1.
Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
2.
Second Balkan War
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Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having engaged in territorial disputes with Romania. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to some lost territories from the previous war. In the Treaty of Constantinople, it lost Edirne to the Ottomans, the political developments and military preparations for the Second Balkan War attracted an estimated 200–300 war correspondents from around the world. During the First Balkan War, the Balkan League succeeded in driving out the Ottoman Empire from its European provinces, leaving the Ottomans with only the Çatalca, however, the relations between the victorious Balkan allies quickly soured over the division of the spoils, especially in Macedonia. In the event, during the war, the Serbs succeeded in capturing an area far south of the agreed border, at the same time, the Greeks advanced north, occupying Thessaloniki shortly before the Bulgarians arrived, and establishing a common Greek border with Serbia. The developments essentially ended the Serbo-Bulgarian alliance and made a war between the two countries inevitable. Soon thereafter, minor clashes broke out along the borders of the zones with the Bulgarians against the Serbs. Responding to the perceived Bulgarian threat, Serbia started negotiations with Greece, with this agreement, Serbia succeeded in making Greece a part of its dispute over northern Macedonia, since Greece had guaranteed Serbias current occupation zone in Macedonia. However, his later dismissal put an end to the targeting of Serbia. Another point of friction arose, Bulgarias refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra to Romania, Romania threatened to occupy Bulgarian territory by force, but a Russian proposal for arbitration prevented hostilities. In the resulting Protocol of St. Petersburg of 8 May 1913, the resulting agreement was a compromise between the Romanian demands for the entire southern Dobruja and the Bulgarian refusal to accept any cession of its territory. However the fact that Russia failed to protect the integrity of Bulgaria made the Bulgarians uncertain of the reliability of the expected Russian arbitration of the dispute with Serbia. The Bulgarian behavior had also an impact on the Russo-Bulgarian relations. Both acts made conflict with Romania and Serbia inevitable, by mid-June Bulgaria became aware of the agreement between Serbia and Greece in case of a Bulgarian attack. On 27 June Montenegro announced that it would side with Serbia in the event of a Serbian-Bulgarian war, on 8 June, he sent an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. That caused Russia to cancel the initiative and to angrily repudiate its 1902 treaty of alliance with Bulgaria. Then Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by one fourth, as a first step to facilitate a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it
3.
Carol I of Romania
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Carol I, born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was the ruler of Romania from 1866 to 1914. He was elected Ruling Prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 after the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup détat, in May 1877, he proclaimed Romania an independent and sovereign nation. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War secured Romanian independence and he was proclaimed King of Romania on 26 March 1881. He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a republic in 1947, during his reign, Carol I personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo/Romanian army during the siege of Plevna. The country achieved internationally recognized independence via the Treaty of Berlin,1878 and he married Princess Elisabeth of Wied in Neuwied on 15 November 1869. They only had one daughter, Maria, who died at the age of three, Carol never produced a male heir, leaving his elder brother Leopold next in line to the throne. In October 1880 Leopold renounced his right of succession in favour of his son William, who in turn surrendered his claim six years later in favour of his younger brother, after finishing his elementary studies, Karl entered the Cadet School in Münster. In 1857 he was attending the courses of the Artillery School in Berlin, up to 1866, when he accepted the crown of Romania, he was a Prussian officer. He took part in the Second Schleswig War, including the assault of the Fredericia citadel and Dybbøl, an experience which would be very useful to him later in the Russo-Turkish war. Although he was frail and not very tall, prince Karl was reported to be the perfect soldier, healthy and disciplined. He was familiar with several European languages and his family was closely related to the Bonaparte family, they enjoyed very good relations with Napoleon III of France. The former Domnitor of united Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, had expelled from the country by the leading noblemen. Cuzas double election, both in Wallachia and in Moldavia) had been the basis on which the Romanian Principalities unification was recognized by the European powers, with him gone, the country was in danger of disintegration. As Romanian politicians searched for a successor, Napoleon suggested Karl, napoleons recommendation weighed heavily with Romanian politicians of the time, since Romania was strongly influenced by French culture. Another factor was Karls blood relation to the ruling Prussian family, ion Brătianu was the Romanian politician who was sent to negotiate with Karl and his family the possibility of installing him on the Romanian throne. Due to the conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Empire, Karl travelled incognito by railroad from Düsseldorf to Baziaș. He received there a Swiss passport from a Swiss public clerk, friend of his family, from Baziaș he travelled by boat to Turnu Severin, as there was no railroad to Romania. As he crossed the border onto Romanian soil, he was met by Brătianu and he was elected Domnitor on 20 April
4.
Peter I of Serbia
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Peter I of Serbia reigned as the last King of Serbia and as the first King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Peter was Karađorđes grandson and third son of Persida Nenadović and Prince Alexander Karađorđević, Peter lived with his family in exile. He fought with the French Foreign Legion in the Franco-Prussian War and he joined as volunteer under the alias Peter Mrkonjić in Herzegovina Uprising against Ottoman Empire. He married Princess Zorka of Montenegro, daughter of King Nicholas I and she gave birth to his five children, including Prince Alexander. After death of his father in 1885, Peter became head of Karađorđević dynasty, after a military coup détat and murder of King Alexander I Obrenović in 1903, Peter became King of Serbia. As a king he advocated for constitutional setup of the country and was famous for his libertarian politics, King Peter was a supreme commander of the Serbian army in Balkan wars. Because of his age on 24 June 1914, he proclaimed his son, Alexander, heir to the throne, in First World War he and his army retreated across Albania. Since he was a king of Serbia during a period of great Serbian military success, Peter was born in Belgrade on 11 July 1844, the fifth of Prince Alexander Karađorđević and his consort Persida Nenadovićs ten children. He was the grandson of Karađorđe, the leader of the First Serbian Uprising, Peter was not born in the Royal Court, which was undergoing renovations at the time, but at the home of merchant Miša Anastasijević. His birth was not met with much celebration because he was his parents third son and his parents oldest son, Aleksa, had died three years prior to Peters birth, aged five, at which point Svetozar became heir. Peter did not become heir until Svetozars death in 1847 at the age of six, besides Belgrade, Peter spent much of his childhood in the town of Topola, from where the Karađorđević dynasty originated. He received his education in Belgrade. In 1858, just as the fourteen-year-old Peter was preparing to depart for Geneva to attend high school, the Karađorđević dynastys rivals, the Obrenović dynasty, were reinstated, and an Obrenović prince, Mihailo, claimed the throne. The two dynasties had been vying for power since 1817, when Karađorđe was assassinated on the orders of Miloš Obrenović, Peter left Geneva for Paris in 1861 and enrolled in the Collège Sainte-Barbe, located in the heart of the citys Latin Quarter. The following year, Peter enrolled in the Saint-Cyr, Frances most prestigious military academy and he graduated from the academy in 1864, and continued living in Paris for some time thereafter. During this period, he pursued such as photography and painting. In 1866, he entered the Higher Military School in Metz, two years later, his Serbian-language translation of John Stuart Mills On Liberty was published. At the outbreak of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, Peter joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym Petar Kara, during his service, Peter held the rank of either lieutenant or second lieutenant, depending on the source, and fought with the 1st Foreign Regiment
5.
