1.
Los Lagos Region
–
Los Lagos Region is one of Chiles 15 regions, which are first order administrative divisions, and comprises four provinces, Chiloé, Llanquihue, Osorno and Palena. The region contains the second largest island, Chiloé. Its capital is Puerto Montt, other important cities include Osorno, Castro, Ancud, the mainland portion of Los Lagos Region south of Reloncaví Sound is considered part of Patagonia. Los Lagos Region economy is dominated by the sector but based in fishing, salmon aquaculture, forestry. Tourism is economically important in Andes where ski resorts, hot springs, the region hosts Monte Verde, one of the oldest archaeological sites of the Americas. The largest indigenous group of the region are the Huilliche who lived in the area before the arrival of the Spanish, the Spanish crown settled Chiloé Archipelago in 1567 while the rest of the region begun to be slowly colonized by non-indigenous people only in late 18th century. In the 1850s Germans arrived to colonize the shores of Llanquihue Lake under a Chilean state-sponsored program, the region is bordered on the north by Los Ríos Region, on the south by Aisén Region, on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by Argentina. Wild environments can be seen along the area, such as Caleta Zorra. The region, in general, has a vegetation of Valdivian temperate rain forest. The coastal part, except for the south of the Chiloé Island, has a climate with cold winter rain. To the south, the climate is characterized by constant rain, protected areas include 7 national parks,2 private-owned parks and 2 natural monuments. National Parks El Tepual Airport lies a few miles west of Puerto Montt, also east of Osorno, the Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass is a major mountain pass across the Andes to Argentina via Route 215
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
4.
Regions of Chile
–
Chile is divided into 15 regions, which are the countrys first-level administrative division. Each region is headed by an intendant, appointed by the President, regions are divided into provinces, each headed by a governor, appointed by the President. There are 54 provinces, in total, Provinces are further divided into communes, which are governed by municipalities. Each region is given a Roman numeral, followed by a name, when the regional structure was created, Roman numerals were assigned in ascending order from north to south, with the northernmost region designated as I and the southernmost region as XII. With the creation of regions XIV in the south and XV in the north in 2007, the administrative divisions of Chile were created in 1974 and limited to 13 regions. Previously, Chile was divided into 25 provinces, which were divided into departments. The new territorial organization was implemented in phases with some initial pilot regions beginning to operate in 1974, the Santiago Metropolitan Region began to operate in April 1980. Both regions became operative in October 2007, communes of Chile ISO 3166-2, CL Provinces of Chile
5.
Provinces of Chile
–
A province is the second largest administrative division in Chile with 54 in total. The largest administrative division in Chile is that of a region with 15 in total, each provincial government is headed by a governor appointed by the president. The governor exercises their powers in accordance with instructions from the regional intendant, the governor is advised by the Provincial Economic and Social Council. The only exception is the Santiago Province, which makes no provision for provincial government in its regulations, the countrys provinces are further divided into 346 communes which are administered by an alcalde and municipal council. Communes of Chile Regions of Chile Decreto Ley 2.868 Provinces of Chile
6.
Llanquihue Province
–
Llanquihue Province is one of four provinces of the Chilean region of Los Lagos. Chiles second largest lake, Lake Llanquihue, is located in the province as well as four volcanoes, Osorno, Calbuco, Puntiagudo, european settlement of Llanquihue began in 1852 when Germans were encouraged to immigrate to southern Chile. A century later in 1945 a new wave of Jewish refugees came from Germany, the region is well known for the beauty of its natural environment as well as for the food and seafood from the ports of Puerto Montt and Calbuco. As a province, Llanquihue is an administrative division of Chile. Puerto Montt is the provincial capital, the provincial governor is Francisco Le-Bretón as appointed by the President of Chile. According to the 2002 census by the National Statistics Institute, the province spans an area of 14,876.4 km2 and had a population of 321,493 inhabitants, of these,232,962 lived in urban areas and 88,531 in rural areas. Between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, the population grew by 22. 4%, frutillar Puerto Montt Puerto Varas Llanquihue Fresia Calbuco
7.
