1.
Water supply network
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A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes to water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes, Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels, tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns, a pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers and other usage points. Connections to the sewers are found downstream of the water consumers. Raw water is collected from a water source or from a groundwater source within the watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards. Water purification usually occurs close to the delivery points to reduce pumping costs. Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps, clarification, filtration and disinfection, clarification refers to the separation of particles from the water stream. Chemical addition destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, while other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the supply through the supply network. The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the quality standards required for human consumption. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network, one network may have several such service reservoirs. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a vessel or even by an underground cistern. This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure and these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise
2.
Hengsteysee
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The Hengsteysee is a reservoir on the Ruhr river between the cities of Hagen, Dortmund and Herdecke, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It was built in 1929 and is one of five reservoirs on the Ruhr, the reservoir is about 4.2 km long and has an average width of 296 meters. It begins near the point where the Lenne flows into the Ruhr, the Klusenberg, a hill that is part of the Ardey range, is located just north of the Hengsteysee. There is also a plant on this reservoir, named Koepchenwerk after Arthur Koepchen
3.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
4.
Gas
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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds. The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. B. van Helmont, according to Paracelsuss terminology, chaos meant something like ultra-rarefied water. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law. Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior
5.
Slurry
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A slurry is a thin sloppy mud or cement or, in extended use, any fluid mixture of a pulverized solid with a liquid, often used as a convenient way of handling solids in bulk. Slurries behave in ways like thick fluids, flowing under gravity but are also capable of being pumped if not too thick. It contains large amount of catalyst, in form of sediments hence the denomination of slurry. C, a General Theory of the Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Full Suspension Ravelet, F. Bakir, F. Khelladi, S. Rey, R. Experimental study of transport of large particles in horizontal pipes. Ming, G. Ruixiang, L. Fusheng, N. Liqun, X. Hydraulic Transport of Coarse Gravel—A Laboratory Investigation Into Flow Resistance
6.
Rotation
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A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center of rotation. A three-dimensional object always rotates around a line called a rotation axis. If the axis passes through the center of mass, the body is said to rotate upon itself. A rotation about a point, e. g. the Earth about the Sun, is called a revolution or orbital revolution. The axis is called a pole, mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations of the two, a rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion, the axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lies external of the body in question then the body is said to orbit, there is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and an “orbit” and or spin. The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lies and this distinction can be demonstrated for both “rigid” and “non rigid” bodies. If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a rotation around the same point/axis. The reverse of a rotation is also a rotation, thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations. Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis and that is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations. In flight dynamics, the rotations are known as yaw, pitch. This terminology is used in computer graphics. In astronomy, rotation is an observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes, the rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features and this rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer one is to the equator
7.
Energy
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In physics, energy is the property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on – or to heat – the object, and can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. Mass and energy are closely related, for example, with a sensitive enough scale, one could measure an increase in mass after heating an object. Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fuels, nuclear fuel. The processes of Earths climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun, the total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of energy, electric energy. Many of these overlap, for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic. Some types of energy are a mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is energy which is the sum of kinetic. Whenever physical scientists discover that a phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation. Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, in general we cannot measure how much heat or work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from, the distinctions between different kinds of energy is not always clear-cut. In contrast to the definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two, in 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term energy instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described kinetic energy in 1829 in its modern sense, the law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat and these developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson as the field of thermodynamics
8.
Work (physics)
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In physics, a force is said to do work if, when acting, there is a displacement of the point of application in the direction of the force. For example, when a ball is held above the ground and then dropped, the SI unit of work is the joule. The SI unit of work is the joule, which is defined as the work expended by a force of one newton through a distance of one metre. The dimensionally equivalent newton-metre is sometimes used as the unit for work, but this can be confused with the unit newton-metre. Usage of N⋅m is discouraged by the SI authority, since it can lead to confusion as to whether the quantity expressed in newton metres is a torque measurement, or a measurement of energy. Non-SI units of work include the erg, the foot-pound, the foot-poundal, the hour, the litre-atmosphere. Due to work having the physical dimension as heat, occasionally measurement units typically reserved for heat or energy content, such as therm, BTU. The work done by a constant force of magnitude F on a point that moves a distance s in a line in the direction of the force is the product W = F s. For example, if a force of 10 newtons acts along a point that travels 2 meters and this is approximately the work done lifting a 1 kg weight from ground level to over a persons head against the force of gravity. Notice that the work is doubled either by lifting twice the weight the distance or by lifting the same weight twice the distance. Work is closely related to energy, the work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is caused by an equal amount of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting on that body. Conversely, a decrease in energy is caused by an equal amount of negative work done by the resultant force. From Newtons second law, it can be shown that work on a free, rigid body, is equal to the change in energy of the velocity and rotation of that body. The work of forces generated by a function is known as potential energy. These formulas demonstrate that work is the associated with the action of a force, so work subsequently possesses the physical dimensions. The work/energy principles discussed here are identical to Electric work/energy principles, constraint forces determine the movement of components in a system, constraining the object within a boundary. Constraint forces ensure the velocity in the direction of the constraint is zero and this only applies for a single particle system. For example, in an Atwood machine, the rope does work on each body, there are, however, cases where this is not true
9.
Electricity
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Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge. Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry, electricitys extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society, long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the Thunderer of the Nile, Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Patients suffering from such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. He coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed and this association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Brownes Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a key to the bottom of a dampened kite string. A succession of jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature
10.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
11.
Wind power
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Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power. The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of power sources. Wind farms consist of individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is a source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations. Wind power gives variable power which is consistent from year to year. It is therefore used in conjunction with other power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid. In addition, weather forecasting permits the power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur. As of 2015, Denmark generates 40% of its power from wind. In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW, yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electric power usage,11. 4% in the EU. Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind, for more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock. The first windmill used for the production of power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Andersons College. Blyth offered the surplus power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however. The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres tower, although large by todays standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, with the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power
12.
Filter (aquarium)
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Aquarium filters are critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria. Aquarium filters remove physical and soluble chemical waste products from aquaria, furthermore, aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively small, closed volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish. Animals, typically fish, kept in fish tanks produce waste from excrement, another source of waste is uneaten food or plants and fish which have died. These waste products collect in the tanks and contaminate the water, as the degree of contamination rises, the risk to the health of the aquaria increases and removal of the contamination becomes critical. Filtration is a method used for maintenance of healthy aquaria. Proper management of the cycle is a vital element of a successful aquarium. Excretia and other decomposing organic matter produce ammonia which is toxic to fish. Bacterial processes oxidize this ammonia into the less toxic nitrites. In the natural environment these nitrates are subsequently taken up by plants as fertilizer, an aquarium is, however, an imperfect microcosm of the natural world. Aquariums are usually more densely stocked with fish than the natural environment. This increases the amount of ammonia produced in the small volume of the aquarium. The bacteria responsible for breaking down the ammonia colonize the surface of any objects inside the aquarium, in most cases, a biological filter is nothing more than a chemically inert porous sponge, which provides a greatly enlarged surface area on which these bacteria can develop. These bacterial colonies take several weeks to form, during which time the aquarium is vulnerable to a commonly known as new tank syndrome if stocked with fish too quickly. Some systems incorporate bacteria capable of converting nitrates into nitrogen gas, accumulation of toxic ammonia from decomposing wastes is the largest cause of fish mortality in new, poorly maintained, or overloaded aquariums. In the artificial environment of the aquarium, the nitrogen cycle effectively ends with the production of nitrates, in order that the nitrate level does not build up to a harmful level regular partial water changes are required to remove the nitrates and introduce new, uncontaminated water. The process of mechanical filtration removes particulate material from the water column and this particulate matter may include uneaten food, feces or plant or algal debris. Mechanical filtration is typically achieved by passing water through materials which act as a sieve, removal of solid waste can be as simple as physical hand netting of debris, and/or involve highly complex equipment. All removal of solid wastes involve filtering water through some form of mesh in a known as mechanical filtration
13.
