1.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
2.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
3.
Irish Volunteers
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The Irish Volunteers, sometimes called the Irish Volunteer Force or Irish Volunteer Army, was a military organisation established in 1913 by Irish nationalists. The Volunteers included members of the Gaelic League, Ancient Order of Hibernians and Sinn Féin, and, secretly, the second Home Rule Bill, seven years later having passed the House of Commons, was vetoed by the House of Lords. It would be the third Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, on 28 September 1912 at Belfast City Hall just over 450,000 Unionists signed the Ulster Covenant to resist the granting of Home Rule. This was followed in January 1913 with the formation of the Ulster Volunteers composed of adult male Unionists to oppose the passage, the initiative for a series of meetings leading up to the public inauguration of the Irish Volunteers came from the Irish Republican Brotherhood. They therefore confined themselves to encouraging the view that nationalists also ought to organise a volunteer force for the defence of Ireland, a small committee then began to meet regularly in Dublin from July 1913, who watched the growth of this opinion. They refrained however from any action until the precedent of Ulster should have first been established while waiting for the lead to come from a constitutional quarter, the IRB began the preparations for the open organisation of the Irish Volunteers in January 1913. James Stritch, an IRB member, had the Irish National Foresters build a hall at the back of 41 Parnell Square in Dublin, anticipating the formation of the Volunteers they began to learn foot-drill and military movements. The drilling was conducted by Stritch together with members of Fianna Éireann and they began by drilling a small number of IRB associated with the Dublin Gaelic Athletic Association, led by Harry Boland. The IRB knew they would need a highly regarded figure as a front that would conceal the reality of their control. The IRB found Eoin MacNeill the ideal candidate, Professor of Early, mcNeills academic credentials and reputation for integrity and political moderation had widespread appeal. The ORahilly suggested to MacNeill that it should be on some wider subject than mere Gaelic pursuits and it was this suggestion which gave rise to the article entitled The North Began, giving the Irish Volunteers its public origins. On 1 November, MacNeills article suggesting the formation of an Irish volunteer force was published, MacNeill wrote, There is nothing to prevent the other twenty-eight counties from calling into existence citizen forces to hold Ireland for the Empire. It was precisely with this object that the Volunteers of 1782 were enrolled, after the article was published, Hobson asked The ORahilly to see MacNeill, to suggest to him that a conference should be called to make arrangements for publicly starting the new movement. The article threw down the gauntlet to nationalists to follow the lead given by Ulster unionists, MacNeill was unaware of the detailed planning which was going on in the background, but was aware of Hobsons political leanings. He knew the purpose as to why he was chosen, with MacNeill willing to take part, ORahilly and Hobson sent out invitations for the first meeting at Wynns Hotel in Abbey Street, Dublin, on 11 November. Hobson himself did not attend this meeting, believing his standing as an extreme nationalist might prove problematical, the IRB, however, was well represented by, among others, Sean MacDermott and Eamonn Ceannt, who would prove to be substantially more extreme than Hobson. Several others meetings were soon to follow, as prominent nationalists planned the formation of the Volunteers, meanwhile, labour leaders in Dublin began calling for the establishment of a citizens defence force in the aftermath of the lock out of 19 August 1913. Thus formed the Irish Citizen Army, led by James Connolly, the Volunteer organisation was publicly launched on 25 November, with their first public meeting and enrolment rally at the Rotunda in Dublin
4.
Irish Citizen Army
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It was formed by James Larkin, James Connolly and Jack White on 23 November 1913. Other prominent members included Seán OCasey, Constance Markievicz, Francis Sheehy-Skeffington, P. T. Daly, in 1916, it took part in the Easter Rising – an armed insurrection aimed at ending British rule in Ireland. The army rose out of the strike of the Irish Transport and General Workers Union in 1913. The dispute was over the recognition of labour union founded by James Larkin. It began when William Martin Murphy, an industrialist, locked out some trade unionists on 19 August 1913, then on 25 August, in response, Larkin called an all out tramway strike on Murphys Dublin United Tramway Company. Other companies, encouraged by Murphy, sacked ITGWU members in an effort to break the union, the conflict eventually escalated to involve 400 employers and 25,000 workers. Larkinism prompted the recruitment of a workers militia, but in October, Larkin was arrested by strikebreakers. And for the duration of the lockout James Connolly, his deputy took control, announcing a call to arms of four battalions of trained men with corporals, another striker was later fatally wounded by a ricochet from a revolver fired by a strike-breaker. The violence at union rallies during the strike prompted Larkin to call for a militia to be formed to protect themselves against the police. The Citizen army for the duration of the lock-out was armed with hurleys, Jack White, a former British Army Captain, volunteered to train this army and offered 50 pounds towards the cost of shoes to workers so they could train. In addition to its role as an organisation, the army. After a six-month standoff, the returned to work hungry. The original purpose of the ICA was over, but it would soon be totally transformed, the Irish Citizen Army underwent a complete reorganisation in 1914. In March of that year, police attacked a demonstration of the Citizen Army and arrested Jack White, Seán OCasey then suggested that the ICA needed a more formal organisation. Larkin insisted that all also be members of a trade union. In mid-1914, White resigned as ICA commander to join the mainstream nationalist Irish Volunteers, the ICA armed itself with Mauser rifles bought from Germany by the Irish Volunteers and smuggled into Ireland at Howth in July 1914. This organisation was one of the first to offer membership to both men and women and trained them both in the use of weapons. The armys headquarters was the ITGWU union building, Liberty Hall, however, Connolly also set up branches in Tralee and Killarney in County Kerry
5.
Easter Rising
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The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week, April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans to end British rule in Ireland and it was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798, and the first armed action of the Irish revolutionary period. Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday,24 April 1916, the British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. There was fierce fighting on the routes into the city centre. Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles. The main rebel positions were surrounded and bombarded with artillery. Germany had sent a shipment of arms to the rebels, Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had then issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the number of rebels who mobilised. With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising, Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued until Sunday, when word reached the other rebel positions. After the surrender the country remained under martial law, about 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British, many of whom had played no part in the Rising, and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain. Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts-martial, the Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly 50 years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism. It, and the British reaction to it, led to increased support for Irish independence. In December 1918, republicans, represented by the reconstituted Sinn Féin party and they did not take their seats, but instead convened the First Dáil and declared the independence of the Irish Republic, which led to the War of Independence. 485 people were killed in the Easter Rising, about 54% were civilians, 30% were British military and police, and 16% were Irish rebels. Many of the civilians were killed as a result of the British using artillery and heavy machine guns, others were caught in the crossfire in a crowded city. The shelling and the fires it caused left parts of inner city Dublin in ruins, from early on, many Irish nationalists opposed the union and the ensuing exploitation and impoverishment of the island, which led to a high level of depopulation. Opposition took various forms, constitutional, social and revolutionary, the Irish Home Rule movement sought to achieve self-government for Ireland, within the United Kingdom. In 1886, the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell succeeded in having the First Home Rule Bill introduced in the British parliament, the Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords. After the fall of Parnell, younger and more radical nationalists became disillusioned with parliamentary politics, the Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League and the cultural revival under W. B
6.