Manuel Montt
–
Manuel Francisco Antonio Julián Montt Torres was a Chilean statesman and scholar. He was twice elected President of Chile between 1851 and 1861, Montt was born in Petorca, Valparaíso Region, the son of Catalan immigrants. His family was poor, and in 1822, the death of his father increased their hardship. The same year, Manuels mother secured his entrance into the Instituto Nacional, after studying law at the Instituto Nacional, he graduated as a lawyer in 1833 and soon achieved prominent academic and government posts. Montt had a career as a scholar, and was introduced into public life during the presidency of José Joaquín Prieto by Diego Portales. Montt distinguished himself by his courage in the crisis that followed upon Portales assassination in 1837, in 1840, Montt was elected to the National Congress of Chile. He served as minister of the interior and minister of justice under President Manuel Bulnes and he emphasized the need for educational and scientific advancement in the Chile, and was Minister of public instruction for a time. He was also twice Minister of Interior and Foreign Affairs during the Bulnes administration, in 1851 Montt won the presidency, but the liberals thought his election was fraudulent and instigated an armed revolt, the Revolution of 1851, which was quickly subdued. Montt represented the conservative oligarchy and was authoritarian and inflexible in his beliefs and his administration made advances in commerce and banking, codified Chilean laws, strongly promoted public education and immigration, and colonized the area south of the Bío-Bío River. Manuel Montt was the first civilian president and furthered the reforms begun by Diego Portales, with Vicente Perez Rosales, the Minister of Immigration, he encouraged the settlement of German immigrants in the south of the country. The city of Puerto Montt, at the centre of the settled lands, was named after him. He governed Chile with an energy and wisdom that laid the foundation of her material prosperity. He was ably assisted by his minister of the interior Antonio Varas and his presidency was marked by the establishment of railways, telegraphs, banks, schools and training-colleges. Near the end of his term, when Montt indicated a preference for Antonio Varas, his minister of the interior, to be his successor. Montt again subdued the revolt but pacified the liberals by shifting his support to José Joaquín Pérez, on giving up the presidency in 1861, Montt became President of the Supreme Court, a position which he held up to his death in September 1880. His nephew Jorge was president of Chile in 1891–1896, as well as his son, Pedro, Montt family Antonio Varas P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biografico de Chile, 1550-1887 J. B, suarez, Rasgos biograficos de hombres notables de Chile Short biography Genealogical chart of Montt family
8.
Municipality
–
It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
9.
Socialist Party of Chile
–
The Socialist Party of Chile is a political party within the center-left Nueva Mayoría. Its historic leader was the late President of Chile Salvador Allende Gossens, twenty-seven years later, the President of Chile Ricardo Lagos Escobar represented the Socialist Party in the 1999 presidential elections. He won 48. 0% in the first round of voting and was elected with 51. 3% in the second round, after the 2005 elections, the Party increased its seats to 15 and 8, respectively. In the 2009 elections, it retained 11 Congressional and 5 Senate seats, Socialist Michelle Bachelet Jeria won the 2005 Presidential election. She was the first female president of Chile and was succeeded by Sebastián Piñera in 2010, in the 2013 Presidential election, she was elected again and took the office in 2014. After the Chilean coup of 1973 it was proscribed and the party split into groups which would not reunite until after the return to civilian rule in 1990. Socialist thought in Chile goes back to the century, when Francisco Bilbao and Santiago Arcos opened a debate on civil rights. The idea of founding a party to unite the different movements identified with socialism took shape in the foundation of the Socialist Party of Chile. The Partys Statement of Principles was, -The Socialist Party embodies Marxism, enriched by scientific, -During the process of total transformation of the system of government, a representative revolutionary government of the manual and intellectual labourers class is necessary. The new socialist state only can be born of the initiative, -The socialist doctrine is of an international character and requires the support of all the workers of the world. The Party quickly obtained popular support, in 1934 the Socialists, along with the Radical-Socialist Party and the Democratic Party constituted the Leftist Bloc. In the parliamentary elections of March 1941 the PS advanced outside of the Popular Front and obtained 17, the PS integrated into the new leftist coalition following Cerdas death, now named Democratic Alliance, which supported the candidacy of the Radical Juan Antonio Ríos, who was triumphantly elected. The Socialists participated in his cabinet, alongside Radicals, members of the Democratic Party and of the Liberal Party, in the IX Congress of the PS of the year 1943 Salvador Allende displaced Marmaduque Grove as Secretary General and withdrew his party from the government of Ríos. Grove did not accept this situation, and was expelled from the PS and these conflicts caused the PS to drop violently to only 7% of the votes in the parliamentary elections of March 1945, diminishing significantly its parliamentary strength. There was complete confusion in the Socialist Party for the election of 1946. The PS decided to put up its own candidate, its secretary general Bernardo Ibáñez, however, many militants supported the radical candidate Gabriel González Videla, while the Authentic Socialist Party of Grove stopped supporting the liberal Fernando Alessandri. After the failure of the candidacy of Ibáñez, the purges continued, the promulgation, in 1948, of the Law 8.987 Defense of Democracy Law that banned the communists, was again a factor of division among the socialists. Allende abandoned the party and united the Socialist Party of Chile, the triumph of Ibáñez permitted the popular socialists to have important departments such as that of Work and Estate
10.
Rural area
–
In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
11.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
12.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
13.
Oceanic climate
–
Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
14.