Pond
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A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or artificial, that is usually smaller than a lake. They may arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river system, usually they contain shallow water with marsh and aquatic plants and animals. In the countryside farmers and villagers dig a pond in their backyard or increase the depth of a pond by removing layers of mud during summer season. A wide variety of bodies of water are classified as ponds. Some ponds are created specifically for restoration, including water treatment. Others, like gardens, water features and koi ponds are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural features. Fish ponds are designed for commercial breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Standing bodies of such as puddles, ponds, and lakes are often categorized separately from flowing water courses, such as brooks, creeks. Nutrient levels and water quality in ponds can be controlled through natural process such as growth, or through artificial filtration. The technical distinction between a pond and a lake has not been universally standardized, each of these definitions has met with resistance or disapproval, as the defining characteristics are each difficult to measure or verify. Accordingly, some organizations and researchers have settled on technical definitions of pond, even among organizations and researchers who distinguish lakes from ponds by size alone, there is no universally recognised standard for the maximum size of a pond. The international Ramsar wetland convention sets the limit for pond size as 8 hectares. Other European biologists have set the size limit at 5 ha. In practice, a body of water is called a pond or a lake on a basis, as conventions change from place to place. There are numerous examples in other states of bodies of water less than 10 acres being called lakes, as the case with Crystal Lake shows, marketing purposes may be the driving factor behind some names. Ponds can result from a range of natural processes. Rivers often leave behind ponds in natural flood plains after spring flooding, retreating glaciers can leave behind landscapes filled with small depressions, each developing its own pond, an example is the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. Some ponds are created by animals, beaver ponds are the best known example, but alligators also excavate ponds as well
14.
Water aeration
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Water aeration is the process of increasing the oxygen saturation of the water. This also helps to produce active sludge which can be used as fertilizers, dissolved oxygen is a major contributor to water quality. Not only do fish and other animals need it. When oxygen concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease the ability of the body to support life. Any procedure by which oxygen is added to water can be considered a type of water aeration and this being the only criterion, there are a variety of ways to aerate water. These fall into two broad areas – surface aeration and subsurface aeration, there are a number of techniques and technologies available for both approaches Natural aeration is a type of both sub-surface and surface aeration. It can occur through sub-surface aquatic plants, through the natural process of photosynthesis, water plants release oxygen into the water providing it with the oxygen necessary for fish to live and aerobic bacteria to break down excess nutrients. In large water bodies, autumn turn-over can introduce oxygen rich water into the oxygen poor Hypolimnion, a fountain consists of a motor that powers a rotating impeller. The impeller pumps water from the first few feet of the water and this process utilizes air-water contact to transfer oxygen. As the water is propelled into the air, it breaks into small droplets, collectively, these small droplets have a large surface area through which oxygen can be transferred. Upon return, these droplets mix with the rest of the water, fountains are a popular method of surface aerators because of the aesthetic appearance that they offer. However, most fountains are unable to produce an area of oxygenated water. Also, running electricity through the water to the fountain can be a safety hazard, floating surface aerators work in a similar manner to fountains, but they do not offer the same aesthetic appearance. They extract water from the first 1–2 feet of the water body, instead of propelling water into the air, they disrupt the water at the water surface. Floating surface aerators are also powered by on-shore electricity, surface aerators are limited to a small area as they are unable to add circulation or oxygen to much more than a 3-metre radius. This circulation and oxygenating is then limited to the first portion of the water column, paddlewheel aerators also utilize air-to-water contact to transfer oxygen from the air in the atmosphere to the water body. They are most often used in the aquaculture field, constructed of a hub with attached paddles, these aerators are usually powered by a tractor power take-off, a gas engine, or an electric motor. They tend to be mounted on floats, electricity forces the paddles to turn, churning the water and allowing oxygen transfer through air-water contact
15.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
16.
Water cooling
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Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor, the main mechanism for water cooling is convective heat transfer. Cooling water is the water removing heat from a machine or system, cooling water may be recycled through a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling system. Recirculating systems may be if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of cooling water. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water, the advantages of using water cooling over air cooling include waters higher specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to heat over greater distances with much less volumetric flow. The water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises. Water accelerates corrosion of parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale, an open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling, lowering the temperature of the remaining water. This method was common in internal combustion engines, until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water, but this requires higher rates than deionized or distilled water. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, modern automotive cooling systems are slightly pressurized, often to 15 psi. This raises the boiling-point of the coolant and reduces evaporation, the use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water, antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air conditioning system inside the car by means of the heater core, other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension
17.
Fuel injection
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Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. All diesel engines use fuel injection by design, petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke. On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward, the functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the task of supplying fuel to the combustion process. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better, Fuel injection also dispenses with the need for a separate mechanical choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be adjusted as the engine warms up to normal temperature. Furthermore, on spark ignition engines, fuel injection has the advantage of being able to facilitate stratified combustion which have not been possible with carburetors, Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the power output. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as catalytic converters more effective, herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection, using a jerk pump to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch. Fuel injection was in commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Another early use of direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle, fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke and they are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene. Direct fuel injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB601, the BMW801, German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point fuel injection, due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines utilizing fuel injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei. Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic systems in Alfa Romeo 6C2500 with Ala spessa body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system, all diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the V8 engine configuration, Leon Levavasseur in 1902, the first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925
18.
Energy industry
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The energy industry is the totality of all of the industries involved in the production and sale of energy, including fuel extraction, manufacturing, refining and distribution. Modern society consumes large amounts of fuel, and the industry is a crucial part of the infrastructure. Managing the use of energy is inevitable in any functional society, in society and in the context of humanities, the word energy is used as a synonym of energy resources, and most often refers to substances like fuels, petroleum products and electricity in general. These are sources of energy, in that they can be easily transformed to other kinds of energy sources that can serve a particular useful purpose. This difference vis a vis energy in natural sciences can lead to some confusion, the actual energy content is always conserved, but when it is converted into heat for example, it usually becomes less useful to society, and thus appears to have been used up. Ever since humanity discovered various energy resources available in nature, it has been inventing devices, known as machines, production and consumption of energy resources is very important to the global economy. All economic activity requires energy resources, whether to manufacture goods, provide transportation, run computers, widespread demand for energy may encourage competing energy utilities and the formation of retail energy markets. Note the presence of the Energy Marketing and Customer Service sub-sector, since the cost of energy has become a significant factor in the performance of economy of societies, management of energy resources has become very crucial. Energy management involves utilizing the energy resources more effectively that is with minimum incremental costs. Many times it is possible to save expenditure on energy without incorporating fresh technology by simple management techniques, most often energy management is the practice of using energy more efficiently by eliminating energy wastage or to balance justifiable energy demand with appropriate energy supply. The process couples energy awareness with energy conservation, the United Nations developed the International Standard Industrial Classification, which is a list of economic and social classifications. There is no classification for an energy industry, because the classification system is based on activities, products. Countries in North America use the North American Industry Classification System, the NAICS sectors #21 and #22 might roughly define the energy industry in North America. This classification is used by the U. S. Securities and this is compounded by the fact that the economics of delivering energy tend to be priced for capacity as opposed to average usage. One of the purposes of a grid infrastructure is to smooth out demand so that capacity. Consumption of energy resources, requires resources and has an effect on the environment, many electric power plants burn coal, oil or natural gas in order to generate electricity for energy needs. The large-scale use of energy technologies would greatly mitigate or eliminate a wide range of environmental. Renewable energy technologies include biofuels, solar heating and cooling, hydroelectric power, solar power, Energy conservation and the efficient use of energy would also help
19.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
20.