Irish Republican Brotherhood
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The Irish Republican Brotherhood was a secret oath-bound fraternal organisation dedicated to the establishment of an independent democratic republic in Ireland between 1858 and 1924. Its counterpart in the United States of America was organised by John OMahony, the members of both wings of the movement are often referred to as Fenians. As part of the New Departure of the 1870s–80s, IRB members attempted to democratise the Home Rule League, and its successor, the Irish Parliamentary Party, as well as taking part in the Land War. The IRB staged the Easter Rising in 1916, which led to the establishment of the first Dáil Éireann in 1919, the rebellion was suppressed, but the principles of the United Irishmen were to have a powerful influence on the course of Irish history. Following the collapse of the rebellion, the British prime minister William Pitt introduced a bill to abolish the Irish parliament and manufactured a Union between Ireland and Britain. Opposition from the Protestant oligarchy that controlled the parliament was countered by the widespread and open use of bribery. The Act of Union was passed, the Catholics, who had been excluded from the Irish parliament, were promised emancipation under the Union. This promise was never kept, and caused a protracted and bitter struggle for civil liberties and it was not until 1829 that the British government reluctantly conceded Catholic emancipation. Though leading to general emancipation, this process simultaneously disenfranchised the small tenants, known as ‘forty shilling freeholders’ and this resulted in the Irish Catholic electorate going from 216,000 voters to 37,000. A massive reduction in the number of Catholics being able to vote, Daniel O’Connell, who had led the emancipation campaign, then attempted the same methods in his campaign, to have the Act of Union with Britain repealed. Despite the use of petitions and public meetings which attracted vast popular support, during the early 1840s, the younger members of the repeal movement became impatient with O’Connells over-cautious policies, and began to question his intentions. Later they were what came to be known as the Young Ireland movement, in 1842 three of the Young Ireland leaders, Thomas Davis, Charles Gavan Duffy and John Blake Dillon, launched the Nation newspaper. In the paper they set out to create a spirit of pride, following the collapse of the Repeal Association and with the arrival of famine, the Young Irelanders broke away completely from O’Connell in 1846. The blight that destroyed the potato harvest between 1845 and 1849 was a human tragedy. An entire social class of farmers and labourers were to be virtually wiped out by hunger, disease. The laissez –faire economic thinking of the government ensured that help was slow, between 1845 and 1851 the population fell by almost two million. That the people starved while livestock and grain continued to be exported, quite often under military escort, left a legacy of bitterness and resentment among the survivors. Shocked by the scenes of starvation and greatly influenced by the revolutions then sweeping Europe, the attempted rebellion failed after a small skirmish in Ballingary, Co Tipperary, coupled with a few minor incidents else where. The government quickly rounded up many of the instigators, those who could, fled across the seas, a last flicker of revolt in 1849, led by among others James Fintan Lalor, was equally unsuccessful
7.
Patrick Pearse
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Patrick Henry Pearse was an Irish teacher, barrister, poet, writer, nationalist and political activist who was one of the leaders of the Easter Rising in 1916. Following his execution along with fifteen others, Pearse came to be seen by many as the embodiment of the rebellion, Pearse and his brother Willie and sisters Margaret and Mary Brigid were born at 27 Great Brunswick Street, Dublin, the street that is named after them today. It was here that their father, James Pearse, established a business in the 1850s. Pearses father was a mason and monumental sculptor, and originally a Unitarian from Birmingham in England, Pearses maternal grandfather Patrick was a supporter of the 1848 Young Ireland movement and was sworn in to the IRB. Pearses maternal grand uncle, James Savage fought in the American Civil War Pearse grew up surrounded by books and his father had had very little formal education, but was self-educated, he had two children Emily and James, from his first marriage. His second wife, Margaret Brady, was from Dublin, the Irish-speaking influence of Pearses great-aunt Margaret, together with his schooling at the CBS Westland Row, instilled in him an early love for the Irish language. Pearse was radicalised from an early age and he recalls that at the age of ten he prayed to God, promising him he would dedicate his life to Irish freedom. Pearse soon became involved in the Gaelic revival, in 1896, at the age of 16, he joined the Gaelic League, and in 1903, at the age of 23, he became editor of its newspaper An Claidheamh Soluis. Both had been Protestant, but it was from such men as these that the fervently Catholic Pearse drew inspiration for the rebellion of 1916. In 1900, Pearse was awarded a B. A. in Modern Languages by the Royal University of Ireland, in the same year, he was enrolled as a Barrister-at-Law at the Kings Inns. Pearse was called to the bar in 1901, in 1905, Pearse represented Neil McBride, a poet and songwriter from Feymore, Creeslough, Donegal, who had been fined for having his name displayed in illegible writing on his donkey cart. The appeal was heard before the Court of Kings Bench in Dublin and it was Pearses first and only court appearance as a barrister. The case was lost but it became a symbol of the struggle for Irish independence, in his June 27,1905 An Claidheamh Soluis column, Pearse wrote of the decision. it was in effect decided that Irish is a foreign language on the same level with Yiddish. As a cultural nationalist educated by the Irish Christian Brothers, like his younger brother Willie, the Irish school system, he believed, raised Irelands youth to be good Englishmen or obedient Irishmen, and an alternative was needed. Thus for him and other language revivalists saving the Irish language from extinction was a priority of the utmost importance. The key to saving the language, he felt, would be an education system. To show the way he started his own school for boys, St. Endas School in Cullenswood House in Ranelagh. The pupils were taught in both Irish and English, Cullenswood House is now the home of a Gaelscoil, Lios na nÓg
8.
General Post Office, Dublin
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The General Post Office in Dublin is the headquarters of the Irish Post Office, An Post, and Dublins principal post office. Sited in the centre of OConnell Street, the main thoroughfare, it is one of Irelands most famous buildings. On 6 January 1818, the new post-office in Sackville Street was opened for business, the structure was completed in the short space of three years for the sum of £50,000. The front, which extends 67.1 metres, has an Ionic portico, the frieze of the entablature is highly enriched, and in the tympanum of the pediment were the royal arms until removed following restoration in the 1920s. The entablature, with the exception of the architrave, is continued along the rest of the front, a balustrade surmounts the cornice of the building, which is 15.2 metres from the ground. With the exception of the portico, which is of Portland stone, during the Easter Rising of 1916, the GPO served as the headquarters of the uprisings leaders. The building was destroyed by fire in the course of the rebellion, the facade is all that remains of the original building. The museum closed at the end of May 2015 being replaced by a new centre to commemorate the 1916 Rising, GPO Witness History. The building has remained a symbol of Irish nationalism, the statue was featured on the Irish ten shilling coin of 1966, marking the fiftieth anniversary of the Rising. Despite its fame as an place of Irish freedom, ground rent for the GPO continued to be paid to English. The broadcasting studios of 2RN, which later became Radio Éireann, were located at the GPO from 1928 until 1974, draws for Prize Bonds are held weekly, on Fridays, in the building. Nelsons Pillar was formerly located in the centre of OConnell Street adjacent to the GPO, however the Pillar was destroyed by Irish republicans in an explosion in 1966. The Spire of Dublin now takes a dominant position on the site of the Pillar
9.
O'Connell Street
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OConnell Street is Dublins main thoroughfare. It measures 49 m in width at its end,46 m at the north. During the 17th century it was a street known as Drogheda Street. Situated just north of the River Liffey, the street has a fine axial positioning, running close to a north-south orientation. OConnell Street Upper by contrast retains something of its original 18th century character, with the western side conforming to original plot widths, the streets layout is simple but elegant. A paved median space runs down the centre of the street, featuring monuments, both structures are addressed by a large civic plaza space, traversed by the streets two roadways. It also serves as a bus route artery through the city centre. The modern tram, the Luas, is undergoing an extension and it will only travel in one direction, the return loop, to link the system at St. Stephens Green, will run via Marlborough Street, parallel with and east of OConnell Street. OConnell Street has its origins in a street named Drogheda Street dating from the 17th century. In the 1740s, a banker and property speculator by the name of Luke Gardiner acquired the upper part of Drogheda Street extending down to Henry Street as part of a much larger land deal. He demolished the side of Drogheda Street creating an exclusive elongated residential square 46m in width. Gardiner also laid out a mall down the section of the street, lined with low granite walls. It was planted with trees a few years later and he titled the new development Sackville Street after the then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Lionel Cranfield Sackville, Duke of Dorset. It was also known as Sackville Mall, Gardiners Mall or simply The Mall and it had been Gardiners intention to eventually break this grand new street through to the river, however he died in 1755, with his son taking over the estate. It was not until 1777 that the body in the city. For the next 10 years work progressed in demolishing a myriad of dwellings and other buildings, laying out the new roadway, 1785–90, one of the finest streets in Europe had been created. The street became a success upon the opening of Carlisle Bridge, designed by James Gandon. Sackville Street prospered in the 1800s, though an invisible boundary seems to have maintained for some time between the Upper and Lower street
10.