Santiago
–
Santiago de Chile, or simply Santiago, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chiles largest and the most densely populated conurbation, the city is entirely located in the countrys central valley, at an elevation of 520 m above mean sea level. Founded in 1541, Santiago has been the city of Chile since colonial times. The city has a core of 19th century neoclassical architecture and winding side-streets, dotted by art deco, neo-gothic. Santiagos cityscape is shaped by several hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River. The Andes Mountains can be seen from most points in the city and these mountains contribute to a considerable smog problem, particularly during winter. The city outskirts are surrounded by vineyards and Santiago is within a few hours of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean, Santiago is the cultural, political and financial center of Chile and is home to the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations. The Chilean executive and judiciary are located in Santiago, but Congress meets mostly in nearby Valparaíso, Santiago is named after the biblical figure St. James. In Chile, there are entities which bear the name of Santiago that are often confused. The Commune of Santiago, sometimes referred to as downtown or Central Santiago, is a division that comprises roughly the area occupied by the city during its colonial period. The city and regions demonym is santiaguinos and santiaguinas, according to certain archaeological investigations, it is believed that the first human groups of the X millennium settled in the Santiago basin. The groups were mainly nomadic hunter-gatherers, who traveled from the coast to the interior in search of guanacos during the time of the Andean snowmelt. The villages established in the belonging to picunches groups or promaucaes, were subject to the Inca Empire throughout the late fifteenth century. The Incas settled in the valley of mitimaes, the main installation settled in the center of the present city, with strengths as Huaca de Chena, the area would have served as a basis for the failed Inca expeditions southward road junction as the Inca Trail. Having been sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru and having made the journey from Cuzco. The hosts of Valdivia camped by the river in the slopes of the Tupahue hill, the natives accepted and even recommended the foundation of the town on a small island between two branches of the river next to a small hill called Huelén. On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo in honor of St. James, patron saint of Spain, near the Huelén, renamed by the conqueror as St. Lucia. Following colonial rule, Valdivia entrusted the layout of the new town to master builder Pedro de Gamboa, in the center of the city, Gamboa designed a Plaza Mayor, around which various plots for the Cathedral and the governors house were selected
15.
Puerto Varas
–
Puerto Varas, also known as La ciudad de las rosas or “the city of roses”, is a city and commune located in the southern Chilean province of Llanquihue, in the Los Lagos Region. The city is famous for its German traditions, its natural environment and it enjoys a scenic location close to mountains, lakes, forests and national parks. It is located 20 kilometres from the city of Puerto Montt on the shore of Llanquihue Lake, the conical Osorno Volcano and the snowcapped peaks of Mt. Calbuco and Mt. Tronador are clearly visible from the lakefront. Puerto Varas is the southernmost of a string of towns on the shore of Llanquihue Lake that includes Frutillar, Llanquihue. It spans an area of 4,064.9 km2, the city of Puerto Varas dates back to 1853 and is named after Antonio Varas, the Minister of the Interior at the time. It was founded by German immigrants who settled the shores of Lake Llanquihue as part of a government colonization project during the presidency of Manuel Montt, the first area to be settled was known as La Fabrica, where the road from Puerto Montt and the coast reached Llanquihue Lake. Other landmarks in its history include the opening of a Catholic church in 1872. The town received official status in the form of a Título de Villa in 1897, the commune of Puerto Varas, as it exists today, was formed in December 1925, when the Ministry of the Interior divided the country into provinces, and communes. According to population projections from Chile’s National Statistics Institute, in 2012 the commune of Puerto Varas had 41,255 inhabitants, the population had increased by 25% since the 2002 census. Puerto Varas is characterized by traditional German architecture, with houses built from wood using tools brought over from Europe by the 19th century colonial inhabitants. It was designated a Zona Típica in 1992 and has a number of protected buildings, built in 1918 on one of the highest points in Puerto Varas, the wooden church is one of the city’s iconic landmarks. Other notable protected structures include Casa Kuschel and Casa Yunge, cultural institutions in Puerto Varas include the Antonio Felmer Museum, the Molino Machmar Art Centre, the Nativo Bosque Gallery and the Pablo Fierro Museum. Nearby Frutillar hosts the annual Frutillar Musical Weeks in January and February, Puerto Varas is known for traditional German dishes, especially Kuchen, which is celebrated on the annual Kuchen Day on the first Saturday of February. Craft beers, pastries, cakes, chocolate and marmalades can also be found in the shops, restaurants. Visitors can take part in a range of sports including kayaking, fishing and trekking. Trips are also possible to other towns around Llanquihue Lake including Frutillar, Puerto Octay, Puerto Varas is the starting point for bus-and-boat crossings of the Andes, through spectacular forested mountains reflected in shimmering lakes, to San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina. The trip is best made west to east with an overnight at a hotel in the midst of the wilderness, more than 1,100,000 passengers a year use the airport. As a commune, Puerto Varas is an administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years
16.
Calbuco
–
Calbuco is a city and commune in southern Chile administered by the Municipality of Calbuco. Administratively Calbuco belongs to the Llanquihue Province of Los Lagos Region, the origin of the city was the Spanish Fort Calbuco founded in 1603, and became later an important fish market. The archaeological site of Monte Verde lies within the commune, Calbuco Island is part of the commune and contains the city of Calbuco. There are thirteen islands in the commune, Huar, Puluqui, Chidhuapi, Tabón, Mayelhue, Lín, Quenu, Quihua, Huapi Abtao, Chaullín, Caicué o lagartija, Tautil. The settlement of Calbuco grew out of the fort Fuerte San Miguel de Calbuco which was founded in 1603 by Francisco Hernández Ortiz-Pizarro, Calbuco was the capital of Calbuco Department, Chiloé between 1834 and 1855, and of Carelmapu Department between 1855 and 1928. It was capital of Calbuco Department, Llanquihue between 1937 and 1975, according to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Calbuco spans an area of 590.8 km2 and has 31,070 inhabitants. Of these,12,165 lived in areas and 18,905 in rural areas. The population grew by 15% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, besides the town of Calbuco, Calbuco Comuna is also home to the settlements of, Pargua, Puluqui Island, San Rafael and Texas. The town of San Rafeal is across the estuary from the town of Calbuco, Texas was a refugee camp built after the 1960 earthquake on the outskirts of San Rafael, it has become semi-permanent. Pargua is the port and gateway to the Chiloé Archipelago. Pargua was considered rural until the 2002 census, and the 800+ people on Puluqui Island are still denominated as rural although clustered around the bay where the barge docks. Calbuca Comuna is divided into twenty districts, Calbuco is the most populous with the highest population density, while Río Tambor is the largest at 141.1 square kilometres and has the lowest density. Alfaro, Quenu, Puluqui, Challahue, Machildad, Chucahua, Quetrolauquén, Aguantao, Huayún and Río Tambor are more sparcly population being further away from the towns of Calbuco and San Rafael. As a commune, Calbuco is an administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council. The commune is represented in the Senate by Camilo Escalona Medina and Carlos Kuschel Silva as part of the 17th senatorial constituency
17.