Constantine I of Greece
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Constantine I was King of Greece from 1913 to 1917 and from 1920 to 1922. He succeeded to the throne of Greece on 18 March 1913 and his disagreement with Eleftherios Venizelos over whether Greece should enter World War I led to the National Schism. Constantine forced Venizelos to resign twice, but in 1917 he left Greece, after threats of the Entente forces to bombard Athens, his son, Alexander. After Alexanders death, Venizelos defeat in the 1920 legislative elections, and he abdicated the throne for the second and last time in 1922, when Greece lost the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, and was succeeded by his eldest son, George II. Constantine died in four months later, in Sicily. Born on 2 August 1868 in Athens, Constantine was the eldest son of King George I and his birth was met with an immense wave of enthusiasm, the new heir apparent to the throne was the first Greek-born member of the family. As the ceremonial cannon on Lycabettus Hill fired the salute, huge crowds gathered outside the Palace shouting what they thought should rightfully be the newborn princes name. He was inevitably christened Constantine on 12 August, and his style was the Diádochos. An additional nickname adopted mainly by the royalists for Constantine was the son of the eagle, on 30 October 1882 he enrolled in the Hellenic Military Academy. After graduation he was sent to Berlin for further military education, Constantine also studied political science and business in Heidelberg and Leipzig. In 1890 he became a Major General, and assumed command of the 3rd Army Headquarters in Athens, in January 1895, Constantine caused political turmoil when he ordered army and gendarmerie forces to break up a street protest against tax policy. Constantine had previously addressed the crowd and advised them to submit their grievances to the government, Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis asked the King to recommend that his son avoid such interventions in politics without prior consultation with the government. King George responded that the Crown Prince was, in dispersing protesters, merely obeying orders. The incident caused a debate in Parliament, and Trikoupis finally resigned as a result. In the following elections Trikoupis was defeated, and the new Prime Minister, Theodoros Deligiannis, the organization of the first modern Olympics in Athens was another issue which caused a Constantine-Trikoupis confrontation, with Trikoupis opposed to hosting the Games. After Deligiannis electoral victory over Trikoupis in 1895, those who favored a revival of the Olympic Games, including the Crown Prince, coubertin assured that the King and the Crown Prince will confer their patronage on the holding of these Games. Constantine later conferred more than that, he assumed the presidency of the 1896 organizing committee. At the Crown Princes request, wealthy businessman George Averoff agreed to pay one million drachmas to fund the restoration of the Panathinaiko Stadium in white marble
6.
Southern Dobrudja
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Southern Dobruja is an area of north-eastern Bulgaria comprising the administrative districts named for its two principal cities of Dobrich and Silistra. It has an area of 7,565 km² and a population of 358,000, when it was a part of Romania from 1913 to 1940 it was known in Romanian as Dobrogea de sud, the Cadrilater, or Dobrogea Nouă. At the beginning of the era, Southern Dobruja had a mixed population of Bulgarians and Turks with several smaller minorities, including Gagauz, Crimean Tatars. In 1910, of the 282,007 inhabitants of Southern Dobruja,134,355 were Bulgarians,106,568 Turks,12,192 Gypsies,11,718 Tatars, and 6,484 Romanians. In 1914, Romania demanded all landowners prove their property and surrender to the Romanian state one third of the land they claimed or pay an equivalent of its value. This was similar to the reforms in Romania which occurred the previous century, in which the landlords had to give up two-thirds of their land. On 7 September 1940 Southern Dobruja was restored to Bulgaria under the Treaty of Craiova, the treaty was followed by a mandatory population exchange, about 110,000 Romanians were forced to leave Southern Dobruja, whereas 77,000 Bulgarians had to leave northern Dobruja. Only a few hundred Romanians and Aromanians are now left in the region, in 1913–1940, during the Kingdom of Romania, the region covered two counties, Durostor and Caliacra. Nowadays, the territory of Southern Dobruja forms the provinces of Silistra and Dobrich
7.
Ferdinand of Bulgaria
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Ferdinand I, born Ferdinand Maximilian Karl Leopold Maria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was the ruler of Bulgaria from 1887 to 1918, firstly as knyaz and later as tsar. He was also an author, botanist, entomologist and philatelist, Ferdinand was born on 26 February 1861 in Vienna, a prince of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry. He was baptised in St. Stephens Cathedral, Vienna on 27 February, having as godparents Emperor Maximilian of Mexico and he grew up in the cosmopolitan environment of Austro-Hungarian high nobility and also in their ancestral lands in Slovakia and in Germany. The Koháry descended from an immensely wealthy Upper Hungarian noble family, the familys property was augmented by Clémentine of Orléans remarkable dowry. These last two, Leopold and Carlota, were also first cousins of Ferdinand Is through his mother and this made the Belgian siblings his first cousins, as well as his first cousins once removed. Indeed, the family of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha had contrived to occupy, either by marriage or by direct election. Following the family trend, Ferdinand was himself to found the dynasty of Bulgaria. The first Prince of the Third Bulgarian State, Alexander of Battenberg, abdicated in 1886 after a Pro-Russian coup, Ferdinand, who was an officer in the Austro-Hungarian army was elected Prince of autonomous Bulgaria by its Grand National Assembly on 7 July 1887 in the Gregorian calendar. The Russian tsar himself had nominated his aide, Nichols Dadian of Mingrelia, Ferdinands accession was greeted with disbelief in many of the royal houses of Europe. Queen Victoria, his fathers first cousin, stated to her Prime Minister, to the amazement of his initial detractors, Ferdinand generally made a success during the first two decades of his reign. However, this earned him the animosity of his Catholic Austrian relatives, particularly that of his uncle. On 5 October 1908, Ferdinand proclaimed Bulgarias de jure independence from the Ottoman Empire and he also proclaimed Bulgaria a kingdom, and assumed the title of tsar—a deliberate nod to the rulers of the earlier Bulgarian states. The Bulgarian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed by him at the Holy Forty Martyrs Church in Turnovo and it was accepted by Turkey and the other European powers. Ferdinand was known for being quite a character, Ferdinand was affronted by the gesture and the Emperor apologised. Ferdinand however exacted his revenge by awarding a valuable arms contract he had intended to give to the Krupps factory in Essen to French arms manufacturer Schneider-Creusot, another incident occurred on his journey to the funeral of his second cousin, King Edward VII in 1910. A tussle broke out over where his private railway carriage would be positioned in relation to the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the Archduke won out, having his carriage positioned directly behind the engine. Realising the dining car of the train was behind his own carriage, on 15 July the same year during a visit to Belgium Ferdinand also became the first head of state to fly in an airplane. Like many other rulers before him, Ferdinand desired the creation of a new Byzantium, in 1912, Ferdinand joined the other Balkan states in an assault on the Ottoman Empire to free occupied territories
8.
Word play
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Word play or wordplay is a literary technique and a form of wit in which the words that are used become the main subject of the work, primarily for the purpose of intended effect or amusement. Word play is common in oral cultures as a method of reinforcing meaning. Examples of text-based word play are found in languages with or without alphabet-based scripts, for example, linguistic fossils and set phrases are often manipulated for word play, as in Wellerisms, Well have to rehearse that, said the undertaker as the coffin fell out of the car. Another use of fossils is in using antonyms of unpaired words – I was well-coiffed and sheveled, most writers engage in word play to some extent, but certain writers are particularly committed to, or adept at, word play as a major feature of their work. Shakespeares quibbles have made him a noted punster, wodehouse was hailed by The Times as a comic genius recognized in his lifetime as a classic and an old master of farce for his own acclaimed wordplay. James Joyce, author of Ulysses, is another noted word-player, an epitaph, probably unassigned to any grave, demonstrates use in rhyme. Here lie the bones of one Bun He was killed with a gun and his name was not Bun but Wood But Wood would not rhyme with gun But Bun would. Crossword puzzles often employ wordplay to challenge solvers, cryptic crosswords especially are based on elaborate systems of wordplay. Young Thug used a play on words in his verse on Sacrifices by Drake featuring 2 Chainz, Ima use her name, like, Who is he. I said Ima username, like, Who is he, word play can enter common usage as neologisms. Word play is closely related to games, that is. See also language game for a linguists variation, etymology Figure of speech List of forms of word play Metaphor Simile A categorized taxonomy of word play composed of record-holding words
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Humor
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Humour is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the medicine of the ancient Greeks. People of all ages and cultures respond to humour, most people are able to experience humour—be amused, smile or laugh at something funny—and thus are considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of humour would likely find the behaviour inducing it to be inexplicable, strange, for example, young children may favour slapstick such as Punch and Judy puppet shows or the Tom and Jerry cartoons, whose physical nature makes it accessible to them. By contrast, more sophisticated forms of such as satire require an understanding of its social meaning and context. Many theories exist about what humour is and what social function it serves, the benign-violation theory, endorsed by Peter McGraw, attempts to explain humours existence. The theory says humour only occurs when something seems wrong, unsettling, or threatening, Humour can be used as a method to easily engage in social interaction by taking away that awkward, uncomfortable, or uneasy feeling of social interactions. Others believe that the use of humour can facilitate social interactions. Some claim that humour cannot or should not be explained, white once said, Humor can be dissected as a frog can, but the thing dies in the process and the innards are discouraging to any but the pure scientific mind. Counter to this argument, protests against offensive cartoons invite the dissection of humour or its lack by aggrieved individuals and this process of dissecting humour does not necessarily banish a sense of humour but begs attention towards its politics and assumed universality. Arthur Schopenhauer lamented the misuse of humour to mean any type of comedy, however, both humour and comic are often used when theorising about the subject. The connotations of humour as opposed to comic are said to be that of response versus stimulus, additionally, humour was thought to include a combination of ridiculousness and wit in an individual, the paradigmatic case being Shakespeares Sir John Falstaff. The French were slow to adopt the term humour, in French, non-satirical humour can be specifically termed droll humour or recreational drollery. As with any art form, the acceptance of a style or incidence of humour depends on sociological factors. Throughout history, comedy has been used as a form of entertainment all over the world, both a social etiquette and a certain intelligence can be displayed through forms of wit and sarcasm. Eighteenth-century German author Georg Lichtenberg said that the more you know humour, later, in Greek philosophy, Aristotle, in the Poetics, suggested that an ugliness that does not disgust is fundamental to humour. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage, due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation, and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija. They viewed comedy as simply the art of reprehension and made no reference to light and cheerful events or troublesome beginnings, after the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term comedy thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature
10.