Robert Emmet
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Robert Emmet was an Irish nationalist and Republican, orator and rebel leader. After leading a rebellion against British rule in 1803 he was captured then tried and executed for high treason against the British king. He came from a wealthy Anglo-Irish Protestant family who sympathised with Irish Catholics, the Emmet family also sympathised with the rebel colonists in the American Revolution. While Emmets efforts to rebel against British rule failed, his actions and he was born at 109 St. Stephens Green, in Dublin on 4 March 1778. He was the youngest son of Dr Robert Emmet, a court physician, the Emmets were financially comfortable, with a house at St Stephens Green and a country residence near Milltown. One of his brothers was the nationalist Thomas Addis Emmet, a close friend of Theobald Wolfe Tone. Emmet attended Oswalds school, in Doppings-court, off Golden-lane, Emmet entered Trinity College, Dublin in October 1793, at the age of fifteen. In December 1797 he joined the College Historical Society, a debating society, while he was at college, his brother Thomas and some of his friends became involved in political activism. Robert became secretary of a secret United Irish Committee in college and that same year he fled to France to avoid the many British arrests of nationalists that were taking place in Ireland. While in France, Emmet garnered the support of Napoleon, who had promised to support when the upcoming revolution started. After the 1798 rising, Emmet was involved in reorganising the defeated United Irish Society, in April 1799 a warrant was issued for his arrest. He escaped and soon travelled to the continent in the hope of securing French military aid. His efforts were unsuccessful, as Napoleon was concentrating his efforts on invading England, Emmet returned to Ireland in October 1802. In March the following year, he began preparations for another uprising, after his return to Ireland, Emmet began to prepare a new rebellion, with fellow revolutionaries Thomas Russell and James Hope. He began to manufacture weapons and explosives at a number of premises in Dublin, unlike in 1798, the revolutionaries concealed their preparations, but a premature explosion at one of Emmets arms depots killed a man. Emmet was forced to advance the date of the rising before the authorities suspicions were aroused, Emmet was unable to secure the help of Michael Dwyers Wicklow rebels. Many rebels from Kildare turned back due to the scarcity of firearms they had been promised, about 10,000 copies were printed of a proclamation in the name of the Provisional Government, which influenced the 1916 Proclamation, most were destroyed by the authorities. Emmet wore a uniform of a coat with white facings, white breeches, top-boots
11.
Universal suffrage
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The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during
12.
Children's rights
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Childrens rights are the human rights of children with particular attention to the rights of special protection and care afforded to minors. The Convention on the Rights of the Child of 1989 defines a child as any person who has not reached the age of eighteen years. Other definitions include the rights to care and nurturing, a child is any human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. The field of childrens rights spans the fields of law, politics, religion, is a mass of human rights law, both treaty and soft law, both general and child-specific, which recognises the distinct status and particular requirements of children. As minors by law children do not have autonomy or the right to decisions on their own for themselves in any known jurisdiction of the world. Instead their adult caregivers, including parents, social workers, teachers, youth workers, some believe that this state of affairs gives children insufficient control over their own lives and causes them to be vulnerable. Louis Althusser has gone so far as to describe this legal machinery, as it applies to children, on this view, children are to be regarded as a minority group towards whom society needs to reconsider the way it behaves. Researchers have identified children as needing to be recognized as participants in society whose rights, sir William Blackstone recognized three parental duties to the child, maintenance, protection, and education. In modern language, the child has a right to receive these from the parent, consensus on defining childrens rights has become clearer in the last fifty years. A1973 publication by Hillary Clinton stated that childrens rights were a slogan in need of a definition, children’s rights law is defined as the point where the law intersects with a childs life. Children have two types of rights under international human rights law. General rights operative in childhood include the right to security of the person, to freedom from inhuman, cruel, or degrading treatment, Childrens rights are defined in numerous ways, including a wide spectrum of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. These have been labeled as the right of empowerment and as the right to protection, United Nations educational guides for children classify the rights outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as the 3 Ps, Provision, Protection, and Participation. They may be elaborated as follows, Provision, Children have the right to a standard of living, health care, education and services. These include a diet, a warm bed to sleep in. Protection, Children have the right to protection from abuse, neglect and this includes the right to safe places for children to play, constructive child rearing behavior, and acknowledgment of the evolving capacities of children. Participation, Children have the right to participate in communities and have programs and this includes childrens involvement in libraries and community programs, youth voice activities, and involving children as decision-makers. Human Rights Watch, an advocacy organization, includes child labor, juvenile justice, orphans and abandoned children, refugees, street children
13.
Liberty Hall
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Liberty Hall, in Dublin, Ireland, is the headquarters of the Services, Industrial, Professional, and Technical Union. It was formerly the tallest storeyed building in the state, at 59.4 metres, high until it was superseded by the County Hall outside Cork city, Liberty Hall is now the third tallest building in Dublin, after Montevetro and the Millennium Tower in Grand Canal Dock. Standing on Beresford Place and Eden Quay, near the Custom House, during the 1913 Dublin Lock-out a soup kitchen for workers families was run there by Maud Gonne and Constance Markievicz. Following the outbreak of the First World War a banner reading We Serve Neither King nor Kaiser, But Ireland was hung on its front wall, the newspaper was shut down by the British government for sedition under the Defence of the Realm Act. It was replaced for a time by a paper called The Worker until that too was banned. Connolly edited a paper, The Workers Republic, from 1915 until the Easter Rising in 1916. Until the Easter Rising Liberty Hall also served as a munitions factory and it was on the street in front of the building that the leaders of the Rising assembled before their march to the General Post Office on Easter Monday. They left the building vacant throughout Easter Week, an unknown to the British authorities. It was completely levelled by British artillery during the Rising, in the late 1950s Liberty Hall was declared unsafe and promptly demolished. The present building, which has sixteen storeys, was constructed between 1961 and 1965. It was originally fitted with windows of glass, but after they were damaged by a UVF car bomb in 1972 they were replaced with windows of reflective glass. The viewing platform, which had recently been opened, was also closed after the car bomb. On 19 October 2006 it was announced that SIPTU was seeking planning permission to demolish Liberty Hall, by October 2007 SIPTU had selected a shortlist of architects to design the new building and was planning to demolish the current building in 2009. The new building would have included office space, a theatre, however, in November 2012 the planning permission was overturned by An Bord Pleanála, which ruled unanimously that the new building would be unacceptably dominant in the city. Liberty Hall was the subject of a documentary broadcast on RTÉ One in May 2009
14.
Sort (typesetting)
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When the form was no longer needed all of the type had to be sorted back into the correct slots in the type case in a very time-consuming process called distributing. This sorting process led to the pieces being called sorts. It is often claimed to be the root of such as out of sorts and wrong sort. During the hot metal typesetting era, printing equipment used matrices to cast type as needed during the typesetting process, the popular Linotype cast entire lines of text at once rather than individual sorts, while the less popular competitor Monotype still cast the sorts individually. Later, when phototypesetting replaced hot metal typesetting, sorts disappeared entirely from the printing process. History of western typography Matrix Typeface Typography Typeface anatomy Nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering 1957, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20427-8, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number, 57-13116. Typowiki, a wiki at typophile. com Metal Type - For Those who Remember Hot Metal Typesetting
15.