Los Muermos
–
Los Muermos is a city and commune in Llanquihue Province, Los Lagos Region in southern Chile. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Los Muermos spans an area of 1,245.8 km2 and has 16,964 inhabitants, of these,5,707 lived in urban areas and 11,257 in rural areas. The population fell by 0. 5% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, the climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year round. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Los Muermos has a marine west coast climate, as a commune, Los Muermos is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Emilio González Burgos, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Los Muermos is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Fidel Espinoza and Carlos Recondo as part of the 56th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Camilo Escalona Medina and Carlos Kuschel Silva as part of the 17th senatorial constituency
18.
Chilean Central Valley
–
The Central Valley, Intermediate Depression, or Longitudinal Valley is the depression between the Chilean Coastal Range and the Andes Mountains. The central valley should not be confused with Central Chile that encompasses part of the valley, at its broadest definition, the geological one, the Central Valley has a discontinuous extension from Pampa del Tamarugal at 20° S to Ofqui Isthmus at 46° S. The viticultural Central Valley extends from Santiago southwards to the Bío-Bío Region, sometimes Puerto Montt is considered the southern end of the Central Valley because south of there the valley is below sea level and emerges sporadically as islands down to the Ofqui Isthmus. An aerial Google view of the Chilean Central Valley, argentina lies to the east of the Andes range Chilean National Tourism Service Chilean Meteorological Service
19.
Llanquihue Lake
–
Lake Llanquihue is the second largest lake in Chile with an area of about 860 square kilometres. It is situated in the southern Los Lagos Region in the Llanquihue, the lakes fan-like form was created by successive piedmont glaciers during the Quaternary glaciations. The last glacial period is called Llanquihue glaciation in Chile after the terminal moraine systems around the lake, Lake Llanquihue is located in southern Chile a territory of northern Patagonia in the Los Lagos Region. The lakes views of Volcán Osorno make the cities such as Puerto Varas tourism hotspots. Media related to Lake Llanquihue at Wikimedia Commons Geographic data related to Llanquihue Lake at OpenStreetMap
20.
Nahuel Huapi Lake
–
Nahuel Huapi Lake is a lake in the lake region of northern Patagonia between the provinces of Río Negro and Neuquén, in Argentina. The lake depression consists of glacial valleys carved out along faults. Nahuel Huapi lake, located within the Nahuel Huapi National Park, has a surface of 529 km2, rests 2,510 feet over the sea level, and has a maximum measured depth of 1,437 feet. The June 2011 eruption of the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle volcanic complex, in neighboring Chile, during the Last Glacial Maximum of the Llanquihue glaciation the lake basin was wholly occupied by a glacier. The name of the lake derives from the toponym of its island in Mapudungun, Island of the Jaguar, from nahuel, puma. There is, however, more to the word Nahuel - it can signify a man who by sorcery has been transformed to a puma. Its seven branches are named Blest, Huemul, de la Tristeza, Campanario, Machete, del Rincón and it is connected to other smaller lakes such as Gutiérrez, Moreno, Espejo and Correntoso. The deep-blue waters hold a number of islands, most notably Isla Victoria with 31 km². A curious fact about the lake is that, despite being nowhere near any ocean and being at high altitude, it is home for kelp gull. The lake’s crystal clear waters are susceptible to climate changes and have an average surface temperature of 45 °F. Hypothermia is one of the risks bathers must undertake, kayaking is a popular sport on this and adjacent lakes. The lake is also the point of the Limay River. This lake harbors several introduced, non-native species of trout, including trout, brown trout. At the beginning of the 20th century, and following an old aboriginal legend, the creature is known locally as Nahuelito. Reported sightings of it predate Nessie and The Lost World, local aborigines called another creature el Cuero for its smooth skin. The neighboring lake Lago Lácar, has also been the site for accounts of another creature, more consistent with a plesiosaur, with aborigines describing it as a sea-cow with teeth all around it. Members of the Buenos Aires Zoo visited the lake in 1922 trying to corroborate the reports of sightings of the prehistoric animal, Huemul Project, the Argentine secret research project on nuclear fusion on the Huemul Island. Limay River, a river of the region that is born in the lake
21.
