemplar of Racing by the National Museum of Racing. He was co-heir to one of Americas greatest business fortunes, derived from the Mellon Bank created by his grandfather Thomas Mellon, his father Andrew W. Mellon, Mellons autobiography, Reflections in a Silver Spoon, was published in 1992. He died at his home, Oak Spring, in Upperville, Virginia and he was survived by his wife, Rachel, his children, Catherine Conover and Timothy Mellon, and two stepchildren, Stacy Lloyd III and Eliza, Viscountess Moore. Paul Mellon was the son of Andrew W. Mellon, US Secretary of the Treasury from 1921 to 1932, and Nora McMullen of Hertfordshire and brother of Ailsa Mellon-Bruce. He was a benefactor of his alma maters, donating the Mellon Arts Center and the Mellon Science Center to Choate. After graduating from Yale he went to England to study at Clare College, Cambridge, receiving a BA in 1931, in 1930 he was a founding member, alongside Sir Timothy William Gowers, of the CRABS, the Clare Rugby And Boating Society. In 1938 he received an MA from Clare College and he was a major benefactor to Clare Colleges Forbes-Mellon library, opened in 1986. Mellon returned to Pittsburgh, to work for Mellon Bank and other businesses for six months, in 1935, he married Mary Conover Brown and the couple, who had two children, Catherine and Timothy, moved to Virginia. He enrolled at St. Johns College in Annapolis, Maryland in 1940 but six months later joined the United States Army, Mellon served with the Office of Strategic Services in Europe. He rose to the rank of major and was the recipient of four Bronze Stars, after his wife Marys death in 1946 from an asthma attack, he married Rachel Lambert Lloyd, known as Bunny, the former wife of Stacy Barcroft Lloyd Jr. She was a descendant of the Lambert family who formulated and marketed Listerine, Bunny Mellon was an avid horticulturist and gardener, whose fondness for French Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painting, as well as American art, Mellon came to share. By this marriage, he had two stepchildren, Stacy Lloyd III and Eliza Lambert Lloyd, while Mellon did not share his fathers interest in business, the two found common ground in their love of art and philanthropy. Shortly before Andrew Mellons death in 1937, construction began on the West Building of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, four years later Paul Mellon presented both the building by John Russell Pope and his fathers collection of 115 paintings to the nation. He served on the board for more than four decades, as trustee, as president, as board chair. Mellon commissioned I. M. Pei to build the East Building and, with his sister Ailsa, over the years he and his wife Bunny donated more than 1,000 works to the National Gallery, among them many French and American masterworks. In 1936 Mellon purchased his first British painting, Pumpkin with a Stable-lad by George Stubbs, beginning in the late 1950s, with the help of English art historian Basil Taylor, Mellon amassed a major collection by the mid-1960s. London art dealer Geoffrey Agnew once said of his acquisitions, “It took an American collector to make the English look again at their own paintings. ”Mellon granted his extensive collection of British art, rare books, and related materials to Yale University in the 1960s, along with the funding to create an appropriate museum to house it
Paul Mellon
–
Paul Mellon
Paul Mellon
–
Paul Mellon (
William Orpen, 1924)
Paul Mellon
–
Plaque to Paul Mellon,
American philanthropist and galloping
anglophile within
St George's, Bloomsbury
23.
Archaeology
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
Archaeology
–
Roman ruins,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Archaeology
–
An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877
Archaeology
–
Artifacts discovered at the 1808
Bush Barrow excavation by Sir
Richard Colt Hoare and
William Cunnington.
Archaeology
–
Mortimer Wheeler pioneered
systematic excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at
Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937.
24.
Poetry
–
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
Poetry
–
Aristotle
Poetry
–
Literature
Poetry
–
John Keats
Poetry
–
Archibald MacLeish
25.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
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MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
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Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
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Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
26.