Tom Clarke (Irish republican)
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Thomas James Tom Clarke was an Irish republican revolutionary leader from Dungannon, County Tyrone. Clarke was arguably the person most responsible for the 1916 Easter Rising, a proponent of armed revolution for most of his life, he spent 15 years in English prisons prior to his role in the Easter Rising, and was executed after it was quashed. Clarke was born at Hurst Castle, Milford-on-Sea, Hampshire, England opposite the Isle of Wight to Irish parents, Mary Palmer and James Clarke, who was a sergeant in the British Army. In 1865, after spending years in South Africa, Sgt. Clarke was transferred to Dungannon, County Tyrone, Ireland. In 1878, at the age of 20, he joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood following the visit to Dungannon of John Daly and they were driven back, however, and Clarke, fearing arrest, fled to the United States. He was arrested, and along with three others, he was tried and sentenced to servitude for life on 28 May 1883 at Londons Old Bailey. He subsequently served 15 years in Pentonville and other British prisons, in 1896, he was one of five remaining Fenian prisoners in British jails and a series of public meetings in Ireland called for their release. At one meeting, John Redmond MP, leader of the Parnellite Irish National League, said of him, I have learned in my many visits to Portland for five years to love, honour and respect Henry Wilson. I have seen day after day how his spirit was keeping him alive. I have seen year after year the fading away of his physical strength, Henry Wilson was, as historian Dermot Meleady points out, the alias of Tom Clarke. Following his release in 1898 he moved to Brooklyn in the United States where he married Kathleen Daly,21 years his junior, whose uncle, John Daly, Clarke worked for the Clan na Gael under John Devoy. In 1906 the couple moved to a 30-acre farm in Manorville, New York, Clarke had a very close kinship with Hobson, who along with Sean MacDermott, became his protegé. Nevertheless, with MacDermott, Hobson, and other IRB members such as Eamonn Ceannt taking important roles in the Volunteers, it was clear that the IRB would have substantial, if not total, control. Though most of the hard-liners stood against this, Redmonds decree was accepted, Clarke never forgave him for what he considered a treasonous act. Following Clarkes falling out with Hobson, MacDermott and Clarke became almost inseparable, the two of them, as secretary and treasurer, respectively, de facto ran the IRB, although it was still under the nominal head of other men, James Deakin, and later McCullough. In 1915 Clarke and MacDermott established the Military Committee of the IRB to plan what became the Easter Rising. The members were Pearse, Ceannt and Joseph Plunkett, with Clarke, when the old Fenian Jeremiah ODonovan Rossa, died in 1915, Clarke used his funeral to mobilise the Volunteers and heighten expectation of imminent action. When an agreement was reached with James Connolly and the Irish Citizen Army in January 1916, Connolly was added to the committee and these seven men were the signatories of the Proclamation of the Republic, with Clarke as the first signatory
16.
Thomas MacDonagh
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Thomas MacDonagh was an Irish political activist, poet, playwright, educationalist and revolutionary leader. He was executed for his part in the Rising at the age of thirty-eight, MacDonagh was assistant headmaster at St. Endas School, Scoil Éanna, and lecturer in English at University College Dublin. He was a member of the Gaelic League, where he befriended Patrick Pearse and he was a founding member of the Irish Volunteers with MacNeill and Pearse. He was born, as Joseph McDonagh, in Cloughjordan, County Tipperary, to Joseph McDonagh, a schoolmaster and he grew up in a household filled with music, poetry and learning and was instilled with a love of both English and Irish culture from a young age. Both his parents were teachers, who strongly emphasised education, while there MacDonagh spent several years as a scholastic, sometimes a preparation for a missionary career, however, after a few years he realised that it wasnt the life for him, and left. Very soon after, he published his first book of poems, Through the Ivory Gate, while in Fermoy, MacDonagh was one of the founding members of ASTI, the secondary teachers association which was formed in the Fermoy College in 1908. He moved to Dublin, soon establishing strong friendships with men as Eoin MacNeill. He was one of the founders of the trade union ASTI. MacDonagh was essential to the early success, on his marriage he took the position of lecturer in English at the National University. MacDonagh remained devoted to the Irish language, and in 1910 he became tutor to a member of the Gaelic League. The two were both poets with an interest in the Irish Theatre, and formed a lifelong friendship, on 3 January 1912 he married Muriel Gifford, their son, Donagh, was born that November, and their daughter, Barbara, in March 1915. Muriels sister, Grace Gifford, was to marry Joseph Mary Plunkett hours before his execution in 1916, in 1913 both MacDonagh and Plunkett attended the inaugural meeting of the Irish Volunteers and joined its Provisional Committee. MacDonagh was later appointed Commandant of Dublins 2nd battalion, and eventually made commandant of the entire Dublin Brigade. Around this time Tom Clarke asked him to plan the funeral of Jeremiah ODonovan Rossa. Though credited as one of the Easter Risings seven leaders, MacDonagh was an addition to that group. He didnt join the secret Military Council that planned the rising until April 1916, the reason for his admittance at such a late date is uncertain. Still a relative newcomer to the IRB, men such as Clarke may have been hesitant to elevate him to such a position too soon. His close ties to Pearse and Plunkett may have been the cause, nevertheless, MacDonagh was a signatory of the Proclamation of the Republic
17.
James Connolly
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James Connolly was an Irish republican and socialist leader, aligned to syndicalism and the Industrial Workers of the World. He was born in the Cowgate area of Edinburgh, Scotland and he left school for working life at the age of 11, but became one of the leading Marxist theorists of his day. He also took a role in Scottish and American politics and he was executed by a British firing squad because of his leadership role in the Easter Rising of 1916. Connolly was born in an Irish immigrant slum in Edinburgh in 1868 and his parents had moved to Scotland from Monaghan, Ireland and settled in Cowgate, an Irish ghetto where thousands of Irish people lived. He spoke with a Scottish accent throughout his life and he was born in St Patricks Roman Catholic parish, in the Cowgate district of Edinburgh known as Little Ireland. His father and grandfathers were labourers and he had an education up to the age of about ten in the local Catholic primary school. He then left and worked in labouring jobs, because of the economic difficulties he was having, like his eldest brother John, he joined the British Army. He enlisted in the British Army at age 14, falsifying his age and giving his name as Reid and he served in Ireland with the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Scots Regiment for nearly seven years, during a turbulent period in rural areas known as the Land War. He would later involved in the land issue. He developed a hatred for the British Army that lasted his entire life. When he heard that his regiment was being transferred to India, Connolly had another reason for not wanting to go to India, a young woman by the name of Lillie Reynolds. Lillie moved to Scotland with James after he left the army, there, Connolly began to get involved in the Scottish Socialist Federation, but with a young family to support, he needed a way to provide for them. He briefly established a shop in 1895, but this failed after a few months as his shoe-mending skills were insufficient. He was also active with the socialist movement at the time. He became secretary of the Scottish Socialist Federation, during this time, Connolly became involved with the Independent Labour Party which Keir Hardie had formed in 1893. At some time during this period, he took up the study of, and advocated the use of, by 1892 he was involved in the Scottish Socialist Federation, acting as its secretary from 1895. Two months after the birth of his daughter, word came to Connolly that the Dublin Socialist Club was looking for a full-time secretary. Connolly and his moved to Dublin, where he took up the position
18.