Rhetoric
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Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of study and a productive civic practice. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the faculty of observing in any case the available means of persuasion. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention, arrangement, style, memory, along with grammar and logic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a part of Western education. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times, although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful, Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins, however, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic and this method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth, in Gorgias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic, when one considers that rhetoric included torture, it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic was viewed as the basis of rhetoric, however, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric, yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice
11.
Homophone
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A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, and may differ in spelling. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose and rose, or differently, such as carat, caret, homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms. Homophones that are spelled differently are also called heterographs, the term homophone may also apply to units longer or shorter than words, such as phrases, letters or groups of letters that are pronounced the same as another phrase, letter or group of letters. A word or unit with this property is said to be homophonous, homophone derives from the Greek homo-, same, and phōnḗ, voice, utterance. Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader or to suggest multiple meanings, the last usage is common in poetry and creative literature. An example of this is seen in Dylan Thomass radio play Under Milk Wood, some examples from English are, pin and pen in many southern American accents. Merry, marry, and Mary in most American accents, the pairs do, due and forward, foreword are homophonous in most American accents but not in most English accents. Wordplay is particularly common in English because the multiplicity of linguistic influences offers considerable complication in spelling and meaning, malapropisms, which often create a similar comic effect, are usually near-homophones. Homophones of multiple words or phrases are known as oronyms. This term was coined by Gyles Brandreth and first published in his book The Joy of Lex, and it was used in the BBC programme Never Mind the Full Stops, examples of oronyms include, ice cream vs. Notable examples include, Initiate, My wife ate two sandwiches, initiate a bag o tater chips, Mayonnaise, Mayonnaise a lot of people here tonight. Innuendo, Hey dude I saw a bird fly innuendo, Moustache, I Moustache you a question. There are differences in such lists due to dialect pronunciations and usage of old words, in English, there are approximately 88 triples,24 quadruples,2 quintuples,1 sextet and 1 septet. If proper names are allowed then a nonet is Ayr, Aire, Eyre, heir, air, err, ere, eer, are. An extreme example is kikō, which is the pronunciation of at least 22 words, including, 機構, 紀行, 稀覯, 騎行, 貴校 (, 奇功, 貴公, 起稿, 奇行, 機巧, 寄港, 帰校, 気功, 寄稿, 機甲, 帰航, 奇効, 季候, 気孔, 起工, 気候, 帰港. The Korean language contains a combination of words that belong to Korean. For example, 화장하다, to put on makeup and 화장하다, also, 유산, inheritance and 유산, miscarriage. There are heterographs, but far fewer, contrary to the tendency in English, for example, 학문, learning, and 항문, anus
12.
Homograph
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A homograph is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a different meaning. However, some dictionaries insist that the words must also sound differently, if, when spoken, the meanings may be distinguished by different pronunciations, the words are also heteronyms. Words with the writing and pronunciation are considered homonyms. However, in a sense the term homonym may be applied to words with the same writing or pronunciation. Homograph disambiguation is critically important in synthesis, natural language processing. Identically-written different senses of what is judged to be fundamentally the same word are called polysemes, for example, examples, sow – to plant seed sow – female pig The two words are spelt identically but pronounced differently. Here confusion is not possible in spoken language but could occur in written language, bear – to support or carry bear – the animal The words are identical in spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning and grammatical function. Many Chinese varieties have homographs, called 多音字 or 重形字, 破音字, modern study of Old Chinese has found patterns that suggest a system of affixes. Examples of homographs in Middle Chinese are, Many homographs in Old Chinese, homographs which did not exist in Old Chinese or Middle Chinese often come into existence due to differences between literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters. Other homographs may have been created due to merging two different characters into the same glyph during script reform, some examples of homographs in Cantonese from Middle Chinese are, Heterography and homography IDN homograph attack
13.
Sumerian cuneiform
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Cuneiform script, one of the earliest systems of writing, was invented by the Sumerians. It is distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus, the name cuneiform itself simply means wedge shaped. Emerging in Sumer in the fourth millennium BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. In the third millennium, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller, the system consists of a combination of logophonetic, consonantal alphabetic and syllabic signs. Cuneiform writing was replaced by the Phoenician alphabet during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. By the second century CE, the script had become extinct, between half a million and two million cuneiform tablets are estimated to have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000 –100,000 have been read or published. Most of these have lain in these collections for a century without being translated, studied or published, the cuneiform writing system was in use for more than three millennia, through several stages of development, from the 34th century BC down to the second century CE. Ultimately, it was replaced by alphabetic writing in the course of the Roman era. It had to be deciphered as an unknown writing system in 19th-century Assyriology. Successful completion of its deciphering is dated to 1857, the cuneiform script was developed from pictographic proto-writing in the late 4th millennium BC. Mesopotamias proto-literate period spans roughly the 35th to 32nd centuries, the first documents unequivocally written in Sumerian date to the 31st century at Jemdet Nasr. Originally, pictographs were either drawn on clay tablets in vertical columns with a reed stylus or incised in stone. This early style lacked the characteristic shape of the strokes. Proper names continued to be written in purely logographic fashion. The earliest known Sumerian king whose name appears on contemporary cuneiform tablets is Enmebaragesi of Kish, from about 2900 BC, many pictographs began to lose their original function, and a given sign could have various meanings depending on context. The sign inventory was reduced from some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs, determinative signs were re-introduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing proper thus arises from the more primitive system of pictographs at about that time, by adjusting the relative position of the tablet to the stylus, the writer could use a single tool to make a variety of impressions. Cuneiform tablets could be fired in kilns to provide a permanent record, many of the clay tablets found by archaeologists were preserved because they were fired when attacking armies burned the building in which they were kept
14.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters, cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts are derived from hieroglyphic writing, the writing system continued to be used throughout the Late Period, as well as the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, with the closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost, and the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphs would only be solved in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός, a compound of ἱερός and γλύφω, supposedly a calque of an Egyptian phrase mdw·w-nṯr gods words. The glyphs themselves were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ γράμματα the sacred engraved letters, the word hieroglyph has become a noun in English, standing for an individual hieroglyphic character. As used in the sentence, the word hieroglyphic is an adjective. Hieroglyphs emerged from the artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c.4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing, proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called Scorpion I recovered at Abydos in 1998. The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, by the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000. However, given the lack of evidence, no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt. Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, as writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic and demotic scripts. These variants were more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental, the Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule, and after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish true Egyptians from some of the foreign conquerors, another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally
15.