Phillip A. Griffiths
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Phillip Augustus Griffiths IV is an American mathematician, known for his work in the field of geometry, and in particular for the complex manifold approach to algebraic geometry. He was a developer in particular of the theory of variation of Hodge structure in Hodge theory. He received his B. S. from Wake Forest College in 1959, since then, he has held positions at Berkeley, Princeton, Harvard University, and Duke University. From 1991 to 2003 he was the Director of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton and he has published on algebraic geometry, differential geometry, geometric function theory, and the geometry of partial differential equations. Griffiths serves as the Chair of the Science Initiative Group and he is co-author, with Joe Harris, of Principles of Algebraic Geometry, a well-regarded textbook on complex algebraic geometry. In 2008 he was awarded the Wolf Prize and the Brouwer Medal, in 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. Moreover, in 2014 Griffiths was awarded the Leroy P. Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement by the American Mathematical Society, also in 2014, Griffiths was awarded the Chern Medal for lifetime devotion to mathematics and outstanding achievements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.48, 780–783, some remarks on automorphisms, analytic bundles, and embeddings of complex algebraic varieties. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.49, 817–820, on the differential geometry of homogeneous vector bundles. The residue calculus and some results in algebraic geometry, I. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.55, 1303–1309, the residue calculus and some transcendental results in algebraic geometry, II. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.55, 1392–1395, some results on locally homogeneous complex manifolds. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.56, 413–416, a transcendental method in algebraic geometry. Periods of integrals on algebraic manifolds, with Joe Harris, A Poncelet theorem in space. With S. S. Chern, Abels Theorem and Webs, introduction to Algebraic Curves, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI,1989, ISBN0821845306 Differential Systems and Isometric Embeddings, with Gary R
Phillip A. Griffiths
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Phillip Griffiths in 2008 (photo from MFO)
27.
John N. Mather
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John Norman Mather was a mathematician at Princeton University known for his work on singularity theory and Hamiltonian dynamics. He was descended from Atherton Mather, a cousin of Cotton Mather and his early work dealt with the stability of smooth mappings between smooth manifolds of dimensions n and p. He determined the dimensions for which smooth mappings are stable with respect to smooth equivalence by diffeomorphisms of the source. His notes on the topic of topological stability are still a reference on the topic of topologically stratified spaces. He was one of the three editors of the PRINCETON MATH series in Annals of Mathematics Studies and he was a member of the National Academy of Sciences beginning in 1988. He received the John J. Carty Award of the National Academy of Sciences in 1978 and he also received the Brazilian Order of Scientific Merit in 2000 and in 2014 the Brouwer Medal from the Royal Dutch Mathematical Society
John N. Mather
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John Norman Mather
28.
Elias M. Stein
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Elias Menachem Stein is a mathematician. He is a figure in the field of harmonic analysis. He is an emeritus of Mathematics at Princeton University. Stein was born to Elkan Stein and Chana Goldman, Ashkenazi Jews from Belgium, after the German invasion in 1940, the Stein family fled to the United States, first arriving in New York City. He graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1949, where he was classmates with future Fields Medalist Paul Cohen, in 1955, Stein earned a Ph. D. from the University of Chicago under the direction of Antoni Zygmund. He began teaching in MIT in 1955, moved to the University of Chicago in 1958 as an assistant professor, and in 1963 became a professor at Princeton. Stein has worked primarily in the field of analysis, and has made contributions in both extending and clarifying Calderón–Zygmund theory. He has written books on harmonic analysis, which are often cited as the standard references on the subject. His Princeton Lectures in Analysis series were penned for his sequence of courses on analysis at Princeton. Stein is also noted as having trained a number of graduate students. They include two Fields medalists, Charles Fefferman and Terence Tao and his honors include the Steele Prize, the Schock Prize in Mathematics, the Wolf Prize in Mathematics, and the National Medal of Science. In addition, he has fellowships to National Science Foundation, Sloan Foundation, Guggenheim Foundation, in 2005, Stein was awarded the Stefan Bergman prize in recognition of his contributions in real, complex, and harmonic analysis. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society, in 1959, he married Elly Intrator, a former Jewish refugee during World War II. They had two children, Karen Stein and Jeremy C, Stein, and grandchildren named Alison, Jason, and Carolyn. Singular Integrals and Differentiability Properties of Functions, Topics in Harmonic Analysis Related to the Littlewood-Paley Theory. Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces, Lectures on Pseudo-differential Operators, Regularity Theorems and Applications to Non-elliptic Problems. Harmonic Analysis, Real-variable Methods, Orthogonality and Oscillatory Integrals, Stein, Elias, Shakarchi, R. Fourier Analysis, An Introduction. Stein, Elias, Shakarchi, R. Complex Analysis, real Analysis, Measure Theory, Integration, and Hilbert Spaces
Elias M. Stein
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Elias M. Stein
29.