Joseph Plunkett
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Joseph Mary Plunkett was an Irish nationalist, poet, journalist, and a leader of the 1916 Easter Rising. Plunkett was born at 26 Upper Fitzwilliam Street in one of Dublins most affluent districts, both his parents came from wealthy backgrounds, and his father, George Noble Plunkett, had been made a papal count. Plunkett contracted tuberculosis at an age and spent part of his youth in the warmer climates of the Mediterranean. He spent time in Algiers where he studied Arabic literature and language, throughout his life, Joseph Plunkett took an active interest in Irish heritage and the Irish language, and also studied Esperanto. Plunkett was one of the founders of the Irish Esperanto League and he joined the Gaelic League and began studying with Thomas MacDonagh, with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. The two were both poets with an interest in theatre, and both were members of the Irish Volunteers, joining their provisional committee. Men there were instead trained to fight for Ireland and he was seeking a shipment of arms. Casement, on the hand, spent most of his energies recruiting Irish prisoners of war in Germany to form a brigade to fight instead for Ireland. Some nationalists in Ireland saw this as a fruitless endeavour, Plunkett successfully got a promise of a German arms shipment to coincide with the rising. Plunkett was one of the members of the IRB Military Committee that was responsible for planning the Easter Rising. Shortly before the rising was to begin, Plunkett was hospitalised following a turn for the worse in his health and he had an operation on his neck glands days before Easter and had to struggle out of bed to take part in what was to follow. His energetic aide de camp was Michael Collins, following the surrender Plunkett was held in Kilmainham Gaol, and faced a court martial. His brothers George Oliver Plunkett and Jack Plunkett joined him in the Easter Rising and his fathers cousin, Horace Plunkett, was a Protestant and unionist who sought to reconcile unionists and nationalists. Horace Plunketts home was burned down by the Anti-Treaty IRA during the Civil War, the main railway station in Waterford City is named after him as is Joseph Plunkett Tower in Ballymun. Plunkett barracks in the Curragh Camp, County Kildare is also named after him, augusteijn, Joost, The Irish Revolution 1913-1923 Boyce, George D. X
19.
Treason
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958
20.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
21.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
22.
H. H. Asquith
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He had a central role in the design and passage of major liberal legislation. In August 1914, Asquith took the United Kingdom into the First World War, Asquiths father owned a small business but died when Asquith was seven. Asquith was educated at City of London School and Balliol College and he trained as a barrister and after a slow start to his career achieved great success. In 1886, he was adopted as Liberal candidate for East Fife, in 1892, he was appointed as Home Secretary in Gladstones fourth ministry, remaining in the post until the Liberals lost the 1895 election. In 1908, Asquith succeeded him as minister, with David Lloyd George as chancellor. With their first majority government since the 1880s, the Liberals were determined to advance their agenda, an impediment to this was the unelected House of Lords, dominated by the Conservatives. When Lloyd George proposed, and the House of Commons passed, the Peoples Budget of 1909, meanwhile the South Africa Act 1909 passed. Asquith called an election for January 1910, and the Liberals won, Asquith was less successful in dealing with Irish Home Rule. Repeated crises led to gun running and violence, verging on civil war, bitter rivalries inside and between the three major parties worsened when Asquith was unable to forge the coalition into a harmonious team. It was weakened by his own indecision over strategy, conscription, Lloyd George organised his overthrow and replaced him as Prime Minister in December 1916. Asquith remained as leader of the Liberal Party, but was unable to quell the internal conflict, the party rapidly declined in popularity and was ruined by the 1918 general election. Asquith accepted a peerage in 1925 and died, aged 75 and his roles in creating the modern British welfare state, 1906-1911 have been celebrated, but his weaknesses as a war leader and as a party leader after 1914 have been emphasised by historians. Asquith was born in Morley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the couple also had three daughters, of whom only one survived infancy. The Asquiths were an old Yorkshire family, with a long nonconformist tradition and it was a matter of family pride, shared by Asquith, that an ancestor, Joseph Asquith, was imprisoned for his part in the pro-Roundhead Farnley Wood Plot of 1664. Both Asquiths parents came from families associated with the Yorkshire wool trade, Dixon Asquith inherited the Gillroyd Mill Company, founded by his father. Emilys father, William Willans, ran a successful wool-trading business in Huddersfield, both families were middle-class, Congregationalist, and politically radical. Dixon was a man, cultivated and in his sons words not cut out for a business career. He was described as a man of character who held Bible classes for young men
23.
David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government, during and he was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers. He made an impact on British public life than any other 20th-century leader. Furthermore, in foreign affairs he played a role in winning the First World War, redrawing the map of Europe at the peace conference. His main political problem was that he was not loyal to his Liberal party—he was always a political maverick, while he was Prime Minister he favoured the Conservatives in his coalition in the 1918 elections, leaving the Liberal party as a hopeless minority. He became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s, by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure. He gave weak support to the Second World War amidst fears that he was favourable toward Germany, Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents, and was brought up as a Welsh-speaker. He is so far the only British Prime Minister to have been Welsh and his father, William George, had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool. He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools, which were administered by the Unitarians, in March of the same year, on account of his failing health, William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire. He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia, Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors. He added his uncles surname to become Lloyd George and his surname is usually given as Lloyd George and sometimes as George. The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career, brought up a devout evangelical, as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith. Biographer Don Cregier says he became a Deist and perhaps an agnostic, though he remained a chapel-goer and he kept quiet about that, however, and was hailed as one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity. It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership, by the age of twenty-one, he had already read and taken notes on Henry Georges Progress and Poverty. This strongly influenced Lloyd Georges politics later in life through the Peoples Budget which heavily drew on the georgist tax reform ideas, the practice flourished, and he established branch offices in surrounding towns, taking his brother William into partnership in 1887. Although many Prime Ministers have been barristers, Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office, by then he was politically active, having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election, attracted by Joseph Chamberlains unauthorised programme of reforms. The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority, William Gladstones proposal to bring about Irish Home Rule split the party, with Chamberlain eventually leading the breakaway Liberal Unionists
24.
Irish Independent
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The Irish Independent is the flagship publication of Independent News & Media and Irelands largest-selling daily newspaper. Aside from its material, the Independent also publishes a weekly supplement in the Irish language called Seachtain. It is a sister of the broadsheet Sunday Independent, since May 2012, the Irish Independent has been controlled by billionaire Denis OBrien after OBrien acquired a majority shareholding of parent company. Traditionally a broadsheet newspaper, it introduced a compact size in 2004. The Irish Independent described the 1916 Easter Rising as insane and criminal, in 1924, the traditional nationalist newspaper, the Freemans Journal, merged with the Irish Independent. Until October 1986 the papers masthead over the editorial contained the words incorporating the Freemans Journal, during the Spanish Civil War, the Irish Independents coverage was strongly pro-Franco, the paper criticized the De Valera government for not intervening on behalf of the Spanish Nationalists. In the 1970s, it was taken over by former Heinz chairman Tony OReilly, under his leadership, it became a more populist, market liberal newspaper—populist on social issues, but economically right-wing. By the mid-nineties its allegiance to Fine Gael had ended, in the 1997 general election, it endorsed Fianna Fáil under a front page editorial, entitled Its Payback Time. On 27 September 2005, a fortnight after the paper published its centenary edition and he was replaced by Gerry ORegan, who had until then been editor of the Irish Independents sister paper, the Evening Herald. The newspapers previous editor Stephen Rae was also editor of the Evening Herald and was appointed editor in September 2012. Fionnan Sheahan was appointed editor in January 2015, Denis OBrien successfully acquired a majority shareholding the newspaper parent company INM in May 2012. The New Irish Writing Page is the creative writing feature of its kind in any Irish or British newspaper. The Irish Independent, in cooperation with the Institute of Education, produces Exam Brief and this supplement is published in February, March and April each year. Excluding The Sun and the Daily Mirror, most of the content of which are produced in the United Kingdom, iNM-owned or partly owned titles have 58% of the newspaper market on Sunday. With the closure of the Evening Press, the Independents Evening Herald is now the only Irish national evening newspaper, another sister paper is the Sunday Independent. Other newspapers in the Independent News & Media group include the Irish Daily Star, the Independent News and Media Group had a major share in the Sunday Tribune, a Sunday broadsheet before its closure in 2011. The Independent News and Media Group also owns online business directory site Your Local that provides business information on approximately 100,000 Irish businesses. Circulation was 162,582 for the period January to December 2006, circulation was 149,906 for the period July to December 2009
25.