Plautus
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Titus Maccius Plautus, commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety and he wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre devised by the innovator of Latin literature, Livius Andronicus. The word Plautine /ˈplɔːtaɪn/ refers to both Plautuss own works and works similar to or influenced by his, not much is known about Titus Maccius Plautus early life. It is believed that he was born in Sarsina, a town in Emilia Romagna in northern Italy. According to Morris Marples, Plautus worked as a stage-carpenter or scene-shifter in his early years and it is from this work, perhaps, that his love of the theater originated. His acting talent was discovered, and he adopted the names Maccius and Plautus. Tradition holds that he made enough money to go into the nautical business and he is then said to have worked as a manual laborer and to have studied Greek drama—particularly the New Comedy of Menander—in his leisure. His studies allowed him to produce his plays, which were released between c.205 and 184 BC, Plautus attained such a popularity that his name alone became a hallmark of theatrical success. Plautuss comedies are mostly adapted from Greek models for a Roman audience and he reworked the Greek texts to give them a flavour that would appeal to the local Roman audiences. They are the earliest surviving works in Latin literature. Plautuss epitaph read, postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget, scaena est deserta, since Plautus is dead, Comedy mourns, Deserted is the stage, then Laughter, Jest and Wit, And Melodys countless numbers all together wept. Plautus wrote around 130 plays, of which 20 have survived intact, only short fragments, mostly quotations by later writers of antiquity, survive from 31 other plays. Despite this, the tradition of Plautus is poorer than that of any other ancient dramatist. The chief manuscript of Plautus is a palimpsest, in which Plautus plays had been scrubbed out to make way for Augustines Commentary on the Psalms, the monk who performed this was more successful in some places than others. Only the titles and various fragments of plays have survived. The historical context within which Plautus wrote can be seen, to some extent, in his comments on contemporary events, Plautus was a popular comedic playwright while Roman theatre was still in its infancy and still largely undeveloped. At the same time, the Roman Republic was expanding in power, Plautus was sometimes accused of teaching the public indifference and mockery of the gods. Any character in his plays could be compared to a god, whether to honour a character or to mock him, these references were demeaning to the gods
16.
Homophones
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A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, and may differ in spelling. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose and rose, or differently, such as carat, caret, homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms. Homophones that are spelled differently are also called heterographs, the term homophone may also apply to units longer or shorter than words, such as phrases, letters or groups of letters that are pronounced the same as another phrase, letter or group of letters. A word or unit with this property is said to be homophonous, homophone derives from the Greek homo-, same, and phōnḗ, voice, utterance. Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader or to suggest multiple meanings, the last usage is common in poetry and creative literature. An example of this is seen in Dylan Thomass radio play Under Milk Wood, some examples from English are, pin and pen in many southern American accents. Merry, marry, and Mary in most American accents, the pairs do, due and forward, foreword are homophonous in most American accents but not in most English accents. Wordplay is particularly common in English because the multiplicity of linguistic influences offers considerable complication in spelling and meaning, malapropisms, which often create a similar comic effect, are usually near-homophones. Homophones of multiple words or phrases are known as oronyms. This term was coined by Gyles Brandreth and first published in his book The Joy of Lex, and it was used in the BBC programme Never Mind the Full Stops, examples of oronyms include, ice cream vs. Notable examples include, Initiate, My wife ate two sandwiches, initiate a bag o tater chips, Mayonnaise, Mayonnaise a lot of people here tonight. Innuendo, Hey dude I saw a bird fly innuendo, Moustache, I Moustache you a question. There are differences in such lists due to dialect pronunciations and usage of old words, in English, there are approximately 88 triples,24 quadruples,2 quintuples,1 sextet and 1 septet. If proper names are allowed then a nonet is Ayr, Aire, Eyre, heir, air, err, ere, eer, are. An extreme example is kikō, which is the pronunciation of at least 22 words, including, 機構, 紀行, 稀覯, 騎行, 貴校 (, 奇功, 貴公, 起稿, 奇行, 機巧, 寄港, 帰校, 気功, 寄稿, 機甲, 帰航, 奇効, 季候, 気孔, 起工, 気候, 帰港. The Korean language contains a combination of words that belong to Korean. For example, 화장하다, to put on makeup and 화장하다, also, 유산, inheritance and 유산, miscarriage. There are heterographs, but far fewer, contrary to the tendency in English, for example, 학문, learning, and 항문, anus
17.
Synonyms
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
18.
George Carlin
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George Denis Patrick Carlin was an American stand-up comedian, social critic, actor and author. Carlin was noted for his comedy and thoughts on politics, the English language, psychology, religion. He is widely regarded as one of the most important and influential stand-up comedians, in 2004, Carlin was placed second on the Comedy Central list of Top 10 Comedians of US Audiences compiled for an April 2004 special. The first of his 14 stand-up comedy specials for HBO was filmed in 1977, from the late 1980s, Carlins routines focused on sociocultural criticism of American society. He often commented on political issues in the United States. He was a frequent performer and guest host on The Tonight Show during the three-decade Johnny Carson era and his final HBO special, Its Bad for Ya, was filmed less than four months before his death. In 2008, he was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2017, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him second on its list of the 50 best stand-up comics of all time, Carlin was born in the Manhattan borough of New York City. He was the son of The Suns advertising manager Patrick John Carlin, an immigrant from County Donegal in Ireland, and secretary Mary Carlin. While he came from a Catholic family, Carlin rejected religion and his parents separated when he was 2 months old because of his fathers alcoholism. Mary subsequently raised George and his brother, Patrick Jr. on her own. His maternal grandfather, Dennis Bearey, was an Irish immigrant who worked as a New York City policeman, One immigrant grandmothers maiden name once was OGrady, he recalled, but it changed to Grady before she reached America. Theyd dropped the O in the ocean on the way here and he would later name his character OGrady on The George Carlin Show as an act of homage. Carlin said that he picked up an appreciation for the use of the English language from his mother, with whom he had a difficult relationship. He grew up on West 121st Street, in a neighborhood of Manhattan he said he and his friends called White Harlem and he attended Corpus Christi School, a Roman Catholic parish school of the Corpus Christi Church, in Morningside Heights. After three semesters, Carlin was thrown out of Cardinal Hayes High School in the Bronx at age 15 and he briefly attended Bishop Dubois High School in Harlem and the Salesian High School in Goshen, New York. He spent many summers at Camp Notre Dame on Spofford Lake in Spofford and he regularly won the camps drama award, and specified that after his death a portion of his ashes be spread at the lake. Carlin joined the United States Air Force when he was old enough and he was stationed at Barksdale Air Force Base in Bossier City, Louisiana
19.
Prophet
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Claims of prophethood have existed in many cultures through history, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, in Ancient Greece, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and many others. Traditionally, prophets are regarded as having a role in society that promotes change due to their messages and actions which can convey the displeasure of God for the behavior of people. In the late 20th century the appellation of prophet has been used to refer to individuals particularly successful at analysis in the field of economics, alternatively, social commentators who suggest escalating crisis are often called prophets of doom. In Hebrew, the word נָבִיא, spokesperson, traditionally translates as prophet, the second subdivision of the Hebrew Bible, TaNaKh, is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning of navi is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18,18, where God said. and I will put My words in his mouth, thus, the navi was thought to be the mouth of God. The root nun-bet-alef is based on the two-letter root nun-bet which denotes hollowness or openness, to receive transcendental wisdom, cf. Rashbams comment to Genesis 20,7. In addition to writing and speaking messages from God, Israelite or Jewish neviim often acted out prophetic parables in their life. For example, in order to contrast the people’s disobedience with the obedience of the Rechabites, God has Jeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, the Rechabites refuse, wherefore God commends them. Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying a linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judahs pride. Likewise, Jeremiah buys a jar and smashes it in the Valley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash the nation of Judah. God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put the nation under the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. The prophetic assignment is not always portrayed as positive in the Hebrew Bible, likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, Leave the way. Let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel, the life of Moses being threatened by Pharaoh is another example. According to I Samuel 9,9, the old name for navi is roeh, רֹאֶה and that could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. The seer-priests were usually attached to a shrine or temple, such as Shiloh. Canonical prophets were not organised this way, the similar term ben-navi means member of a seer-priest guild. Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh include Abraham, Moses, Miriam, Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel, Malachi, in Jewish tradition Daniel is not counted in the list of prophets. A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Egypt, the Talmud recognizes the existence of 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to mankind
20.
Non-profit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
21.
United States Army Europe
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United States Army Europe is an Army Service Component Command of the United States Army. It is responsible for directing US Army operations throughout the United States European Command Area of Responsibility, during the Cold War, HQ USAREUR supervised ground formations primarily focused upon the Warsaw Pact militaries to the east as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations Central Army Group. Since the Revolutions of 1989, USAREUR has greatly reduced its size, dispatched US forces to Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm, and increased security cooperation with other NATO land forces. Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, United States Army was a United States Army formation which directed U. S. Army operations in parts of Europe from 1942 to 1945. It commanded Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and it was bordered to the south by the North African Theater of Operations, US Army, which later became the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new areas of control. The Seventh Army landed on beaches in southern Sicily and captured the city of Palermo on 22 July. During the fighting, the elements of the Seventh Army killed or captured over 113,000 enemy soldiers, the invasion was originally given the code name of Operation ANVIL but was changed to Operation DRAGOON before the landing. In March 1944, Lt. General Alexander Patch was assigned to command the Army which moved to Naples, Italy, on 15 August 1944, Seventh Army units assaulted the beaches of southern France in the St. Tropez and Saint-Raphaël area. Within one month, the Army employing three American Divisions, five French Divisions, and the First Airborne Task Force had advanced 400 miles and had joined with the Normandy forces. In the process, the Seventh Army had liberated Marseilles, Lyon, Toulon, Seventh Army then assaulted the German forces in the Vosges Mountains, broke into the Alsatian Plain, and reached the Rhine River after capturing the city of Strasbourg. During the Battle of the Bulge, the Seventh Army extended its flanks to take much of the Third Army area which allowed the Third to relieve surrounded U. S. forces at Bastogne. Along with the First French Army, the Seventh went on the offensive in February 1945 and eliminated the enemy pocket in the Colmar area. The Seventh then went into the Saar River valley, crossed the Rhine, captured Nuremberg and Munich, crossed the Brenner Pass, when the war ended in Europe on 8 May 1945, the ETOUSA headquarters was located in Versailles, France, just outside Paris. ETOUSA was redesignated Headquarters, United States Forces European Theater on 1 July 1945, within a year rapid redeployments had brought the occupation forces down to fewer than 290,000 personnel, and many of the larger formations had departed or been inactivated. Seventh Army headquarters remained in control of the portion of the American zone. In November 1945, the two army commanders organized district constabularies based on cavalry groups, and on 1 May 1946. Seventh Army was inactivated in March 1946, in Germany, reactivated for a time at Atlanta, Georgia
22.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too
23.
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
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It has been regarded as a satellite state of the Soviet Union. Several other state symbols were changed in 1960, the official name of the country was the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Conventional wisdom suggested that it would be known as simply the Czechoslovak Republic—its official name from 1920 to 1938, the traditional etymology derives it from an eponymous leader Čech who led the tribe into Bohemia. Modern theories consider it a derivative, e. g. from četa. Meanwhile, the name Slovak was taken from the Slavic Slavs as the origin of the word Slav itself remains uncertain, during the states existence, it was simply referred to Czechoslovakia or sometimes the CSSR and CSR in short. In April 1945, the Third Republic was formed, led by a National Front of six parties, the Communists were the big winners in the 1946 elections, taking a total of 114 seats. Not only was this the time a Communist party finished first in a free election anywhere in Europe during the Cold War era. Klement Gottwald, leader of the KSČ, became Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia, hope in Moscow was waning for a communist victory in the 1948 elections following a May 1947 Kremlin report concluded that reactionary elements praising western democracy had strengthened. Thereafter, Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin arranged the Czechoslovak coup détat, followed by the occupation of non-Communist ministers ministries, on 25 February 1948, Beneš, fearful of civil war and Soviet intervention, capitulated and appointed a Communist-dominated government who was sworn in two days later. Although members of the other National Front parties still figured, this was, for all intents and purposes. Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk, the prominent minister still left who wasnt either a Communist or fellow traveler, was found dead two weeks later. On 30 May, a single list of candidates from the National Front—now an organization dominated by the Communists—was elected to the National Assembly, after passage of the Ninth-of-May Constitution on 9 June 1948, the country became a Peoples Republic until 1960. Although it was not a completely Communist document, it was enough to the Soviet model that Beneš refused to sign it. Hed resigned a week before it was ratified, and died in September. The Ninth-of-May Constitution confirmed that the KSČ possessed absolute power, as other Communist parties had in the Eastern Bloc, on 11 July 1960, the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia was promulgated, changing the name of the country from the Czechoslovak Republic to the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. With the exception of the Prague Spring in the late 1960s, Czechoslovakia was characterized by the absence of democracy, in the religious sphere, atheism was officially promoted and taught. In 1969, the became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic. Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated, a number of ministries, such as Education, were formally transferred to the two republics
24.
Pinky and the Brain
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Pinky and the Brain is an American animated television series. The characters first appeared in 1993 as a segment on Animaniacs. It was later picked up as a due to its popularity. Later, they appeared in the series, Steven Spielberg Presents Pinky, Pinky and Brain are genetically enhanced laboratory mice who reside in a cage in the Acme Labs research facility. Brain is self-centered and scheming, Pinky is good-natured but feebleminded, in common with many other Animaniacs shorts, many episodes are in some way a parody of something else, usually a film or novel. Many of the Pinky and the Brain episodes occur in the 1990s at Acme Labs, several episodes take place in historical times, with Pinky and the Brain in the laboratory of some scientifically-minded person, including Merlin, H. G. Wells, and Ivan Pavlov. There is very little continuity between episodes outside of the fixtures of the mice, though some plans for world domination from early episodes are subsequently referred to in later seasons. The bulk of every episode involves one of Brains plans for domination with Pinkys assistance. One centers on Snowballs plan to take over the world using Microsponge, suggests that the gene splicing occurred on September 9,1995, which is coincident to the first full episode of Pinky and the Brain. The episode Brainwashed states that the gene splicing was done by Dr. Mordough, along with Snowball the hamster and Precious the cat, using the Acme Gene Splicer, Bagel Warmer, although Pinky and the Brain plan to conquer the world, they do not show much animosity. In a Christmas special Pinky even wrote to Santa that Brain had the worlds best interests at heart, the Brain looks and sounds a little like Orson Welles. Brains name is the backronym for the project, Biological Recombinant Algorithmic Intelligence Nexus. His tail is bent like a staircase—he often uses it to pick the lock of the cage—and his head is large and wide and he is highly intelligent and develops complex plans for global domination using politics, cultural references, and his own inventions toward his goal. He seems coldly unemotional, speaking in a snarky deadpan, nevertheless, Brain has a subtle sense of humor and has even fallen in love, with Trudie in the episode The Third Mouse and with Billie in The World Can Wait. Due to his stature and megalomania, Brain has been compared to Don Quixote, Brain sees his inevitable rise to power as good for the world, and not mere megalomania. In Wakkos Wish, he said to Pinky Were on our way to fame, fortune, many of the Brains plots had the endgame of winning over the peoples hearts and having them make him their ruler. However, his motives are not pure, in one episode, Brain finds himself hypnotized by a psychologist he had planned to manipulate for one of his schemes, who turns out to be none other than Sigmund Freud. There Brain reveals that he lived with his parents in a tin can at the base of a tree in a large field
25.
Give Peace a Chance
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Give Peace a Chance is a song written by John Lennon, and performed with Yoko Ono in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 2 on the British singles chart, the song was written during Lennons Bed-In honeymoon in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. When asked by a reporter what he was trying to achieve by staying in bed and he went on to say this several times during the Bed-In. Lennon played acoustic guitar and was joined by Tommy Smothers of the Smothers Brothers, when released in 1969, the song was credited to Lennon–McCartney. Lennon later stated his regrets about being “guilty enough to give McCartney credit as co-writer on my first independent single instead of giving it to Yoko, who had actually written it with me. ”However, it has also been suggested that the credit was a way of thanking McCartney for helping him record The Ballad of John and Yoko at short notice. The original last verse of the song refers to, John and Yoko, Timmy Leary, Rosemary, Tommy Smothers, Bobby Dylan, Tommy Cooper, Derek Taylor, Norman Mailer, Allen Ginsberg, and Hare Krishna. The third verse contains a reference to masturbation, but Lennon changed this to mastication on the lyric sheet. He later admitted this was a cop out but wanted to avoid unnecessary controversy, Give Peace a Chance, backed with Onos Remember Love as the B-side, was released on 4 July 1969 in the UK, and a few days later on 7 July 1969 in the US. The song reached number 2 in the UK Singles Chart, and they were led by Pete Seeger, who interspersed phrases like, Are you listening, Nixon. Between the choruses of protesters singing, All we are saying, the British group Yes also paid tribute to Lennons words on their 1971 release The Yes Album, in Your Move. After being issued as a single, it appeared on album in a form for the singles compilation Shaved Fish in 1975. The tracks first full-length album appearance was on the compilation The John Lennon Collection, although technically the first solo single released by a member of The Beatles while the band was still intact, the artist credit was to the Plastic Ono Band, not John Lennon. Shortly after the death of Lennon, fans gathered outside the Dakota, the single re-charted in January 1981, peaking at number 33. The song is one of three Lennon solo songs, along with Instant Karma. and Imagine, in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fames 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and it reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart on 16 August 2008. The last instalment was released 18 February 2009, Yokos birthday, the Jazz Crusaders recorded the song on their 1970 Liberty LP Give Peace a Chance. The song was featured in an episode of the TV series Mad About You in 1995, Hot Chocolate released the song as a 45 single on the Apple label, Apple 18, as Hot Chocolate Band, in a reggae version in October 1969. Mitch Miller selected the song as the track of the 1970 Mitch Miller. Prince Busters version is on Melodisc Records subsidiary Fab, released in 1970, in 1991, Ono recorded a new version of the song in response to the imminent Gulf War
26.
Homographs
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A homograph is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a different meaning. However, some dictionaries insist that the words must also sound differently, if, when spoken, the meanings may be distinguished by different pronunciations, the words are also heteronyms. Words with the writing and pronunciation are considered homonyms. However, in a sense the term homonym may be applied to words with the same writing or pronunciation. Homograph disambiguation is critically important in synthesis, natural language processing. Identically-written different senses of what is judged to be fundamentally the same word are called polysemes, for example, examples, sow – to plant seed sow – female pig The two words are spelt identically but pronounced differently. Here confusion is not possible in spoken language but could occur in written language, bear – to support or carry bear – the animal The words are identical in spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning and grammatical function. Many Chinese varieties have homographs, called 多音字 or 重形字, 破音字, modern study of Old Chinese has found patterns that suggest a system of affixes. Examples of homographs in Middle Chinese are, Many homographs in Old Chinese, homographs which did not exist in Old Chinese or Middle Chinese often come into existence due to differences between literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters. Other homographs may have been created due to merging two different characters into the same glyph during script reform, some examples of homographs in Cantonese from Middle Chinese are, Heterography and homography IDN homograph attack
27.
Parts of speech
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A part of speech is a category of words which have similar grammatical properties. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection, the term form class is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions. Word classes may be classified as open or closed, open classes acquire new members constantly, while closed classes acquire new members infrequently, almost all languages have the word classes noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties means that needs to be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria, the classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics. The ancient work on the grammar of the Tamil language, Tolkāppiyam, dated variously between the 1st and 10th centuries AD, classifies Tamil words as peyar, vinai, idai, and uri. A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the Greek scholar Plato wrote in his Cratylus dialog that, sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs and nouns. Aristotle added another class, conjunctions, which included not only the words known today as conjunctions, the Latin grammarian Priscian modified the above eightfold system, excluding article, but adding interjection. The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were nomen, verbum, participium, pronomen, praepositio, adverbium, the category nomen included substantives as well as adjectives. This is reflected in the older English terminology noun substantive and noun adjective, later the adjective became a separate class, and the English word noun came to be applied to substantives only. For discussion see the sections below, English words have been classified into eight or nine parts of speech, Noun a word or lexical item denoting any abstract or concrete entity, a person, place, thing, idea, or quality. Nouns can also be classified as count nouns or non-count nouns, the most common part of the speech, they are called naming words. Pronoun a substitute for a noun or noun phrase, pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer since they replace nouns. Adjective a modifier of a noun or pronoun, adjectives make the meaning of another word more precise. Verb a word denoting an action, occurrence, or state of being, without a verb a group of words cannot be a clause or sentence. Adverb a modifier of an adjective, verb, or other adverb, preposition a word that relates words to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context. Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another word in the sentence, conjunction a syntactic connector, links words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions connect words or group of words Interjection an emotional greeting or exclamation, interjections express strong feelings and emotions
28.
Douglas Adams
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Douglas Noel Adams was an English author, scriptwriter, essayist, humorist, satirist and dramatist. Adamss contribution to UK radio is commemorated in The Radio Academys Hall of Fame, a posthumous collection of his works, including an unfinished novel, was published as The Salmon of Doubt in 2002. Adams was known as an advocate for environmentalism and conservation, as a lover of fast cars, cameras, technological innovation and the Apple Macintosh, Adams was born on 11 March 1952 to Janet and Christopher Douglas Adams in Cambridge, England. The following year in 1953, Watson and Crick famously first modelled DNA at Cambridge University, the family moved to East London a few months after his birth, where his sister, Susan, was born three years later. His parents divorced in 1957, Douglas, Susan, and their mother moved to an RSPCA animal shelter in Brentwood, Essex, Adams attended Primrose Hill Primary School in Brentwood. At nine, he passed the exam for Brentwood School, an independent school whose alumni include Robin Day, Jack Straw, Noel Edmonds. Griff Rhys Jones was a year below him, and he was in the class as Stuckist artist Charles Thomson. He attended the school from 1959 to 1964, then the main school until December 1970. Adams was six feet tall by age 12 and stopped growing at 6 ft 5 in and his form master, Frank Halford, said of him, Hundreds of boys have passed through the school but Douglas Adams really stood out from the crowd — literally. He was unnecessarily tall and in his short trousers he looked a trifle self-conscious, the form-master wouldnt say Meet under the clock tower, or Meet under the war memorial, he joked, but Meet under Adams. Yet it was his ability to write stories that really made him shine. He became the student ever to be awarded a ten out of ten by Halford for creative writing, something he remembered for the rest of his life. He also designed the cover of one issue of the Broadsheet, and had a letter and short story published nationally in The Eagle, in it, Adams rhymes futile with mute, while and exhausted with of course did. On the strength of an essay on religious poetry that discussed the Beatles and William Blake, he was awarded an Exhibition in English at St Johns College, Cambridge. He wanted to join the Footlights, an invitation-only student comedy club that has acted as a hothouse for comic talent, despite doing very little work—he recalled having completed three essays in three years—he graduated in 1974 with a B. A. in English literature. After leaving university Adams moved back to London, determined to break into TV, an edited version of the Footlights Revue appeared on BBC2 television in 1974. A version of the Revue performed live in Londons West End led to Adams being discovered by Monty Pythons Graham Chapman, the two formed a brief writing partnership, earning Adams a writing credit in episode 45 of Monty Python for a sketch called Patient Abuse. He is one of two people outside the original Python members to get a writing credit
29.
Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
30.
Bass (fish)
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Bass is a name shared by many species of fish. The term encompasses both freshwater and marine species, all belonging to the large order Perciformes, or perch-like fishes, the word bass comes from Middle English bars, meaning perch. The black basses, such as the Choctaw bass, Guadalupe bass, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, the temperate basses, such as the European seabass, striped bass and white bass, belong to the family Moronidae. The Asian seabasses, such as the Japanese seabass and Blackfin seabass, many species are also known as basses, including, The Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, is a member of the temperate perch family, Percichthyidae. The black sea bass, Centropristis striata, is a member of the sea bass and sea grouper family, the Chilean sea bass, Dissostichus eleginoides, also known as the Patagonian toothfish, is a member of the cod icefish family, Nototheniidae. The giant sea bass Stereolepis gigas, also known as the sea bass, is a member of the wreckfish family. The lanternbellies or temperate ocean-basses, Acropomatidae, the butterfly peacock bass, Cichla ocellaris, is a member of the cichlid family, Cichlidae and a prized game fish along with its relatives in the genus Cichla. Largemouth bass and smallmouth bass are the most popular fish in North America. It is also popular in South Africa where the largemouth bass is often found in lakes, rivers, creeks. When fishing, lures or live bait will work, lures that mimic baitfish, worms, crayfish, frogs, and mice are all effective. Bass, the name of various trimly shaped, active, gamy fishes of fresh and salt water
31.
Bass guitar
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The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, often known as a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to a guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length. The four-string bass, by far the most common, is tuned the same as the double bass. The bass guitar is an instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds to avoid excessive ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the guitar has pickups and it is plugged into an amplifier and speaker on stage, or into a larger PA system using a DI unit. Since the 1960s, the guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the rhythm section. While types of basslines vary widely from one style of music to another, many styles of music utilise the bass guitar, including rock, heavy metal, pop, punk rock, country, reggae, gospel, blues, symphonic rock, and jazz. It is often a solo instrument in jazz, jazz fusion, Latin, funk, progressive rock and other rock, the adoption of a guitar form made the instrument easier to hold and transport than any of the existing stringed bass instruments. The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in more easily than on acoustic or electric upright basses. Around 100 of these instruments were made during this period, around 1947, Tutmarcs son, Bud, began marketing a similar bass under the Serenader brand name, prominently advertised in the nationally distributed L. D. Heater Music Company wholesale jobber catalogue of 1948, however, the Tutmarc family inventions did not achieve market success. In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton and his Fender Precision Bass, which began production in October 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. This split pickup, introduced in 1957, appears to have been two mandolin pickups, the pole pieces and leads of the coils were reversed with respect to each other, producing a humbucking effect. Humbucking is a design that electrically cancels the effect of any AC hum, the Fender Bass was a revolutionary new instrument, which could be easily transported, and which was less prone to feedback when amplified than acoustic bass instruments. Monk Montgomery was the first bass player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, roy Johnson, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other early Fender bass pioneers. Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, switched from bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, following Fenders lead, in 1953, Gibson released the first short scale violin-shaped electric bass with extendable end pin, allowing it to be played upright or horizontally. In 1959 these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass, the EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance
32.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
33.
Golf
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Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, the game is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, there are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, sand traps, and hazards but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, while the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the games ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, one theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries, the game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England, the Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James IIs banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504, to many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green, while many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a dogleg, in reference to a dogs knee, the hole is called a dogleg left if the hole angles leftwards and dogleg right if it bends right. Sometimes, a holes direction may bend twice, this is called a double dogleg, a regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were laid out on links land. This gave rise to the golf links, particularly applied to seaside courses
34.
Isaac Asimov
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Isaac Asimov was an American writer and professor of biochemistry at Boston University. He was known for his works of fiction and popular science. Asimov was a writer, and wrote or edited more than 500 books. His books have published in 9 of the 10 major categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification. Asimov wrote hard science fiction and, along with Robert A. Heinlein, Clarke, he was considered one of the Big Three science fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimovs most famous work is the Foundation Series, his major series are the Galactic Empire series. The Galactic Empire novels are set in earlier history of the same fictional universe as the Foundation series. He wrote hundreds of stories, including the social science fiction Nightfall. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French, Asimov also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as much nonfiction. Most of his science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way. He often provides nationalities, birth dates, and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as etymologies, Asimov was a long-time member and vice president of Mensa International, albeit reluctantly, he described some members of that organization as brain-proud and aggressive about their IQs. He took more joy in being president of the American Humanist Association, the asteroid 5020 Asimov, a crater on the planet Mars, a Brooklyn elementary school, and a literary award are named in his honor. His exact date of birth within that range is unknown, the family name derives from a word for winter crops, in which his great-grandfather dealt. This word is spelled озимые in Russian, and азімыя in Belarusian, phonetically, both words are almost identical because in Russian О in the first unstressed syllable is always pronounced as А. Accordingly, his name originally was Исаак Озимов in Russian, however, he was known in Russia as Ayzek Azimov. Asimov had two siblings, a sister, Marcia, and a brother, Stanley, who was vice-president of New York Newsday. His family emigrated to the United States when he was three years old, since his parents always spoke Yiddish and English with him, he never learned Russian, but he remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. Growing up in Brooklyn, New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of five, after becoming established in the U. S. his parents owned a succession of candy stores, in which everyone in the family was expected to work
35.
Richard Whately
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Richard Whately was an English rhetorician, logician, economist, academic and theologian who also served as a reforming Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin. He was a leading Broad Churchman, a prolific and combative author over a range of topics, a flamboyant character. He was born in London, the son of the Rev. Dr. Joseph Whately and he was educated at a private school near Bristol, and at Oriel College, Oxford from 1805. He obtained a B. A. in 1808, with double honours, and the prize for the English essay in 1810, in 1811 he was elected Fellow of Oriel. After graduation he acted as a tutor, in particular to Nassau William Senior who became a close friend. After his marriage in 1821, Whately lived in Oxford and he had had to give up his college fellowship, which could not be held by married men, and at this period lived by tutoring and his pen. An uncle, William Plumer, presented him with a living, Halesworth in Suffolk, Whately returned to Oxford, though giving up only in 1831 the Suffolk living, where he had seen the social effects of unemployment. A reformer, Whately was initially on friendly terms with John Henry Newman and they fell out over Robert Peels candidacy for the Oxford University seat in Parliament. Newman later spoke of his Catholic University as continuing in Dublin the struggle against Whately which he had begun at Oxford, in 1829 Whately was elected as Drummond Professor of Political Economy at Oxford in succession to Nassau William Senior. His tenure of office was cut short by his appointment to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831 and he published only one course of Introductory Lectures in two editions. Whatelys appointment by Lord Grey to the see of Dublin came as a political surprise, the aged Henry Bathurst had turned the post down. The new Whig administration found Whately, well known at Holland House and effective in a parliamentary committee appearance speaking on tithes, behind the scenes Thomas Hyde Villiers had lobbied Denis Le Marchant on his behalf, with the Brougham Whigs. The appointment was challenged in the House of Lords, but without success and he enforced strict discipline in his diocese, and he published a statement of his views on Sabbath. He lived in Redesdale House in Kilmacud, just outside Dublin and he was concerned to reform the Church of Ireland and the Irish Poor Laws. He considered tithe commutation essential for the Church, in 1841 Catholic archbishops William Crolly and John MacHale debated whether to continue the system, with Crolly who supported Whately gaining papal permission to go on, given some safeguards. In 1852 the scheme broke down, on the opposition of the new Catholic archbishop of Dublin, Whately felt himself constrained to withdraw from the Education Board the following year. During the famine years of 1846 and 1847 the archbishop and his family tried to alleviate the miseries of the people, on 27 March 1848, Whately became a member of the Canterbury Association. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, from 1856 onwards symptoms of decline began to manifest themselves in a paralytic affection of Whatelys left side
36.