Zona Austral
–
The Zona Austral is one of the five natural regions into which CORFO divided continental Chile in 1950 corresponding to the Chilean portion of Patagonia. It is surrounded by the Zona Sur and the Chacao Channel to the north, the Pacific Ocean and Drakes Passage to the south and west, if excluding Chiloé Archipelago Zona Austral covers all of Chilean Patagonia. In the far south, which extends from Valdivia through the Chacao Channel to Cape Horn, the Andes and this district of the country is mountainous, heavily forested and inhospitable. The heavy and continuous throughout this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large number of rivers. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of snow in the Andes, forming glaciers at a low level which in places discharge into the inlets. The perpetual snow-line here descends to 1,000 to 1,200 m above sea-level, an important transverse mountain range of the Andes separates the valleys of the rivers Simpson and Ibañez. This section is dominated by the active Hudson volcano and the jagged Cerro Castillo, southward from General Carrera lake is found a wide oblique opening in the range, through which flows the river Baker. The main chain of the Andes in the west is a rugged mass of ice and snow of an average height of 2700 m. Monte San Valentin is the point of the Andes in the region extending from 49° to 46° S latitude Monte San Lorenzo. The section from 48° to 52° S latitude is a continuous ice-capped mountain range, and some of the glaciers extend from the lakes to the western channels. The highest mountain in the section is Lautaro volcano, but the most famous compose the Cordillera del Paine in the south and the Fitz Roy group in the north. The southernmost part of zone is formed by two small parallel ranges called Cordillera Sarmiento and Cordillera Riesco, which are separated by the Fjord of the Mountains. Up to Strait of Magellan, the slope of the Cordillera does not, properly speaking. The extent of the glaciers is considerable in this region, which, farther south the Andes terminates in Cape Horn. In this section the mountains are composed principally of crystalline rocks, the rest of the land consists of literally thousands of islands forming numerous archipelagos interwoven with sometimes-narrow channels, which provide the main routes of navigation. The grouping of such shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain. Three groups of these, called Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos archipelagoes, the largest island of this portion of Austral Chile is Chiloé, which is inhabited. Some of the islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes
22.
Aquaculture in Chile
–
Aquaculture is a major economic activity in Chile. Among the diverse aquacultures practised in Chile Atlantic salmon aquaculture is overwhelmingly the largest sector, until 2007 Chile experienced over 15 years a huge growth in its salmon aquaculture, becoming the second largest salmon and trout producer after Norway. By 2006 Chile contributed with 38% of the worlds salmon volume just behind Norway that produced 39% of it, in 2006 salmon from Chilean aquacultures was the third largest export product in terms of value, representing 3. 9% of Chilean exports behind copper and molybdenum. In terms of algae Gracillaria chilensis is cultivated and harvested, the industry has suffered a severe recession since the sudden appearance and outbreak of infectious salmon anemia in 2007 coupled with the Late-2000s financial crisis. This has led the crisis to have labeled the perfect storm by a Chilean salmon executive. Atlantic salmon production in Chile has fallen from 400,000 to 100,000 tonnes from 2005 to 2010, as of 2009 a salmon executive expected production to go back to the 2007 levels within four years. Media related to Aquaculture in Chile at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Unemployment
–
During periods of recession, an economy usually experiences a relatively high unemployment rate. According to International Labour Organization report, more than 200 million people globally or 6% of the workforce were without a job in 2012. There remains considerable debate regarding the causes, consequences and solutions for unemployment. Classical economics, new classical economics, and the Austrian School of economics argue that market mechanisms are reliable means of resolving unemployment, Keynesian economics emphasizes the cyclical nature of unemployment and recommends government interventions in the economy that it claims will reduce unemployment during recessions. This theory focuses on recurrent shocks that suddenly reduce aggregate demand for goods and services, Keynesian models recommend government interventions designed to increase demand for workers, these can include financial stimuli, publicly funded job creation, and expansionist monetary policies. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization, Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. Behavioral economists highlight individual biases in decision making, and often involve problems and solutions concerning sticky wages, for centuries, experts have predicted that machines would make workers obsolete and increase unemployment. The state of being without any work both for an educated & uneducated person, for earning ones livelihood is meant by unemployment, some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. Though there have been several definitions of voluntary and involuntary unemployment in the economics literature, voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individuals decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of frictional unemployment is voluntary, on the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. So, in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw and this happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment which can boomerang back and exacerbate these macroeconomic forces. Classical, or real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. On the other hand, some argue that as wages fall below a livable wage many choose to drop out of the labor market. This is especially true in countries where low-income families are supported through public welfare systems, in such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in above stated scenario, in addition it must be noted that consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased need for labor. Higher wages leads to workers having more available to consume goods. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result need for labor increases, many economists have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky
24.