Cooling tower
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A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Common applications include cooling the water used in oil refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower, although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning. Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the development of condensers for use with the steam engine, condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. This reduces the pressure, which in turn reduces the steam consumption. However the condensers require a supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical. The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of power plants by 2040–2069. While water usage is not an issue with marine engines, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems. In areas with land, the systems took the form of cooling ponds, in areas with limited land, such as in cities. These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, a hyperboloid cooling tower was patented by the Dutch engineers Frederik van Iterson and Gerard Kuypers in 1918. The first hyperboloid cooling towers were built in 1918 near Heerlen, the first ones in the United Kingdom were built in 1924 at Lister Drive power station in Liverpool, England, to cool water used at a coal-fired electrical power station. An HVAC cooling tower is used to dispose of unwanted heat from a chiller, water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher temperature. In areas with a hot climate, large buildings, hospitals. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers, HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled chiller or water-cooled condenser. A ton of air-conditioning is defined as the removal of 12,000 BTU/hour, the equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 BTU/hour due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chillers compressor. This equivalent ton is defined as the rejection in cooling 3 US gallons/minute of water 10 °F. This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio of 14, Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source heat pumps that share a common piping water loop
21.
Medical industry
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It includes the generation and commercialization of goods and services lending themselves to maintaining and re-establishing health. The modern healthcare industry is divided into sectors and depends on interdisciplinary teams of trained professionals and paraprofessionals to meet health needs of individuals. The healthcare industry is one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing industries, consuming over 10 percent of gross domestic product of most developed nations, health care can form an enormous part of a countrys economy. The latter listed industry group includes companies that produce biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, the medical industry is also supported by many professions that do not directly provide health care itself, but are part of the management and support of the health care system. The incomes of managers and administrators, underwriters and medical malpractice attorneys, marketers, investors and shareholders of for-profit services and it is expected that the health share of the GDP will continue its upward trend, reaching 19.6 percent of GDP by 2016. In 2001, for the OECD countries the average was 8.4 percent with the United States, Switzerland, US health care expenditures totaled US$2.2 trillion in 2006. According to Health Affairs, US$7,498 be spent on every woman, man, Costs are projected to increase to $12,782 by 2016. There are many ways of providing healthcare in the modern world, the place of delivery may be in the home, the community, the workplace, or in health facilities. The most common way is face-to-face delivery, where care provider and this is what occurs in general medicine in most countries. However, with modern technology, in absentia health care is becoming more common. This could be when practitioner and patient communicate over the phone, video conferencing, improving access, coverage and quality of health services depends on the ways services are organized and managed, and on the incentives influencing providers and users. In market-based health care systems, for such as that in the United States. In many poorer countries, development aid, as well as funding through charities or volunteers, help support the delivery, the structure of healthcare charges can also vary dramatically among countries. For instance, Chinese hospital charges tend toward 50% for drugs, another major percentage for equipment, china has implemented a long-term transformation of its healthcare industry, beginning in the 1980s. Also over this period, a proportion of state-owned hospitals have been privatized. As an incentive to privatization, foreign investment in hospitals—up to 70% ownership has been encouraged, medical tourism is the rapidly growing practice of traveling across international borders to obtain healthcare. Such services typically include elective procedures as well as complex specialized surgeries such as joint replacement, cardiac surgery, dental surgery, however, virtually every type of health care, including psychiatry, alternative treatments, convalescent care and even burial services are available. Over 50 countries have identified medical tourism as a national industry, however, accreditation and other measures of quality vary widely across the globe, and there are risks and ethical issues that make this method of accessing medical care controversial
22.
Artificial heart
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An artificial heart is a device that replaces the heart. Artificial hearts are used to bridge the time to heart transplantation. An artificial heart is distinct from a ventricular assist device designed to support a failing heart, a synthetic replacement for the heart remains one of the long-sought holy grails of modern medicine. The obvious benefit of an artificial heart would be to lower the need for heart transplants. Although the heart is conceptually a pump, it embodies subtleties that defy straightforward emulation with synthetic materials, consequences of these issues include severe foreign-body rejection and external batteries that limit mobility. These complications limited the lifespan of early human recipients to hours or days, the first artificial heart was made by the Soviet scientist Vladimir Demikhov in 1937. It was transplanted to a dog, on July 3,1952, 41-year-old Henry Opitek, suffering from shortness of breath, made medical history at Harper University Hospital at Wayne State University in Michigan. The Dodrill-GMR heart machine, considered to be the first operational mechanical heart, was used while performing heart surgery. A heart–lung machine was first used in 1953 during an open heart surgery. John Heysham Gibbon, the inventor of the machine, performed the operation, following these advances, scientific interest for the development of a solution for heart disease developed in numerous research groups worldwide. The external pump successfully bypassed the heart of a dog for more than an hour, Paul Winchell invented an artificial heart with the assistance of Henry Heimlich and held the first patent for such a device. The University of Utah developed a similar apparatus around the same time, the university requested that Winchell donate the heart to the University of Utah, which he did. There is some debate as to how much of Winchells design Robert Jarvik used in creating Jarviks artificial heart, Heimlich states, I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchells heart and Jarviks heart is exactly the same, Jarvik denies that any of Winchells design elements were incorporated into the device he fabricated for humans which was successfully implanted into Barney Clark in 1982. On December 12,1957, Willem Johan Kolff, the worlds most prolific inventor of artificial organs, the dog lived for 90 minutes. In 1958, Domingo Liotta initiated the studies of TAH replacement at Lyon, France and he presented his work at the meeting of the American Society for Artificial Internal Organs held in Atlantic City in March 1961. In 1964, the National Institutes of Health started the Artificial Heart Program, the purpose of the program was to develop an implantable artificial heart, including the power source, to replace a failing heart. In February 1966, Adrian Kantrowitz rose to prominence when he performed the worlds first permanent implantation of a partial mechanical heart at Maimonides Medical Center
23.