Leinster House
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Leinster House is the seat of the Oireachtas, the parliament of Ireland. Leinster House was originally the palace of the Dukes of Leinster. Since 1922, it is a complex of buildings, of which the ducal palace is the core. The most recognisable part of the complex, and the face of Leinster House. The societys famous Dublin Spring Show and Dublin Horse Show were held on its Leinster Lawn, facing Merrion Square. The building is the place of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann. Irelands parliament over the centuries had met in a number of locations, most notably in the Irish Houses of Parliament at College Green, next to Trinity College and its medieval parliament consisted of two Houses, a House of Commons and a House of Lords. Irelands senior peer, the Earl of Kildare, had a seat in the Lords, like all the aristocrats of the period, for the duration of the Social Season and parliamentary sessions, he and his family resided in state in a Dublin residence. From the late eighteenth century Leinster House was the Earls official Dublin residence, the building itself was designed by acclaimed architect Richard Cassels. In the history of aristocratic residences in Dublin, no other mansion matched Kildare House for its size or status. When the Earl was made the first Duke of Leinster in 1766, one famous member of the family who occasionally resided in Leinster House was Lord Edward FitzGerald, who became involved with Irish nationalism during the 1798 Rebellion, which cost him his life. With the passage of the Act of Union in 1800, Ireland ceased to have its own parliament, the 3rd Duke of Leinster sold Leinster House in 1815 to the Royal Dublin Society. In 1853 the Great Industrial Exhibition was hosted in its grounds, at the end of the nineteenth century, two new wings were added, to house the National Library of Ireland and the National Museum of Ireland. The Natural History Museum was built on the site, part of this scheme intended to re-clad the house in more attractive Portland stone and extend the portico outwards. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 provided for the creation of a self-governing Irish dominion, plans were made to turn Royal Hospital Kilmainham, an eighteenth-century former soldiers home in extensive parklands, into a full-time Parliament House. The building was bought outright from the RDS in 1924, a new Senate or Seanad chamber was created in the Dukes old ballroom, while wings from the neighbouring Royal College of Science were taken over as used as Government Buildings. The entire Royal College of Science, which by then had been merged with University College Dublin, was taken over in 1990. Both the National Library and National Museum wings next to Leinster House remain used by as a library, while plans were often made to provide a brand-new parliament house, the Oireachtas has remained permanently located in Leinster House
26.
President of Ireland
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The President of Ireland is the head of state of Ireland and the Supreme Commander of the Irish Defence Forces. The President holds office for seven years, and can be elected for a maximum of two terms, unless a candidate runs unopposed, the President is directly elected by the people. The presidency is largely a ceremonial office, but the President does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion, the President acts as a representative of the Irish state. Former President Mary McAleese described the office as the guardian of the constitution, the Presidents official residence is Áras an Uachtaráin, which is located in the Phoenix Park in Dublin. The office was established by the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, the current president is His Excellency Michael D Higgins, who was elected on 29 October 2011. His inauguration was held on 11 November 2011, President Higgins is a veteran left-wing politician and human rights campaigner. As a member of the Labour Party, he has served in both houses of the Oireachtas, President Higgins is also a poet and speaks the Irish language fluently. The Constitution of Ireland provides for a system of government. The President is formally one of three parts of the Oireachtas, which also comprises Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, unlike most other parliamentary democracies, the President is not even the nominal chief executive. Rather, executive authority is vested in the Government. The Government is obliged, however, to keep the President generally informed on matters of domestic, most of the functions of the President may be carried out only in accordance with the strict instructions of the Constitution, or the binding advice of the Government. The President does, however, possess certain personal powers that may be exercised at his or her discretion, the main functions are prescribed by the Constitution, Appoints the government The President formally appoints the Taoiseach and other ministers, and accepts their resignations. The Taoiseach is appointed upon the nomination of the Dáil, ministers are dismissed on the advice of the Taoiseach and the Taoiseach must, unless there is a dissolution of the Dáil, resign upon losing the confidence of the house. Appoints the judiciary The President appoints the judges to all Courts of the Republic of Ireland, convenes and dissolves the Dáil This power is exercised on the advice of the Taoiseach, government or Dáil approval is not needed. The President may only refuse a dissolution when a Taoiseach has lost the confidence of the Dáil, signs bills into law The President cannot veto a bill that the Dáil and the Seanad have adopted. However, he/she may refer it to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, if the Supreme Court upholds the bill, the President must sign it. If, however, it is found to be unconstitutional, the President will decline to give assent, represents the state in foreign affairs This power is exercised only on the advice of the Government. The President accredits ambassadors and receives the letters of credence of foreign diplomats, ministers sign international treaties in the Presidents name
27.
Trinity College Library
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The Library of Trinity College Dublin serves Trinity College and the University of Dublin. The Library is the permanent home to the famous Book of Kells, two of the four volumes are on public display, one opened to a major decorated page and the other to a typical page of text. The volumes and pages shown are regularly changed, members of the University of Dublin also have access to the libraries of Tallaght Hospital and the Irish School of Ecumenics, Milltown. A huge building, it towered over the university and city after its completion. Even today, surrounded by similarly scaled buildings, it is imposing, the Book of Kells is located in the Old Library, along with the Book of Durrow, the Book of Howth and other ancient texts. Also incorporating the Long Room, the Old Library is one of Irelands biggest tourist attractions, and holds thousands of rare, and in many cases very early, volumes. In the 18th century, the received the Brian Boru harp. The Library began with the founding of Trinity College in 1592, in 1661, Henry Jones presented it with the Book of Kells, its most famous manuscript. His complete works were published by the Library in twenty-four volumes, in 1801, the Library was given legal deposit rights, making it the only library in Ireland to have such rights for the United Kingdom. The 65-metre-long main chamber of the Old Library, the Long Room, was built between 1712 and 1732 and houses 200,000 of the Librarys oldest books. Initially The Long Room had a ceiling, shelving for books only on the lower level. In 1860, The Long Rooms roof was raised to accommodate an upper gallery, the Long Room is lined with marble busts. The marble bust collection was formed when 14 busts from the famous sculptor Pieter Scheemakers were acquired by the college, many of the busts are of great philosophers, writers, and men who supported the college. The most outstanding bust in the collection is of the writer Jonathan Swift, the Long Room also holds one of the last remaining copies of the 1916 Proclamation of the Irish Republic. This proclamation was read by Patrick Pearse near the General Post Office on 24 April 1916, visitors may also view the Trinity College Harp in The Long Room that is the oldest of its kind in Ireland dating back to the 15th century. The harp is made out of oak and willow and includes 29 brass strings, the Jedi archives of the Jedi Temple in the movie Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones bear a startling resemblance to the Long Room of the Trinity College Library. This resemblance resulted in controversy as permission had not been sought to use the likeness in the film. However, Lucasfilm denied that the Long Room was the basis for the Jedi archives, category, Librarians of Trinity College, Dublin Fox, Peter Treasures of the Library, Trinity College Dublin
28.