Bernhard Eunom Philippi
–
Berhard Eunom Philippi was a German naturalist, explorer and colonization agent for Chile. His father was John Wilhelm Eberhard Philippi and his mother Mary Anne Krumwiede, in 1818 the family moved to Switzerland, where Rodolph and his brother Bernhard entered the school of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Their brother Federico Philippi studied natural sciences and languages, Bernhard Philippi continued his education at the Technical College of Berlin between 1822 and 1830. He did nautical studies on a fellowship at the port of Danzig from 1831 to 1835, Philippi traveled to South America, where he settled in Chile in 1838, in Ancud. From there he explored the south of the country, establishing relations with civil authorities, he encouraged the idea of German colonization in Chile. On August 27 of 1848 the Chile government appointed him as colonization agent, in 1851 his brother, the paleontologist and zoologist Rodolfo Armando Philippi, settled in Santiago after an invitation from him. By 1852 Bernhard Philippi was appointed as governor of Magallanes Region, benjamín Muñoz Gamero German-Chilean Carlos Anwandter Vicente Pérez Rosales Memoria chilena
25.
President of Chile
–
The President of the Republic of Chile is the head of state and the head of government of the Republic of Chile. The President is responsible for government and state administration. It is also considered as one of the institutions that make up the Historic Constitution of Chile, under the current Constitution, the President is elected to serve for a period of four years, with immediate re-election being prohibited. The shorter period allows for parliamentary and presidential elections to be synchronized, the official seat of the President of Chile is the La Moneda Palace in the capital Santiago. The Constitution of 1980 and its amendments, establishes the requirements for becoming President. Originally the President must be a citizen of the country. The President must also be at least 35 years old, in addition, all the requirements for becoming a Senator apply. The president must meet all the requirements to qualify as a fully Chilean citizen with the right to vote and those are who have reached the age of eighteen years and who have never been sentenced to afflicting punishment. The loss of the right to vote is the main disqualification for the applicant, in the 2005 constitutional reform, some of these requirements were changed, The President now must have the Chilean nationality. The President must also be at least 35 years old, article 26 detail the electoral requirements. The President shall be elected by ballot, with an absolute majority of the votes validly cast. In order to win the election in the first round, the candidates party must receive more than 50 percent of the valid votes leaving out of the count blank. The election shall be held the third Sunday of November of the year immediately before the end of the administration of the President then holding office. Should there be more than two candidates in the election, none of them obtaining more than half of the votes validly cast. The second election, in the manner determined by law, shall be held the fourth Sunday after the first election, then, the candidate with the majority of valid votes in that round is elected president. Under the 1828 constitution, the President served for four years, in 1833, the presidential period was changed to five years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term, limited to two consecutive terms. Then by a reform in 1878, possibility for reelection became disallowed. Under the 1925 constitution, the President served for a six-year term, in the original text of the 1980 constitution, the President served for an eight-year term without the possibility of immediate reelection
26.
Chamber of Deputies of Chile
–
The Honourable Chamber of Deputies of the Republic of Chile is the lower house of Chiles bicameral Congress. Its organisation and its powers and duties are defined in articles 42 to 59 of Chiles current constitution and it comprises 120 members called honorable deputies, who are elected to four-year terms, by direct universal suffrage, from 60 two-member electoral districts. Chiles congressional elections are governed by a binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can run two candidates for electoral districts two Chamber seats. Typically, the two largest coalitions in a district divide the seats, one each, among themselves, only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than two-to-one does the winning coalition gain both seats. The Chamber of Deputies meets in Chiles National Congress located in the city of Valparaíso, some 120 km west of the capital. The Congress building in Valparaíso replaced the old National Congress, located in downtown Santiago, ^ Elected as Nueva Mayoría independent. ^ Elected as RN, but quit the party in January 2014, List of Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile National Congress of Chile Senate of Chile List of legislatures by country Official website
27.
Carabineros de Chile
–
Carabiniers of Chile are the Chilean national police force, who have jurisdiction over the entire national territory of Chile. Created in 1927, their mission is to order and create public respect for the laws of the country. They report to the Ministerio de Defensa Nacional through the Undersecretary of Carabiniers, Chile also has an investigative police force, the Investigations Police of Chile, also under the Interior and Public Security Ministry, a Maritime Police also exists for patrol of Chiles coastline. The origins of the Carabiniers can be traced back to night watchmen such as the Dragones de la Reina and other organizations that fulfilled functions such as the watch, later, cities such as Santiago and Valparaíso created their own city police forces. In 1881 the Rural Police was created for the areas of the country. However, the problem with these police services was that they were dependent on local authorities for day-to-day decision making. This led to local officials abusing this power for their own political ends, in 1896 the Policía Fiscal was created to serve the cities. The Carabinier Regiment was then a Chilean Army unit, thus the reason why the Carabiniers of today sport military ranks, in 1908 the Carabiniers School was created, which until 1935 trained all officers and non-commissioned sworn personnel. The organization still carries the name given to it by Ibáñez, in 1929 its official coat of arms - two white crossed carbines in a green shield - was formally adopted. The service in 1930 became one of the mobile police forces in Latin America. By 1933 the Investigations Police of Chile was created in the basis of the investigations service, the roots of todays NCO School began in 1934 when in Santiagos Macul Commune, the services mounted command began training NCOs and enlisted personnel independently. In 1939 the service received its own college, the Police Sciences Academy. The Air Operations Prefecture, the air arm of the service, was raised in 1960,1962 would see it become the first among the Chilean uniformed services to include women into its ranks. The next year, the Children and Fatherland Foundation was formed as its social responsibility arm for troubled kids and preteens. In 1974, formal command of the service was handed over to the Chilean Ministry of National Defense, until 2011, this was the case for the service, from that year onward it is a part of the Ministry of the Interior and Public Security. The Basic Training Center, which trains future personnel of the ranks, was created in 1979. Under the current Chilean constitution the Carabiniers are integrated directly into the Armed Forces in a state of emergency to better guarantee the public order and they also have a special armed police unit called the Special Police Operations Group. They travel in heavily armored trucks from which they can spray pressured water to control mobs, the Carabineros have recently replaced their Ruger P90 with the 9mm SIG P220
28.