Penile prosthesis
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A penile prosthesis, or penile implant, is one of the oldest effective treatments for the condition of erectile dysfunction. A penile implant is one treatment option available to individuals who are unable to achieve or maintain an erection adequate for successful sexual intercourse or penetration, for example, many drugs used to treat erectile dysfunction are unsuitable for patients with heart problems and may interfere with other medications. Sometimes a penile prosthesis is implanted during surgery to alter, construct or reconstruct the penis in phalloplasty, in some cases of genital reconstructive surgery, implantation of a semirigid prosthesis is recommended for three months after total phalloplasty to prevent phallic retraction. It can be replaced later with an inflatable one, there are two primary types of penile prosthesis, noninflatable, semirigid devices and inflatable devices. Noninflatable, semirigid devices consist of rods implanted into the chambers of the penis. With this type of implant the penis is always semi-rigid and therefore may be difficult to conceal, hydraulic, inflatable prosthesis also exist and were first described in 1973 by Brantley Scott et al. The device is inflated by squeezing the pump several times to transfer fluid from the reservoir to the chambers in the penis, after successful sexual relations, the pump can be deactivated to return the penis to a flaccid condition. Almost all implanted penile prosthesis devices perform satisfactorily for a decade or more before needing replacement, some surgeons recommend these due to the opinion that they are more easily concealed and provide the highest levels of patient/partner satisfaction. IPP are easily concealable under clothing including swimsuits or jeans, the erection can be maintained as long as necessary, or as long as desired without any of the potentially serious complications of organic priapism. Psychological and emotional well-being is enhanced in a proportion of men who undergo implant surgery, inflation of the device can be accomplished discreetly. The glans does not enlarge and sexual penetration may be awkward, the penis also may not be as firm as a natural erection. The penis may not be completely flaccid, depending upon the model of prosthesis, many men lose between 1–2 cm in length. Following surgery, patients experience one to two weeks of moderate or occasionally severe pain, usually controlled with analgesics and this is most often due to scrotal swelling, which can be quite profound at times. Normal sexual intercourse can be resumed six to eight weeks post-operatively, not all men report complete satisfaction with the prosthesis. Some studies indicate a partner satisfaction rate of 70% or less, due, some studies suggest, many surgeons are now recommending that both partners be counseled pre-operatively regarding outcome and expectations. The inflation of the devices is not instantaneous and it can be difficult to conceal a prosthesis because the scrotal components are hard and irregularly shaped. A partner feeling the scrotum will notice this, there is a 2-10% complication rate, mainly as a result of infection or device failure. Female urination device Packing Medscape https, //web. archive. org/web/20090314071253/http, //cat. inist. fr, 80/. aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=862126
24.
Impeller
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An impeller is a rotor used to increase the pressure and flow of a fluid. The velocity achieved by the impeller transfers into pressure when the movement of the fluid is confined by the pump casing. Impellers are usually short cylinders with an inlet to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the fluid radially. The impeller made out of cast material in many cases may be called rotor, also. It is cheaper to cast the radial impeller right in the support it is fitted on, the rotor usually names both the spindle and the impeller when they are mounted by bolts. In a failing heart, mechanical circulatory devices often utilize a continuous axial-flow impeller pump design, open impeller Semi-open impeller Closed or shrouded impeller The main part of a centrifugal compressor is the impeller. An open impeller has no cover, therefore it can work at higher speeds, a compressor with a covered impeller can have more stages than one that has an open impeller. Some impellers are similar to small propellers but without the large blades, among other uses, they are used in water jets to power high speed boats. Since impellers have no large blades to turn, they can spin at much higher speeds than propellers, the water forced through the impeller is channelled by the housing, creating a water jet that propels the vessel forward. To work efficiently, there must be a fit between the impeller and the housing. The housing is fitted with a replaceable wear ring which tends to wear as sand or other particles are thrown against the housing side by the impeller. Vessels using impellers are normally steered by changing the direction of the water jet, compare to propeller and jet aircraft engines. Impellers in agitated tanks are used to mix fluids or slurry in the tank and this can be used to combine materials in the form of solids, liquids and gas. Mixing the fluids in a tank is important if there are gradients in conditions such as temperature or concentration. Another application of radial flow impellers are the mixing of very viscous fluids, axial flow impellers impose essentially bulk motion, and are used on homogenization processes, in which increased fluid volumetric flow rate is important. Impellers can be further classified principally into three sub-types Propellers Paddles Turbines All these can be discussed immediately after example, if one heats a pot of soup on the stove the pot will develop a temperature gradient. Mild agitation will increase the rate of heating by dissipating the heat through the entire pot, even more significant, agitation disturbs the soup directly in contact with the hotter pot surface. Highly turbulent flow at the surface is important to good heat transfer
25.
Evolutionary biology
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Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a single origin of life. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation, the study of evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided in various ways, one way is by the level of biological organisation, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by taxonomic group, with such as zoology, ornithology. A third way is by approach, such as biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject can be combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology, Evolutionary biology, as an academic discipline in its own right, emerged during the period of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology, in the United States, many universities have created departments of molecular and cell biology or ecology and evolutionary biology, in place of the older departments of botany and zoology. Palaeontology is often grouped with earth science, microbiology too is becoming an evolutionary discipline, now that microbial physiology and genomics are better understood. The quick generation time of bacteria and viruses such as makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions. Many biologists have contributed to our current understanding of evolution, ford established an empirical research programme. Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J. S. Haldane created a theoretical framework. Ernst Mayr in systematics, George Gaylord Simpson in palaeontology and G. Ledyard Stebbins in botany helped to form the modern synthesis, james Crow, Richard Lewontin, Dan Hartl, Marcus Feldman, and Brian Charlesworth trained a generation of evolutionary biologists. Current research in evolutionary biology covers diverse topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas, such as molecular genetics, first, some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the modern evolutionary synthesis. These include speciation, the evolution of reproduction, the evolution of cooperation, the evolution of ageing. Second, biologists ask the most straightforward evolutionary question, what happened and this includes fields such as palaeobiology, as well as systematics and phylogenetics. Third, the evolutionary synthesis was devised at a time when nobody understood the molecular basis of genes. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the architecture of interesting evolutionary phenomena such as adaptation and speciation. They try to reconcile the high heritability seen in studies with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using genome-wide association studies
26.
Biomimetics
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Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems. The terms biomimetics and biomimicry derive from Ancient Greek, βίος, life, a closely related field is bionics. Living organisms have evolved well-adapted structures and materials over time through natural selection. Biomimetics has given rise to new technologies inspired by biological solutions at macro, humans have looked at nature for answers to problems throughout our existence. Nature has solved engineering problems such as self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance, hydrophobicity, self-assembly, one of the early examples of biomimicry was the study of birds to enable human flight. The Wright Brothers, who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air aircraft in 1903, Biomimetics was coined by the American biophysicist and polymath Otto Schmitt during the 1950s. It was during his research that he developed the Schmitt trigger by studying the nerves in squid. He continued to focus on devices that mimic natural systems and by 1957 he had perceived a converse to the view of biophysics at that time. Biophysics is not so much a matter as it is a point of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory, conversely, biophysics is also a biologists approach to problems of physical science and engineering, although this aspect has largely been neglected. A similar term, bionics was coined by Jack E. Steele in 1960 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Steele defined bionics as the science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues. The term bionic then became associated with the use of electronically operated artificial body parts, because the term bionic took on the implication of supernatural strength, the scientific community in English speaking countries largely abandoned it. The term biomimicry appeared as early as 1982, Biomimicry was popularized by scientist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry, Innovation Inspired by Nature. Biomimicry is defined in the book as a new science that studies natures models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs, Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a Model, Measure, and Mentor and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry. Biomorphic mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign. Morpho butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through structural coloration rather than pigmentation, incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties. The scales of these butterflies consist of such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae
27.
Pump
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A pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three groups according to the method they use to move the fluid, direct lift, displacement. Pumps operate by some mechanism, and consume energy to mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes. Single stage pump - When in an only one impeller is revolving then it is called single stage pump. Double/ Multi stage pump - When in a two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is called double/ multi stage pump. In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps have evolved, mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid. Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps, there are two basic types of pumps, positive displacement and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same operating principles as centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump makes a move by trapping a fixed amount. Some positive displacement pumps use a cavity on the suction side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands, the volume is constant through each cycle of operation. Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can produce the flow at a given speed no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines, however, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate. A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the side of the pump. A relief or safety valve on the side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external, the pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is only used as a safety precaution
28.