Sahara
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The Sahara is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres is comparable to the area of the United States. The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of tropical savanna around the Niger River valley. The Sahara can be divided into several regions including, the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, the name Sahara is derived from ṣaḥārā, the plural of the Arabic word for desert. The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and it covers 9 million square kilometres, amounting to 31% of Africa. If all areas with an annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included. It is one of three physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division. The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada, Ergs form only a minor part, wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features, sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains, dry valleys, dry lakes, and salt flats. Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania, several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad. The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation, the northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are subdivisions of the great desert, Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years, the northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, the southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha, or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm isohyet of annual precipitation. The Sahara is the worlds largest low-latitude hot desert and this steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere
37.
Noah
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In the Abrahamic religions, Noah was the tenth and last of the pre-flood Patriarchs. The story of Noahs Ark is told in the Bibles Genesis flood narrative, the biblical account is followed by the story of the Curse of Canaan. Noah was the subject of much elaboration in the literature of later Abrahamic religions, the primary account of Noah in the Bible is in the Book of Genesis. Noah was the tenth of the pre-flood Patriarchs and his father was Lamech and his mother is unknown. When Noah was five hundred years old, he begat Shem, Ham, the Genesis flood narrative makes up chapters 6–9 in the Book of Genesis, in the Bible. Thus, the flood was no ordinary overflow but a reversal of creation, and God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth. They were also told that all fowls, land animals, furthermore, as well as green plants, every moving thing would be their food with the exception that the blood was not to be eaten. Mans life blood would be required from the beasts and from man, whoso sheddeth mans blood, by man shall his blood be shed, for in the image of God made he man. Noah died 350 years after the flood, at the age of 950, the maximum human lifespan, as depicted by the Bible, diminishes rapidly thereafter, from almost 1,000 years to the 120 years of Moses. After the flood, Noah became a husbandman and he planted a vineyard, and he drank of the wine, and was drunken, and was uncovered within his tent. Noahs son Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father and told his brethren, in Jewish tradition and rabbinic literature, rabbis blame Satan for the intoxicating properties of the wine. In the field of biblical criticism, J. H. Ellens and W. G. Rollins address the narrative of Genesis 9. Because of its brevity and textual inconsistencies, it has suggested that this narrative is a splinter from a more substantial tale. A fuller account would explain what exactly Ham had done to his father, or why Noah directed a curse at Canaan for Hams misdeed, or how Noah came to know what occurred. The narrator relates two facts, Noah became drunken and he was uncovered within his tent, and Ham saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without. Thus, these passages revolve around sexuality and the exposure of genitalia as compared with other Hebrew Bible texts, such as Habakkuk 2,15 and Lamentations 4,21. Genesis 10 sets forth the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, among Japheth’s descendants were the maritime nations. Ham’s son Cush had a son named Nimrod, who became the first man of might on earth, a mighty hunter, king in Babylon, from there Asshur went and built Nineveh
38.
Ham (son of Noah)
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Ham, according to the Table of Nations in the Book of Genesis, was a son of Noah and the father of Cush, Mizraim, Phut and Canaan. Hams descendants are interpreted by Moses, Flavius Josephus and others as having populated Africa, the Bible refers to Egypt as the land of Ham in Psalms.78,51,105,23,27,106,22,1 Chronicles 4,40. Since the 17th century a number of suggestions have been made that relate the name Ham to a Hebrew word for burnt, black or hot, to an Egyptian word for servant, or the Egyptian word Kmt for Egypt. Genesis 5,32 indicates that Noah became the father of Shem, Ham and Japheth from the age of 500 years old, an incident involving Ham is related in Genesis 9, 20-27. 20And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard,21 And he drank of the wine, and was drunken, and he was uncovered within his tent. 22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father,25 And he said, Cursed be Canaan, a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren. 26 And he said, Blessed be the LORD God of Shem,27 God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem, and Canaan shall be his servant. —Authorized King James Version Ham was blessed in Genesis 9,1 – Noah did not curse him directly, the Talmud deduces two possible explanations, one attributed to Rab and one to Rabbi Samuel, for what Ham did to Noah to warrant the curse. According to Rab, Ham castrated Noah on the basis that, since Noah cursed Ham by his fourth son Canaan, emasculating him thus deprived Noah of the possibility of a fourth son. In Genesis 34,2 it reads, And when Shechem the son of Hamor saw her, he took her and lay with her, according to this argument, similar abuse must have happened each time that the Bible uses the same language. The Talmud concludes that, in fact, both indignities were perpetrated, although the story can be taken literally, in more recent times, some scholars have suggested that Ham may have had intercourse with his fathers wife. Under this interpretation, Canaan is cursed as the product of Hams illicit union, the chronological scheme of the Book of Jubilees has Ham born in the year 1209 A. M. — two years after Shem, three before Japheth, and 99 before the flood. It gives the name of his wife who survived the flood as Naeltamauk. After his youngest son Canaan was cursed in 1321 A. M. he left Mount Ararat and built a city named for his wife on the south side of the mountain. In 1569 A. M. he received a division of the earth along with his two brothers for his inheritance, everything west of the Nile River, and to the south of Gadir. Dwell not in the dwelling of Shem, for to Shem and to his sons did it come by their lot. Cursed art thou, and cursed shalt thou be beyond all the sons of Noah, by the curse by which we bound ourselves by an oath in the presence of the holy judge, and in the presence of Noah our father. But he did not hearken unto them, and dwelt in the land of Lebanon from Hamath to the entering of Egypt, he, and for this reason that land is named Canaan
39.
Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
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Strip club
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Strip clubs are venues that regularly provide adult entertainment, predominantly in the form of striptease or other erotic or exotic dances. Strip clubs typically adopt a nightclub or bar style, and can adopt a theatre or cabaret-style. As of 2005, the size of the strip club industry was estimated to be US$75 billion. In 2002, the size of the U. S. strip club industry was estimated to be US$3.1 billion, profitability of strip clubs, as with other service-oriented businesses, is largely driven by location and customer spending habits. The popularity of a club is an indicator of its quality. The strip club as an outlet for salacious entertainment is a recurrent theme in popular culture, in some media, these clubs are portrayed primarily as gathering places of vice and ill repute. Clubs themselves and various aspects of the business are highlighted in these references, popular Internet sites for strip club enthusiasts also have lists calculated from the inputs of site visitors. Strip clubs are frequent targets of litigation around the world, and the sex industry, some clubs have been linked to organized crime. The term striptease was first recorded in 1938, though stripping, in the sense of women removing clothing to sexually excite men, for example, in Thomas Otways comedy The Soldiers Fortune a character says, Be sure they be lewd, drunken, stripping whores. Its combination with music seems to be as old, the erotic dance of the bee, performed by a woman known as Kuchuk Hanem, was witnessed and described by the French novelist Gustave Flaubert. In this dance the performer disrobes as she searches for an imaginary bee trapped within her garments and it is likely that the women performing these dances did not do so in an indigenous context, but rather, responded to the commercial climate for this type of entertainment. In France during the late 19th century, Parisian shows such as the Moulin Rouge and Folies Bergère were featuring attractive, scantily clad, dancing women and tableaux vivants. This routine, Le coucher dYvette, inspired French acts in theaters and brothels in other parts of the world, the first public act of striptease in modern times is credited to Parisian theater in 1894. In 1905, Dutch dancer Mata Hari, later shot as a spy by the French authorities during World War I, was a success from the debut of her act at the Musée Guimet. The most celebrated segment of her act was her progressive shedding of clothing until she wore just a jeweled bra and some ornaments over her arms and head. Another landmark performance was the appearance at the Moulin Rouge in 1907 of an actress called Germaine Aymos who entered dressed only in three very small shells. In the 1930s, the famous Josephine Baker danced semi-nude in the danse sauvage at the Folies and these shows were notable for their sophisticated choreography and for often dressing the girls in glitzy sequins and feathers. By the 1960s fully nude shows were provided at such places as Le Crazy Horse Saloon, in Britain in the 1930s, Laura Henderson began presenting nude shows at the Windmill Theatre in London