Valdivia
–
Valdivia is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. Since October 2007, Valdivia has been the capital of Los Ríos Region and is also the capital of Valdivia Province, the national census of 2002 census recorded the commune of Valdivia as having 140,559 inhabitants, of whom 127,750 were living in the city. The main economic activities of Valdivia include tourism, wood pulp manufacturing, forestry, metallurgy, the city is also the home of the Austral University of Chile, founded in 1954, and the Centro de Estudios Científicos. The city of Valdivia and the Chiloé Archipelago were once the two southernmost outliers of the Spanish Empire, in the second half of 19th century, Valdivia was the port of entry for German immigrants who were given land and settled in the surrounding areas. In 1960 Valdivia was severely damaged by the Great Chilean earthquake, debris and destroyed buildings from the earthquake can still be found in the suburban areas. In addition, land subsidence and sediments have resulted in complex navigation challenges on the rivers and in some areas. This challenges the Clovis First model of migration to the New World, researchers speculate that the first inhabitants of Valdivia and Chile travelled to America by watercraft and not across a land-bridge in the Bering Strait. By the time of the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, Valdivia was inhabited by the Huilliche, the Huilliche and Mapuche were both referred to by the Spaniards as Araucanos. Their main language was a variant of Mapudungun, the Mapuche language, a large village called Ainil stood where present-day downtown Valdivia has been developed. The Huilliche called the river, Ainilebu, Ainil seemed to have been an important trade centre, it was a port on the sea and had access to the interior via the network of the Cruces and Calle-Calle rivers, both tributaries of the Valdivia. Ainil may be described as a kind of little Venice, as it had large areas of wetlands, since that period, most of these waterways and wetlands have been drained or filled. The market in Ainil received shellfish and fish from the coast, legumes from Punucapa, and other foods from San José de la Mariquina, a remnant of this ancient trade is the modern Feria Fluvial on the banks of Valdivia River. The surroundings of Valdivia were described as extensive plains having a population that cultivated potatoes, maize, quinoa and legumes. The population has been estimated by historians as 30 to 40 thousand inhabitants as of 1548. Pedro Mariño de Lobera, a conquistador and chronicler, wrote that there were half a million Indians living within ten leagues from the city. Other historians consider these numbers too high and argue that early Spaniards usually exaggerated in their descriptions, later the British naturalist Charles Darwin observed that there is not much cleared land near Valdivia. This suggests that agriculture in Valdivia was far more extensive than the agriculture practiced in the early 19th century at the time of his visit. The first European to visit Valdivia Rivers estuary was the Genoese captain Juan Bautista Pastene and he named the river after the Governor of Chile Pedro de Valdivia
29.
Pongo en tus manos abiertas
–
Pongo en tus manos abiertas is an album recorded by Víctor Jara with the musicians from Quilapayún in June,1969. It was the album released by the DICAP record label. There is a song in tribute to Che Guevara and a song about the revolutionary Colombian priest and one of the first martyrs of the Liberation theology movement, Camilo Torres. This albums also contains a written by Jara commenting on a massacre that occurred in the city of Puerto Montt in Chile in 1969. In it, Jara condemns the then Christian Democrat Minister of the Interior Edmundo Pérez Zujovic for the death of 11 men, women, tear gas grenades, dogs and machine gun fire were used to terrorize and evict the impoverished peasant squatters. Many of the peasants suffered shot wounds, many were killed, I PUT IN YOUR OPEN HANDS… Laughter and blows, Hope and protest. A shout emerges crossing the expanse of our territory. And all this is present in the youth that struggles and in the song of protest and we also place in the open hands of all the Chilean youth These songs that speak to us about our convictions, our hopes of ourselves. “Plegaria a un Labrador”3,0214, “Cueca de Joaquín Murieta” –1,3615. “Plegaria a un Labrador”3,3218, ISBN 0-224-01880-9 Pongo en tus manos abiertas - Album Text Víctor Jara Foundation site Brief article about the Puerto Montt massacre by José Miguel Jiménez
30.