Centrifugal pump
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Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor, the fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits. Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical pumping, the reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting potential energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational energy. True centrifugal pumps were not developed until the late 17th century, the curved vane was introduced by British inventor John Appold in 1851. Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump converts rotational energy, often from a motor, a portion of the energy goes into kinetic energy of the fluid. The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing through the impeller, the doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing decelerates the flow and further increases the pressure. A consequence of Newton’s second law of mechanics is the conservation of the momentum which is of fundamental significance to all turbomachines. Accordingly, the change of the momentum is equal to the sum of the external moments. Angular momentums ρ×Q×r×cu at inlet and outlet, an external torque M and this is an important role in old academic, this rule was helpful to detail Eq. become Eq. and wide explained how the pump works. Fig 2.3 shows triangle velocity of forward curved vanes impeller and it illustrates rather clearly energy added to the flow inversely change upon flow rate Q. Power is more commonly expressed as kilowatts or horsepower, the value for the pump efficiency, η p u m p, may be stated for the pump itself or as a combined efficiency of the pump and motor system. Vertical centrifugal pumps are also referred to as cantilever pumps and they utilize a unique shaft and bearing support configuration that allows the volute to hang in the sump while the bearings are outside the sump. This style of pump uses no stuffing box to seal the shaft, a common application for this style of pump is in a parts washer. In the mineral industry, or in the extraction of oilsand, froth is generated to separate the rich minerals or bitumen from the sand, froth contains air that tends to block conventional pumps and cause loss of prime. Over history, industry has developed different ways to deal with this problem, in the pulp and paper industry holes are drilled in the impeller. Air escapes to the back of the impeller and a special expeller discharges the air back to the suction tank, the impeller may also feature special small vanes between the primary vanes called split vanes or secondary vanes. Some pumps may feature an eye, an inducer or recirculation of pressurized froth from the pump discharge back to the suction to break the bubbles
29.
Axial-flow pump
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An axial-flow pump, or AFP, is a common type of pump that essentially consists of a propeller in a pipe. Fluid particles, in course of their flow through the pump, do not change their radial locations since the change in radius at the entry, an axial flow pump has a propeller-type of impeller running in a casing. The pressure in an AFP is developed by the flow of liquid over the blades of impeller. The fluid is pushed in a parallel to the shaft of the impeller. It allows the fluid to enter the impeller axially and discharge the fluid nearly axially, the propeller of an AFP is driven by a motor. The fixed diffuser vanes are used to remove the whirl component of the velocity of the impeller. The impeller vanes may be adjustable, the machine may be fitted with pre-entry vanes to eliminate pre-rotation and to make the flow purely axial. Work done on the fluid per unit weight = U g where U = U2 = U1 is the blade velocity. But, U2 will increase with an increase in radius r, since, V f is constant, therefore cot β2 must increase on increasing r. So, the blade is twisted as the radius changes, the performance characteristics of an axial flow pump is shown in the figure. As shown in the figure, the head at the flow rate can be as much as three times the head at the pump’s best efficiency point. Also, the power requirement increases as the flow decreases, with the highest power drawn at the flow rate. This characteristic is opposite to that of a radial flow centrifugal pump where power requirement increases with an increase in the flow. Also the power requirements and pump head increases with an increase in pitch, the main advantage of an AFP is that it has a relatively high discharge at a relative low head. For example, it can pump up to 3 times more water and other fluids at lifts of less than 4 meters as compared to the more common radial-flow or centrifugal pump. It also can be easily be adjusted to run at peak efficiency at low-flow/high-pressure and high-flow/low-pressure by changing the pitch on the propeller, the effect of turning of the fluid is not too severe in an axial pump and the length of the impeller blades is also short. This leads to lower aerodynamic losses and higher stage efficiencies and these pumps have the smallest of the dimensions among many of the conventional pumps and are more suited for low heads and higher discharges. One of the most common applications of AFPs would be in handling sewage from commercial, municipal and industrial sources, in sailboats, AFPs are also used in transfer pumps used for sailing ballast
30.
Lobe pump
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Lobe pumps are used in a variety of industries including pulp and paper, chemical, food, beverage, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology. Rotary pumps can handle solids, slurries, pastes, and a variety of liquids, if wetted, they offer self-priming performance. A gentle pumping action minimizes product degradation and they also offer continuous and intermittent reversible flows and can operate dry for brief periods of time. Flow is relatively independent of changes in pressure, too, so output is relatively constant. Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that flows around the interior of the casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make contact, Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate, liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing—it does not pass between the lobes. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the port under pressure. Lobe pumps are used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging the product. Particle size pumped can be larger in lobe pumps than in other positive displacement types. Since the lobes do not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in other Positive displacement pumps, loading characteristics are not as good as other designs, and suction ability is low. High-viscosity liquids require reduced speeds to achieve satisfactory performance, reductions of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-viscosity liquids. Roots blower PumpSchool. com Lobe Pump entry
31.
Safety valve
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A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe in a thermal-hydraulics plant. Pilot-operated relief valves are a type of pressure safety valve. Safety valves were first developed for use on steam boilers during the Industrial Revolution, early boilers operating without them were prone to explosion. Vacuum safety valves are used to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, when sizing a vacuum safety valve, the calculation method is not defined in any norm, particularly in the hot CIP / cold water scenario, but some manufacturers have developed sizing simulations. The earliest and simplest safety valve was used on a 1679 steam digester and utilized a weight to retain the steam pressure, however, on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the safety valve tended to go off when the engine hit a bump in the track. A valve less sensitive to sudden accelerations used a spring to contain the steam pressure and this dangerous practice was sometimes used to marginally increase the performance of a steam engine. In 1856, John Ramsbottom invented a tamper-proof spring safety valve that became universal on railways, Safety valves also evolved to protect equipment such as pressure vessels and heat exchangers. The term safety valve should be limited to compressible fluid applications, the two general types of protection encountered in industry are thermal protection and flow protection. Flow protection is characterized by safety valves that are larger than those mounted for thermal protection. They are generally sized for use in situations where significant quantities of gas or high volumes of liquid must be discharged in order to protect the integrity of the vessel or pipeline. This protection can alternatively be achieved by installing a high integrity pressure protection system, Relief valve, an automatic system that is actuated by the static pressure in a liquid-filled vessel. It specifically opens proportionally with increasing pressure, Safety valve, an automatic system that relieves the static pressure on a gas. It usually opens completely, accompanied by a popping sound, Safety relief valve, an automatic system that relieves by static pressure on both gas and liquid. Pilot-operated safety relief valve, a system that relieves on remote command from a pilot. Low pressure safety valve, a system that relieves static pressure on a gas. Used when the difference between the pressure and the ambient atmospheric pressure is small. Vacuum pressure safety valve, a system that relieves static pressure on a gas. Used when the difference between the vessel pressure and the ambient pressure is small, negative and near to atmospheric pressure
32.