Steven H. Strogatz
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Steven Henry Strogatz is an American mathematician and the Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Applied Mathematics at Cornell University. He has an Erdős–Bacon number of 4, Strogatz attended high school at Loomis Chaffee from 1972–1976. After spending three years as a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow at Harvard and Boston University, Strogatz joined the faculty of the Department of Mathematics at MIT in 1989 and his research on dynamical systems was recognized with a Presidential Young Investigator Award from the National Science Foundation in 1990. In 1994 he moved to Cornell where he is the Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Applied Mathematics, in the 1990s, his work focused on nonlinear dynamics and chaos applied to physics, engineering, and biology. Several of these dealt with coupled oscillators, such as lasers, superconducting Josephson junctions. Perhaps his best-known research contribution is his 1998 Nature paper with Duncan Watts, as one measure of its importance, it was the most highly cited article about networks between 1998 and 2008, and the sixth most highly cited paper in all of physics. Strogatzs writing for the public includes three books and frequent newspaper articles. His book Sync was chosen as a Best Book of 2003 by Discover Magazine and his 2009 book The Calculus of Friendship was called a genuine tearjerker and part biography, part autobiography and part off-the-beaten-path guide to calculus. His 2012 book, The Joy of x, won the 2014 Euler Book Prize and it grew out of his series of New York Times columns on the elements of mathematics. Strogatzs second New York Times series, Me, Myself and Math appeared in the fall of 2012, Strogatz has spoken at TED and is a frequent guest on Radiolab and Science Friday. He also filmed a series of lectures on chaos theory for the Teaching Company’s Great Courses series, Strogatz is a Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Physical Society, and the American Mathematical Society. Strogatz has been lauded for his ability as a teacher and communicator, in 1991 he was honored with the E. M. Baker Memorial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, MITs only institute-wide teaching award selected and awarded solely by students. He has also won several teaching awards at Cornell, including Cornells highest undergraduate teaching prize, at the national level, Strogatz received the JPBM Communications Award in 2007. Presented annually, this award recognizes outstanding achievement in communicating about mathematics to nonmathematicians, the JPBM represents the American Mathematical Society, the American Statistical Association, the Mathematical Association of America, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. In 2013 he received the AAAS Public Engagement with Science Award for his commitment to and passion for conveying the beauty. Strogatz was selected to be the 2009 Rouse Ball Lecturer at Cambridge, in 2014 he was awarded the Euler Book Prize by The Mathematical Association of America for The Joy of x. Along with Ian Stewart, Strogatz was awarded the 2015 Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science, profile Edge Video trailer for The Calculus of Friendship on YouTube Radio show Numbers on New York Public Radios Radiolab Steven Strogatzs TEDTalk on TED
Steven H. Strogatz
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Professor Steven Strogatz
30.
Gene Grossman
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Gene Michael Grossman is currently the Jacob Viner Professor of International Economics at Princeton University. He received his B. A. in Economics from Yale University in 1976 and he became assistant professor at Princeton University in 1980 and full professor of economics in 1988. His research focuses on trade, in particular on the relationship between economic growth and trade and the political economy of trade policy. He is also known for his work on the Environmental Kuznets Curve and he frequently collaborated with Elhanan Helpman. He is among the 100 best economists in the according to IDEAS/RePEc. In 2009, Gene Grossman received a doctorate in Economics from the University of St. Gallen. Grossman received the 2015 Onassis Prize for International Trade, in 2016, Gene Grossman received an honorary doctorate in Economics from the University of Minho. Innovation and growth in the global economy, Gene Grossmans personal homepage at Princeton University IDEAS/RePEc
Gene Grossman
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