Souvenir
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A souvenir, memento, keepsake, or token of remembrance is an object a person acquires for the memories the owner associates with it. A souvenir can be any object that can be collected or purchased and transported home by the traveler as a memento of a visit, the object itself may have intrinsic value, or simply be a symbol of past experience. Without the owners input, the meaning is invisible and cannot be articulated. Perhaps the most collected souvenirs by tourists are photographs as a medium to document specific events, a more grisly form of souvenir in the First World War was displayed by a Pathan soldier to an English Territorial. After carefully studying the Tommys acquisitions, he produced a cord with the ears of enemy soldiers he claimed to have killed and he was keeping them to take back to India for his wife. Examples include sporting events, historical events, culture, and entertainment, often memorabilia items are kept in protective covers or display cases to safeguard and preserve their condition. The largest collection of Superman memorabilia belongs to Herbert Chavez, in Japan, souvenirs are known as omiyage, and are frequently selected from meibutsu, or products associated with a particular region. Bringing back omiyage from trips to co-workers and families is a social obligation, omiyage sales are big business at Japanese tourist sites. Unlike souvenirs, however, omiyage are frequently special food products, travelers may buy souvenirs as gifts for those who did not make the trip. In the Philippines a similar tradition of bringing souvenirs as a gift to members, friends. Media related to Souvenirs at Wikimedia Commons
29.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
30.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
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Lord Lieutenant was the title of the chief governor of Ireland from the Williamite Wars of 1690 till the Partition of Ireland in 1922. This spanned the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the office, under its various names, was often more generally known as the viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king, and his wife was known as the vicereine. The government of Ireland in practice was usually in the hands of the Lord Deputy up to the 17th century, although in the Middle Ages some Lords Deputy were Irish noblemen, only men from Great Britain, usually peers, were appointed to the office of Lord Lieutenant. The Kings representative possessed a number of overlapping roles and he was the representative of the King, the head of the executive in Ireland, a member of the English or British Cabinet, the font of mercy, justice and patronage, commander-in-chief in Ireland. His Government exercised effective control of parliament through the exercise of the powers of patronage, namely the awarding of peerages, baronetcies. Critics accused successive viceroys of using their power as a corrupt means of controlling parliament. On one day in July 1777, Lord Buckinghamshire as Lord Lieutenant promoted 5 viscounts to earls,7 barons to viscounts, under-Secretary for Ireland, The head of the civil service in Ireland. Lord Justices, Three office-holders who acted in the Lord Lieutenants stead during his absence, the Lord Justices were before 1800 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland. Lords Lieutenant were appointed for no set term but served for His/Her Majestys pleasure, in reality that meant for as long as wished by the British Government. Where a ministry fell, the Lord Lieutenant was usually replaced by a supporter of the new ministry, until the 16th century, Irish or Anglo-Irish noblemen such as the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare traditionally held the post of Justiciar or Lord Deputy. Following the plantations, however, noblemen from Great Britain were given the post, the last Irish Catholic to hold the position was Lord Tyrconnell from 1685–91, during the brief Catholic Ascendancy in the reign of James II that was ended by the Williamite war in Ireland. Until 1767 none of the latter lived full-time in Ireland, instead they resided in Ireland during meetings of the Irish Parliament. However the British cabinet decided in 1765 that full-time residency should be required to enable the Lord Lieutenant to keep a eye on public affairs in Ireland. The office was restricted to members of the Anglican faith, the first Catholic appointed to the post since the reign of the Catholic King James II was in fact the last viceroy, Lord FitzAlan of Derwent, in April 1921. His appointment was possible because the Government of Ireland Act 1920 ended the prohibition on Catholics being appointed to the position, FitzAlan was also the only Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ever to hold office when the former Ireland was partitioned into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland. The post ebbed and flowed in importance, being used on occasion as a form of exile for prominent British politicians who had fallen foul of the Court of St. Jamess or Westminster, on other occasions it was a stepping stone to a future career. Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, instead it was the Chief Secretary for Ireland who became central, with he, not the Lord Lieutenant, sitting on occasion in the British cabinet. The official residence of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle, the Geraldine Lords Deputy, the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare, being native Irish, both lived in, among other locations, their castle in Maynooth, County Kildare
31.
Ivor Guest, 1st Viscount Wimborne
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Guest was the son of Ivor Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne and Lady Cornelia, daughter of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough. He was the brother of Frederick Guest, Oscar Guest and Henry Guest. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge and he was commissioned a lieutenant in the Dorset Yeomanry on 9 May 1896. Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War in late 1899 and he was awarded the Queens South Africa Medal with two clasps. After returning to the United Kingdom he was promoted to captain on 18 January 1902 and he was elected to Parliament for Plymouth in a by-election in February 1900, as a Conservative, and retained his seat in the general election of 1900. In 1904, during the controversy within the Conservative Party over adopting protectionism, Guest and he served as Paymaster General until 1912, and later served as a Lord in Waiting on King George V. In 1914 he succeeded his father as Baron Wimborne, at the start of World War I he was appointed to the staff of the newly formed 10th Division under Lieutenant-General Sir Bryan Mahon at the Curragh Camp. In February 1915 Wimborne was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in succession to Lord Aberdeen, at this time the Lord Lieutenant was largely a ceremonial position, real power was in the hands of the Chief Secretary and the Under-Secretary. Determined to be involved in decision-making, he was appointed Director of Recruiting in October 1915. He insisted on being kept up to date on the state of the country, Nathan was unwilling to do so without the authorisation of the Chief Secretary, Augustine Birrell, who was in London. Before the authorisation was received the Rising began on 24 April 1916, Wimborne proclaimed martial law in Dublin. A new Commander-in Chief, General Sir John Maxwell, arrived in Ireland on 28 April, Wimborne initially refused to offer his resignation after the Rising. He resigned under pressure from the government but was re-appointed and he continued as Lord Lieutenant for another two years. On his retirement in 1918 he was created Viscount Wimborne, of Canford Magna in the County of Dorset, Lord Wimborne married at St Peters Church, Eaton Square, London, on 10 February 1902, the Honourable Alice Grosvenor, daughter of Robert Grosvenor, 2nd Baron Ebury. They had one son, Ivor Guest, 2nd Viscount Wimborne, by the 1930s they were living separate lives, though remaining on the friendliest terms. From 1934 until her death Alice was linked with the composer William Walton, Wimborne died in June 1939, aged 66, at Wimborne House in Arlington Street, London, the house in which he was born. He was succeeded by his son, Ivor. Lady Wimborne died in April 1948, aged 67, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Ivor Guest
32.
Dublin Castle administration
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Dublin Castle was the centre of the government of Ireland under English and later British rule. Dublin Castle is used metonymically to describe British rule in Ireland, the Castle held only the executive branch of government and the Privy Council of Ireland, both appointed by the British government. The Castle did not hold the judicial branch, which was centred on the Four Courts, or the legislature, the head of the administration was variously known as the Justicar, the Lord Deputy, from the seventeenth century the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and later the Viceroy. Before 1707 he represented the government of the Kingdom of England, then that of the Kingdom of Great Britain and he was also the personal representative in Ireland of the monarch. By the nineteenth century, the Lord Lieutenant was declining in importance by comparison with his chief aide, by the late nineteenth century the Lord Lieutenant was sometimes, but not always, a member of the British cabinet, but the Chief Secretary invariably was a member. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 gave the Lord Lieutenant a new role, however, the Irish War of Independence and subsequent Civil War meant that Southern Irelands institutions never came into operation and Northern Irelands institutions were not established until 1921. All of these posts were abolished in 1922, Dublin Castle in the life of the Irish nation. Dublin Castle, at the heart of Irish History, the Greening of Dublin Castle, the transformation of bureaucratic and judicial personnel in Ireland, 1892-1922. Smyth, Constantine J. Chronicle of the law officers of Ireland, the last days of Dublin Castle, the Mark Sturgis diaries
33.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
35.
Edward Daly (Irish revolutionary)
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Edward Ned Daly was commandant of Dublins 1st battalion during the Easter Rising of 1916. He was the youngest man to hold that rank, and the youngest executed in the aftermath, born at 26 Frederick Street, Limerick, Daly was the only son among the ten children born to Edward and Catherine Daly. He was the brother of Kathleen Clarke, wife of Tom Clarke. His father, Edward, was a Fenian who died five months before his sons birth at the age of forty-one and his uncle was John Daly, a prominent republican who had taken part in the Fenian Rising. It was through John Daly that Clarke had met his future wife and he was educated by the Presentation Sisters at Sexton Street, the Congregation of Christian Brothers at Roxboro Road and at Leamy’s commercial college. He spent a time as an apprentice baker in Glasgow. He later moved to Dublin where he took up a position with a wholesale chemists. He lived in Fairview with Kathleen and Tom Clarke, although Dalys membership of the IRB is certain, it is not known when he joined the organisation. In November 1913 Daly joined the newly founded Irish Volunteers and he soon reached the rank of captain. He was assiduous in his study of military manuals and the professionalism of his company gained the admiration of senior officers in such as the Howth gun-running of 1914. In March 1915, he was promoted to the rank of commandant of the 1st Battalion, Dalys battalion, stationed in the Four Courts and areas to the west and north of the centre of Dublin, saw the most harsh fighting of the rising. He was forced to surrender his battalion on 29 April by Patrick Pearse and he was executed by firing squad on 4 May 1916, at the age of 25. The men in his battalion spoke of him as a good leader and this opinion was also shared by a British officer that Dalys battalion had captured. Bray railway station was renamed Bray Daly railway station in his honour in 1966, litton, Helen, Edward Daly, Dublin, OBrien Press,2013 Edward Daly at Find a Grave
36.
Willie Pearse
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William Willie Pearse was an Irish republican executed for his part in the Easter Rising. He was a brother of Patrick Pearse, a leader of the rising. Willie Pearse was born in Dublin and throughout his life lived in the shadow of his brother to whom he was devoted, Willie inherited his fathers artistic abilities and became a sculptor. He was educated at the Christian Brothers School, Westland Row and he studied at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin under Oliver Sheppard. He also studied art in Paris, while attending the Kensington School of Art in London he gained notice for several of his artworks. Some of his sculptures are to be found in Limerick Cathedral and he was trained to take over his fathers stonemason business, but gave it up to help Patrick run St. Endas School which he founded in 1908. He was involved in the arts and theatre at St. Endas, Willie followed his brother into the Irish Volunteers and the Republican movement. He took part in the Easter Rising in 1916, always staying by his brothers side at the General Post Office, following the surrender he was court-martialled and sentenced to be killed. It has been said that as he was only a player in the struggle it was his surname that condemned him. However, at his court martial he rather trumpeted his involvement, exaggerating it even, on 3 May, William was granted permission to visit his brother in Kilmainham Gaol, to see him for the final time. However, while Willie was en route, Patrick was executed first, Willie was executed on 4 May. Him and his brother were the two brothers to be executed after the Easter Rising. There are many more public commemorations of Patrick Pearse than of Willie, in 1966, Dublins Westland Row railway station was renamed Pearse Station to honour Willie and his brother. Pearse Square and Pearse Street, in Dublin, were renamed in honour of both, Pearse Street having been their birthplace, many streets and roads in Ireland bear the name Pearse, few name Willie, but there is a Pearse Brothers Park in Rathfarnham. The bridge over the Dodder river on the Rathfarnham Road, between Terenure and Rathfarnham is named after them and carries a plaque depicting the brothers in profile, Brothers Pearse Athletic Club, founded in Rathfarnham, is named after the two brothers
37.
Michael O'Hanrahan
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Michael OHanrahan was an Irish rebel who was executed for his active role in the 1916 Easter Rising. He was born as Michael Hanrahan in New Ross, County Wexford, Ireland, the son of Richard Hanrahan, a cork cutter and his father appears to have been involved in the 1867 Fenian rising. The family moved to Carlow, where Michael was educated at Carlow Christian Brothers’ School, on leaving school he worked various jobs including a period alongside his father in the cork-cutting business. In 1898 he joined the Gaelic League and in 1899 founded the Leagues first Carlow branch, by 1903 he was in Dublin, where he was working as a proof-reader for the Gaelic League printer Cló Cumann. He published journalism under the by-lines Art and Irish Reader in several nationalist newspapers, including Sinn Féin and he was the author of two novels A Swordsman of the Brigade and When the Norman Came. In 1903 he became involved in Maud Gonne and Arthur Griffiths campaign against the visit of King Edward VII to Ireland, the encounter with Griffith led O’Hanrahan to join the newly formed Sinn Féin. He also became a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, in November 1913 he joined the Irish Volunteers. OHanrahan was later employed as an administrator on the Volunteers headquarters staff and he was made quartermaster general of the 2nd Battalion. He and the commandant of the 2nd Battalion Thomas MacDonagh became close friends and he was second in command of Dublins 2nd battalion under Commandant Thomas MacDonagh. When in May the situation became desperate OHanrahan told his c/o MacDonagh they were inviting destruction of the factory by incendiary shells, MacDonagh ordered a breakout amidst the chaos and confusion. OHanrahan led with some difficulty the garrison out of the factory through New Bride Street gate, OHanrahan was executed by firing squad on 4 May 1916 at Kilmainham Jail. His brother, Henry OHanrahan, was sentenced to servitude for life for his role in the Easter Rising. Wexford railway station is named in commemoration of OHanrahan, as is the bridge over the River Barrow at New Ross. OHanrahans GAA Club Carlow was founded in 1919 and is still, consistently, a Swordsman of the Brigade When the Norman Came. Barton, Brian, From Behind a Closed Door, secret Court Martial Records of the Easter Rising. Martin, F. X, THe Easter Rising,1916, townshend, Charles, Easter 1916, The Irish rebellion
38.
John MacBride
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Major John MacBride was an Irish republican executed by the British for his participation in the 1916 Easter Rising. John MacBride was born at The Quay, Westport, County Mayo, Ireland, to Patrick MacBride, a shopkeeper and trader, and the former Honoria Gill, a plaque marks the building on the Westport Quays where he was born. He was educated at the Christian Brothers School, Westport, and at St. Malachys College and he worked for a period in a drapery shop in Castlerea, County Roscommon. He had studied medicine, but gave it up and began working with a firm in Dublin. He joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood and was associated with Michael Cusack in the days of the Gaelic Athletic Association. He also joined the Celtic Literary Society through which he came to know Arthur Griffith who was to remain a friend, beginning in 1893, MacBride was termed a dangerous nationalist by the British government. In 1896 he went to the United States on behalf of the IRB, on his return he emigrated to South Africa. He took part in the Second Boer War, where he raised the Irish Transvaal Brigade, what became known as MacBrides Brigade was first commanded by an Irish American, Colonel John Blake, an ex-US Cavalry Officer. MacBride recommended Blake as Commander since MacBride himself had no military experience, the Brigade was given official recognition by the Boer Government with the commissions of the Brigades officers signed by State Secretary F. W. Reitz. MacBride was commissioned with the rank of Major in the Boer army, the 500 Irish and Irish-Americans fought the British. Often these Irish commandos were fighting opposite such Irish regiments as the Royal Dublin Fusiliers, however, a larger number of Irish fought for the British against the Boers. A Second Irish Brigade was organised by Arthur Lynch, the arrival in the Irish camp of an Irish-American Ambulance Corps bolstered MacBrides Brigade. Michael Davitt who had resigned as an M. P, visited MacBrides Brigade, when Col. Blake was injured at Ladysmith MacBride had to take sole command of the Brigade. Though Blake later returned for a period he later left the Brigade to join another commando. In Ireland, pro-Boer feeling, informed by Arthur Griffith and Maud Gonne formed the most popular and most fervent of the European pro-Boer movements. When MacBride became a citizen of the Transvaal, the British considered that, as an Irishman and citizen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, after the war he travelled to Paris where Maud Gonne lived. In 1903, he married her to the disapproval of W. B, Yeats, who considered her his muse and had previously proposed to her. The following year their son Sean MacBride was born, Yeats wrote to Lady Gregory in January 1905, the month MacBride and Maud separated, that he had been told MacBride had molested Iseult, his stepdaughter, who at that time was almost 11 years old