Rotary vane pump
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A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases these vanes can have variable length and/or be tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates and it was invented by Charles C. Barnes of Sackville, New Brunswick, who patented it on June 16,1874. There have been improvements, including a variable vane pump for gases The simplest vane pump has a circular rotor rotating inside a larger circular cavity. The centers of two circles are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes are allowed to slide into and out of the rotor and seal on all edges, on the intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in volume. These increasing-volume vane chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the inlet pressure, inlet pressure is actually the pressure from the system being pumped, often just the atmosphere. On the discharge side of the pump, the chambers are decreasing in volume. The action of the vane drives out the volume of fluid with each rotation. Multistage rotary-vane vacuum pumps can attain pressures as low as 10−6 mbar, Vane pumps are commonly used as high-pressure hydraulic pumps and in automobiles, including supercharging, power-steering and automatic-transmission pumps. Pumps for mid-range pressures include applications such as carbonators for fountain soft-drink dispensers, furthermore, vane pumps can be used in low-pressure gas applications such as secondary air injection for auto exhaust emission control, or in low-pressure chemical vapor deposition systems. Rotary-vane pumps are also a type of vacuum pump, with two-stage pumps able to reach pressures well below 10−6 bar. In the vane pump, the gas and the oil are mixed within the pump. Therefore, the inlet and the outlet have a chamber, maybe with swirl. Sometimes the inlet has a venetian blind cooled by the air to condense cracked pumping oil and water. When these pumps are used in systems, a significant concern is contamination of the entire system by molecular oil backstreaming. The centerline distance from the rotor to the ring is used to determine the pumps displacement. By allowing the eccentric ring to pivot or translate relative to the rotor and it is even possible for a vane pump to pump in reverse if the eccentric ring moves far enough. However, performance cannot be optimized to pump in both directions and this can make for a very interesting hydraulic-control oil pump
33.
Flexible impeller
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A flexible impeller pump is a positive-displacement pump that, by deforming impeller vanes, draws the liquid into the pump housing and moves it to the discharge port with a constant flow rate. The flexibility of the vanes enables a tight seal to the housing, making the pump self-priming. The output from these pumps tends to be smooth or gentle when compared to the operation of a reciprocating pump, in 1938, Arthur M. Briggs filed a patent for this type of pump. Execution, close coupled, bare shaft, with motor, belt driven, gearmotor, mechanical speed variator. Fittings, DIN11851, Garolla, BSP, Macon, Triclover, SMS, particularly suitable for transfer of viscous, delicate, and slurry fluids even with high solid content. Widely used in the field, food processing, chemical industry, cosmetic. Pump housing can be made of high grade steel, bronze for marine applications. The impeller can be made of, Natural Rubber - Excellent for water based liquid, neoprene - Good balance between chemical and mechanical resistance. Nitrile - Excellent resistance to oils and fats, EPDM - Best for hot fluid, for acid and alkaline fluids. Silicon - Best for very high temperature, the end face mechanical seal can be made of, Ceramic Stainless steel Graphite Tungsten carbide Silicon carbide Elastomers, such as NBR, EPDM, or VITON
34.
Liquid-ring pump
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A liquid-ring pump is a rotating positive-displacement pump. They are typically used as a pump, but can also be used as a gas compressor. They are an inherently low-friction design, with the rotor being the moving part. Sliding friction is limited to the shaft seals, liquid-ring pumps are typically powered by an induction motor. The liquid-ring pump compresses gas by rotating a vaned impeller located eccentrically within a cylindrical casing, liquid is fed into the pump and, by centrifugal acceleration, forms a moving cylindrical ring against the inside of the casing. This liquid ring creates a series of seals in the space between the vanes, which form compression chambers. The eccentricity between the axis of rotation and the casing geometric axis results in a cyclic variation of the volume enclosed by the vanes. Gas, often air, is drawn into the pump through a port in the end of the casing. The gas is trapped in the chambers formed by the impeller vanes. The reduction in volume caused by the impeller rotation compresses the gas, the earliest liquid-ring pumps date from 1903, when a patent was granted in Germany to Siemens-Schuckert. US Patent 1,091,529, for liquid-ring vacuum pumps and they were manufactured by the Nash Engineering Company in Norwalk, CT. Around the same time, in Austria, Patent 69274 was granted to Siemens-Schuckertwerke for a similar liquid-ring vacuum pump, liquid-ring systems can be single- or multistage. Typically a multistage pump will have up to two stages on a common shaft. In vacuum service, the pressure reduction is limited by the vapour pressure of the ring-liquid. As the generated vacuum approaches the vapour pressure of the ring-liquid, the efficiency of the system declines as a result. Dry air and 15 °C sealant-water temperature is the standard performance basis, some ring-liquid is also entrained with the discharge stream. This liquid is separated from the gas stream by other equipment external to the pump, in some systems, the discharged ring-liquid is cooled by a heat exchanger or cooling tower, then returned to the pump casing. In some recirculating systems, contaminants from the gas trapped in the ring-liquid
35.
Piston pump
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A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases, the first piston pump was invented by Ctesibius The two main types of piston pump are the lift pump and the force pump. Both types may be operated either by hand or by an engine, in a lift pump, the upstroke of the piston draws water, through a valve, into the lower part of the cylinder. On the downstroke, water passes through valves set in the piston into the part of the cylinder. On the next upstroke, water is discharged from the part of the cylinder via a spout. In a force pump, the upstroke of the piston draws water, through an inlet valve, on the downstroke, the water is discharged, through an outlet valve, into the outlet pipe. Axial piston pump Radial piston pump Plunger pump Diaphragm pump
36.
Plunger pump
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A plunger pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal is stationary and a smooth cylindrical plunger slides through the seal. This makes them different from piston pumps and allows them to be used at higher pressures and this type of pump is often used to transfer municipal and industrial sewage. The invention of the pump is attributed to Samuel Morland based on a patent of 1675. Piston pumps and plunger pumps are reciprocating pumps that use a plunger or piston to move media through a cylindrical chamber, the plunger or piston is actuated by a steam powered, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric drive. The pressure in the chamber actuates the valves at both the suction and discharge points, plunger pumps are used in applications that could range from 70 to 2,070 bar. Piston pumps are used in lower pressure applications, the volume of the fluid discharged is equal to the area of the plunger or piston, multiplied by its stroke length. The overall capacity of the pumps and plunger pumps can be calculated with the area of the piston or plunger, the stroke length, the number of pistons or plungers. The power needed from the drive is proportional to the pressure, seals are an integral part of piston pumps and plunger pumps to separate the power fluid from the media that is being pumped. A stuffing box or packing is used to seal the joint between the vessel where the media is transferred and the plunger or piston, a stuffing box may be composed of bushings, packing or seal rings, and a gland. Plunger pumps component materials are chosen for wear and contact with the media type, component materials include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, iron, nickel alloy, or other material. For example, plunger pumps that function in general service or oil service applications often have a cylinder and plunger. The plunger, discharge valves, and suction valves come in contact with the media type transferred, piston pump A History of Mechanical Inventions, Abbott Payson Usher, Courier Dover Publications,1988, ISBN 0-486-25593-X,9780486255934
37.
Diaphragm pump
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There are three main types of diaphragm pumps, Those in which the diaphragm is sealed with one side in the fluid to be pumped, and the other in air or hydraulic fluid. The diaphragm is flexed, causing the volume of the chamber to increase and decrease. A pair of non-return check valves prevent reverse flow of the fluid and this method flexes the diaphragm through simple mechanical action, and one side of the diaphragm is open to air. Those employing one or more unsealed diaphragms with the fluid to be pumped on both sides, the diaphragm again are flexed, causing the volume to change. When the volume of a chamber of type of pump is increased, the pressure decreases. When the chamber pressure later increases from decreased volume, the previously drawn in is forced out. Finally, the moving up once again draws fluid into the chamber. This action is similar to that of the cylinder in a combustion engine. Diaphragm Pumps deliver a hermetic seal between the mechanism and the compression chamber, allowing the pump to transfer, compress. An elastomeric diaphragm can be used as a versatile dynamic seal that many of the limitations found with other sealing methods. They do not leak, offer little friction, and can be constructed for low pressure sensitivity, with the right material consideration, diaphragms can seal over a wide range of pressures and temperatures without needing lubrication or maintenance. They can handle sludges and slurries with a high amount of grit. Suitable for discharge pressure up to 1,200 bar have good dry running characteristics, can be used to make artificial hearts. Are used to make air pumps for the filters on small fish tanks, can be up to 97% efficient. Compared to other compressors, these pumps are quiet, cheap and and this allows them to be used without added lubrication in contact with the air, so the compressed air produced can be guaranteed clean
38.
Rope pump
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A rope pump is a kind of pump where a loose hanging rope is lowered down into a well and drawn up through a long pipe with the bottom immersed in water. On the rope, round disks or knots matching the diameter of the pipe are attached which pull the water to the surface and it is commonly used in developing countries for both community supply and self-supply and can be installed on boreholes or hand-dug wells. A rope pump is a type of pump of which the main or most visible component is a piece of rope. Rope pumps are used in developing areas, the most common design of which uses PVC pipe. Rope pumps are cheap to build and easy to maintain, one design of rope pump using a solar-powered rope pump can pump 3,000 litres to 15 meters per day using an 80 watt solar panel. Rope pumps can be powered by low speed engines, electricity, human energy, wind. Chain or washer pumps were used by the Chinese over 1000 years ago and he began at Burkina Faso in Africa, continued to Tunisia, Thailand and Gambia among others. In Nicaragua, the technology was rapidly disseminated over the whole country and it is also used in other parts of Central America with over 25,000 pumps installed to date. In Africa the rope pump is now being used with solar energy, by the end of 2009 more than 4 million people in 20 countries worldwide were using rope pumps for domestic and irrigation water. The original rope pumps used knots along the length but can be made with flexible or rigid valves on the rope instead of knots. Alternatively they may use only rope, simply relying on the water clinging to the rope as it is pulled to the surface. Flexible valves can be made from cut pieces of bicycle wheel tubing, the valves are positioned approximately 20 cm apart on the rope. One disadvantage of flexible valve rope pumps is that they must be sized and thickness for different types, sizes. Rigid valves using plastic or metal washers that fit tightly into the PVC pipe as the rope is dragged through are also used, if the fit is tight, the washers can be spaced up to half a meter apart. The deeper the well, the smaller the pipe inner diameter must be and these rope pumps are often worked with a hand crank Valves can also be made from knots in the rope itself. Valveless pumps rely on friction with water clinging to the rope and it is a less efficient design but is simpler to construct than the other rope pumps. Rope pump technology is in the domain and there are no patents pending on it. Chain pump Wind pump rope pump site Rope pump Lambdon, Robert, how to Make a Rope and Washer Pump
39.
Chain pump
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The chain pump is type of a water pump in which several circular discs are positioned on an endless chain. One part of the chain dips into the water, and the runs through a tube. As the chain is drawn up the tube, water trapped between the discs and is lifted to and discharged at the top. Chain pumps were used for centuries in the ancient Middle East, Europe, China, the earliest evidence for this device is in a Babylonian text from about 700 B. C. They were commonly powered by humans or animals, the device then appeared in ancient Egypt from about 200 B. C. featuring a pair of gear-wheels. A version of the pump was used in Ancient Roman times, sometimes with pots fixed to the chain. Philo of Byzantium wrote of such a device in the 2nd century B. C. the historian Vitruvius mentioned it around 30 B. C, fragments of these buckets were found on the Roman barges of Lake Nemi. Chain pumps were used in European mines during the Renaissance, mineralogist Georg Agricola illustrated them in his De re metallica and they were used in dockyards, and several formed part of the Portsmouth Block Mills complex. Chain pumps were used on naval vessels of the time to pump the bilges. Chain pumps were used in ancient China by at least the 1st century A. D. In China, they were also called dragon backbones, one of the earliest accounts was a description by the Han Dynasty philosopher Wang Chong around A. D.80. Unlike those found in the West, chain pumps in China resembled the square-pallet type instead of the pear-shaped bucket, illustrations of such Chinese chain pumps show them drawing water up a slanted channel. There were also square-pallet chain pumps operated by pedals, from the 1st century onwards, chain pumps were widespread throughout the Chinese countryside. Chinese square-pallet chain pumps were used mostly for irrigation, though they use in public works as well. The infamous Eastern Han court eunuch Zhang Rang once ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of chain pumps outside the capital city Luoyang. These chain pumps serviced the palaces and living quarters of the Luoyang, ma Jun, the renowned mechanical engineer of the Three Kingdoms era, also constructed a series of chain pumps for watering the palatial gardens of Emperor Ming of Wei. During the period of expansion in Song China, the technology of water-rising devices was improved. For some centuries they had used for moving water for drainage or irrigation purposes
40.
Gear pump
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A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications, gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump high viscosity fluids. There are two variations, external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gears. Gear pumps are positive displacement, meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution, some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump. As the gears rotate they separate on the side of the pump, creating a void. The fluid is carried by the gears to the side of the pump. The mechanical clearances are small— in the order of 10 μm, the tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for high pressures. Many variations exist, including, helical and herringbone gear sets, lobe shaped rotors similar to Roots blowers, the most common variations are shown below. An external precision gear pump is usually limited to a working pressure of 210 bars. Some manufacturers produce gear pumps with higher working pressures and speeds but these types of pumps tend to be noisy, suction and pressure ports need to interface where the gears mesh. Some internal gear pumps have an additional, crescent-shaped seal. Pump formulas, Flow rate in US gal/min = Pump Capacity X rpm Power in hp = US gal/min X /1714 Generally used in, Petrochemicals, Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc. Chemicals, Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, pulp and paper, acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc. Food, Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, gerotor Hydraulic pump Vane pump External gear pump description Internal gear pump description
41.
Scroll compressor
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A scroll compressor is a device for compressing air or refrigerant. It is used in air conditioning equipment, as an automobile supercharger, a scroll compressor operating in reverse is known as a scroll expander, and can be used to generate mechanical work from the expansion of a fluid, compressed air or gas. Léon Creux first patented a scroll compressor in 1905 in France, the first practical scroll compressors did not appear on the market until after World War II, when higher-precision machine tools enabled their construction. They were not commercially produced for air conditioning until the early 1980s, a scroll compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to pump, compress or pressurize fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, Archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves, often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls. Another method for producing the motion is co-rotating the scrolls, in synchronous motion. The relative motion is the same as if one were orbiting, another variation is with flexible tubing where the archimedean spiral acts as a peristaltic pump, which operates on much the same principle as a toothpaste tube. They have casings filled with lubricant to prevent abrasion of the exterior of the tube and to aid in the dissipation of heat. This class of pump is often called a hose pumper, since there are no moving parts in contact with the fluid, peristaltic pumps are inexpensive to manufacture. Their lack of valves, seals and glands makes them comparatively inexpensive to maintain, unlike pistons, the orbiting scroll’s mass can be perfectly counterbalanced, with simple masses, to minimize vibration. The scroll’s gas processes are more continuous, additionally, a lack of dead space gives an increased volumetric efficiency. The compression process occurs over approximately 2 to 2½ rotations of the crankshaft, compared to one rotation for rotary compressors, reciprocating compressor have multiple cylinders, while scroll compressors only have one compression element. The presence of multiple cylinders in reciprocating compressors reduces suction and discharge pulsations, therefore, it is difficult to state whether scroll compressors have lower pulsation levels than reciprocating compressors as has often been claimed by some suppliers of scroll compressors. The more steady flow yields lower gas pulsations, lower sound and lower vibration of attached piping, scroll compressors never have a suction valve, but depending on the application may or may not have a discharge valve. The use of a discharge valve is more prominent in high pressure ratio applications. Typically, an air-conditioning scroll does not have a discharge valve. If the compressor is designed to operate near an operating point. The isentropic efficiency of scroll compressors is slightly higher than that of a reciprocating compressor when the compressor is designed to operate near one selected rating point
42.
Reciprocating pump
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A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps which includes the piston pump, plunger pump and diaphragm pump. When well maintained, reciprocating pumps will last for years or even decades, however, left untouched and it is often used where a relatively small quantity of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large. In reciprocating pumps, the chamber in which the liquid is trapped, is a cylinder that contains the piston or plunger. By source of work Simple hand-operated reciprocating pump, the simplest example is the bicycle pump, which is used ubiquitously to inflate bicycle tires and various types of sporting balls. The name bicyle pump is not really the most correct term because it generates more compression than volume displacement, power-operated deep well reciprocating pump By mechanism Single-acting reciprocating pump, Consists of a piston of which only one side engages the fluid being displaced. The simplest example would be a syringe, double-acting reciprocating pump, Both sides of the piston engages the fluid being displaced, with each stroke of the piston carries out both suction and expulsion at the same time. Thus it require two inflow pipes and two outflow pipes for double-acting pump
43.
Hand pump
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Hand pumps are manually operated pumps, they use human power and mechanical advantage to move fluids or air from one place to another. They are widely used in country in the world for a variety of industrial, marine, irrigation. Most hand pumps have plungers or reciprocating pistons, and are positive displacement, one sort of pump once common worldwide was a hand-powered water pump, or pitcher pump. It was commonly installed over community water wells in the days before piped water supplies, in parts of the British Isles, it was often called the parish pump. Though such community pumps are no common, people still used the expression parish pump to describe a place or forum where matters of local interest are discussed. Because water from pitcher pumps is drawn directly from the soil, if such water is not filtered and purified, consumption of it might lead to gastrointestinal or other water-borne diseases. A notorious case is the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, at the time it was not known how cholera was transmitted, but physician John Snow suspected contaminated water and had the handle of the public pump he suspected removed, the outbreak then subsided. Modern hand-operated community pumps are considered the most sustainable low-cost option for safe water supply in resource-poor settings, a hand pump opens access to deeper groundwater that is often not polluted and also improves the safety of a well by protecting the water source from contaminated buckets. Pumps such as the Afridev pump are designed to be cheap to build and install, however, scarcity of spare parts for these type of pumps in some regions of Africa has diminished their utility for these areas. Suction and lift are important considerations when pumping fluids, suction is the vertical distance between the fluid to be pumped and the centre of the pump, while lift is the vertical distance between the pump and the delivery point. The depth from which a hand pump will suck is limited by pressure to an operating depth of less than 7 meters. The height to which a hand pump will lift is governed by the ability of the pump, thus the same pump and operator will be able to achieve a greater lift with a smaller diameter pipe than they could with a larger diameter pipe. Water will always try to find its lowest level, using this principle, very simple pumps with plastic or rubber bulb with flap valve at each end are used for emptying fuel or water cans into tanks. Once the bulb is full, the fluid will flow without further effort from the higher to the lower container, many hand pumps will allow the passage of fluid through them in the direction of flow and diaphragm pumps are particularly good at this. Thus where the levels are large volumes of liquid such as swimming pools can be emptied with very little effort. Direct action hand pumps have a rod that is moved up and down, directly by the user. Direct action handpumps are easy to install and maintain but are limited to the column of water a person can physically lift of up to 15 m. Examples of direct action include the canzee pump and the EMAS pump
44.
Bicycle pump
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A bicycle pump is a type of positive-displacement air pump specifically designed for inflating bicycle tires. It has a connection or adapter for use with one or both of the two most common types of valves used on bicycles, Schrader or Presta, a third type of valve called the Dunlop valve exists, but tubes with these valves can be filled using a Presta pump. Several basic types are available, Floor pumps Frame mounted Compact or mini Foot operated Double action In its most basic form, during the up-stroke, this piston draws air through a one-way valve into the pump from the outside. During the down-stroke, the piston displaces the air from the pump into the bicycle tire. Most floor pumps, also commonly called track pumps, have a built in pressure gauge to indicate tire pressure, electrically-operated pumps intended to inflate car tires can in principle be used to inflate a bicycle tire if the right type of connection is available. Some such pumps are designed to cut off before a suitable pressure, others may not cut off, but deliver a high rate of flow to fill the larger car tire, with a risk of overinflating and bursting a bicycle tire unless it is stopped with split-second timing. The first bicycle pump consisted of a cylinder that had a metal rod running down the middle of it. This would have forced the air out of the cylinder and then sucked in new air when the rod was pulled up again. Many modern pumps use a similar method, while some, such as the electric pumps. When the cylinder is compressed, air is pushed down the tube of the pump and then into the tire via the valve, which is forced open by the pressure of the air. When the handle is pulled up again, the valve shuts off automatically so that the air cannot escape from the tire, some pumps have a gauge that shows the pressure of air that is forced into the tire. Once the tire is at the pressure, the pump valve can be removed from the tire. There are two types of tire valves to which the bicycle tire pump attaches. These are the Presta valve and the Schrader valve, some pumps fit both types of valves, whereas others do not, but adapters are available that enable the pump to fit any type of valve. The AVACS feature is available on pump models and can also be bought as a separate valve attachment. There are three types of bicycle pumps Stand pump Hand pump Foot pump Also known as a floor or track pump. To operate, the user rests the base of the pump on the floor, resting feet at the base, an additional tube must connect the pump to the fill valve, which may create dead volume. There are two types, tubed and integral
45.
Inflatable
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An inflatable is an object that can be inflated with a gas, usually with air, but hydrogen, helium and nitrogen are also used. One of several advantages of an inflatable is that it can be stored in a small space when not inflated, since inflatables depend on the presence of a gas to maintain their size, function fulfillment per mass used compared with non-inflatable strategies is a key advantage. Stadium cushions, impact guards, vehicle wheel inner tubes, emergency air bags, inflation occurs through several strategies, pumps, ram-air, billowing, and suction. Although the term inflatable can refer to any type of inflatable object, a distinction is made between high-pressure and low-pressure inflatables. In a high-pressure inflatable, structural limbs like pillars and arches are built out of a tough, flexible material and these limbs hold up passive membranes. The space where the visitors or inhabitants stay is at atmospheric pressure. For example, airplane emergency rafts are high-pressure inflatable structures, low-pressure inflatables, on the other hand, are slightly pressurized environments completely held up by internal pressure. In other words, the visitors or inhabitants experience a higher than normal pressure. Low-pressure inflatables are usually built of lighter materials, both types of inflatables are somewhat susceptible to high winds. A recent inflatable, built for architectural and design experimentation, is the CICCIO module, a balloon is an inflatable flexible bag filled with a gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or air. Modern balloons can be made from such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric. Some balloons are used for decorative purposes, while others are used for purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense. A balloons properties, including its low density and low cost, have led to a range of applications. The inventor of the balloon, was Michael Faraday in 1824. The growth in popularity of moonwalks has led to an inflatable rental industry which includes slides, obstacle courses, games. Inflatables are ideal for portable amusements because they are easy to transport, the name given to such structures varies. They have been marketed with such names as Bounce house, Moon Bounce, Astrojump, Moonwalk, Jolly Jump, Leaping Lodge, the term Bounce House came to popularity with the resurgence of hipster culture in New England. The term Jolly Jumps is often used to describe the inflatable playground structure in rural areas and some areas in the Western US, although they are often aimed at children, adult castles can be hired in the UK