Eduardo Frei Montalva
–
Eduardo Nicanor Frei Montalva was a Chilean political leader. In his long career, he was Minister of Public Works, president of his Christian Democratic Party, senator, President of the Senate. His eldest son, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, also president of Chile. He was later an opponent of the Augusto Pinochet regime. Eduardo Frei Montalva was born in Santiago on January 16,1911, the son of Eduard Frei Schlinz, a Swiss-born ethnic German from Austria, in 1914, his family moved to Lontué, where his father had been hired as an accountant at a winery. In addition, his two siblings, Arturo and Irene, were born. He attended the Escuela Pública de Lontué, in 1919 the family returned to Santiago and Eduardo, as a young man, entered the boarding School Seminario Conciliar de Santiago where he remained until 1922. In 1923, he entered Instituto de Humanidades Luis Campino, where he graduated in 1928, as an 18-year-old, he entered Universidad Católica School of Law in 1929. For two years, he had been visiting María, the sister of his friend, Alfredo Ruiz-Tagle and he attended high school and went on to study law, graduating as a lawyer in 1933. He married María Ruiz-Tagle with whom he had 7 children and his eldest son, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, was President of Chile from 1994 to 2000. He began his career in the Conservative Party, but was among a group of young men who founded their own party in 1938. He was minister of Public Works in 1945, and in 1949, Frei was elected senator for Atacama, the same year he published “Historia de los Partidos Políticos Chilenos” in collaboration with Albert Edwards Vives. In 1950, he traveled to New York as a UN delegate, in 1952, at 41 years of age, Frei Montalva announced his first candidacy in the presidential elections. The 1952 election was won by Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, later, President Ibañez requested Frei to organize an executive committee. However, this never came to be, in 1954, the UN appointed him President of the Commission in charge of elaborating the report of the Conference of Chancellors held in Rio de Janeiro. Some of its members were, Carlos Lleras Restrepo, former President of Colombia, the report served as a basis for subsequent studies on economic development and the integration of Latin America. In 1956 he was elected Senator in Santiago by first majority, on July 27,1957, the Falange Nacional became the Christian Democratic Party of Chile, and he became the undisputed leader. Frei Montalva was offered once more the candidacy for president of the Republic in the 1958 elections, jorge Alessandri Rodríguez was elected president while Eduardo Frei Montalva took only third place
31.
Chilean presidential election, 1970
–
Presidential elections were held in Chile on 4 September 1970. The election was held using the majority system, under which a candidate had to receive over 50% of the popular vote to be elected. If no candidate received over 50% of the vote, both houses of the National Congress would come together to vote on the two candidates received the most votes. Both the Central Intelligence Agency and the KGB spent significant amounts of money to influence the outcome of the election. The CIA did not provide assistance to any candidate, as they had during the 1964 elections. The money was used in a campaign of posters and pamphlets linking an Allende victory with the violence. Editorials and news stories reinforcing this message were also written with CIA guidance, especially in the newspaper El Mercurio, the goal was to contribute to and exploit the political polarization and financial panic of the period. Besides propaganda, the CIA also funded an attempt to splinter the Radical Party away from the Popular Unity coalition and this CIA campaign was very inefficient. CIA director Richard Helms complained that he was ordered by the White House to beat somebody with nothing, KGB money was more precisely targeted. Allende made a personal request for Soviet money through his contact, KGB officer Svyatoslav Kuznetsov. The original allocation of money for these elections through the KGB was $400,000, and it is believed that help from KGB was a decisive factor, because Allende won by a narrow margin of 39,000 votes of a total of the 3 million cast. After the elections, the KGB director Yuri Andropov obtained permission for additional money, in his request on 24 October, he stated that KGB will carry out measures designed to promote the consolidation of Allendes victory and his election to the post of President of the country. US president Richard Nixon was enraged by Allendes victory and the failure of the CIAs covert actions against him, in this case, however, there was an active campaign against Allendes confirmation by Congress, including an intensification of the CIA propaganda campaign to create concerns about Chiles future. During this period the CIA generated over 726 articles, broadcasts, the CIA also encouraged international economic pressure against Chile during this period. The United States also began to lay the groundwork for a coup in this stage. Two days before the confirmation, Army Commander-in-Chief General René Schneider, was resisting a kidnap attempt by a group led by General Roberto Viaux. Hospitalized, he died of his wounds three days later, viauxs kidnapping plan had been supported by the CIA, although it seems that then-US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger had ordered the plans turned off. Schneiders death was viewed negatively by the public, and helped citizens and military support Allende, on 26 October, President Eduardo Frei named General Carlos Prats as commander in chief of the army in replacement of René Schneider
32.
Salvador Allende
–
Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections. Allendes involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and he unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952,1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three-way race and he was elected in a run-off by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority. A centre-right majority including the Christian Democrats, whose support had enabled Allendes election, denounced his rule as unconstitutional, on 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup détat sponsored by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign, later that day, Allende committed suicide with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011. Allende was born on 26 June 1908 in Santiago and he was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allendes family belonged to the Chilean upper middle class and had a tradition of political involvement in progressive. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile, Salvador Allende was of Belgian and Basque descent. Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso, as a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe-maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian-born anarchist. Allende was an athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club. Allende then graduated with a degree in 1933 from the University of Chile. During his time at medical school Allende was influenced by Professor Max Westenhofer, Allende co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile in Valparaíso and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters and he was a Freemason, a member of the Lodge Progreso No.4 in Valparaíso. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia in which he criticized Cesare Lombrosos proposals, in 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda. The Popular Fronts slogan was Bread, a Roof and Work, after its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals. Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his seat for Valparaíso. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile, after the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende was one of 76 members of the Congress who sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews
