1.
Puri
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Puri is a city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal,60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city and it is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus. Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was known as Shrikhetra. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries, the economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city, Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India. Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast and it is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards. Puri is in the delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh, then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary and these sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively, Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles in an east-west direction and a width of 2 miles in north-south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a depth of just 5 feet. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
5.
Odisha
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Odisha (/ɒˈrɪsə, ɔː-, oʊ-/, is one of the 29 states of India, located in the eastern coast. It is surrounded by the states of West Bengal to the north-east, Jharkhand to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west and north-west, Odisha has 485 kilometres of coastline along the Bay of Bengal on its east, from Balasore to Malkangiri. It is the 9th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population and it is also the 3rd most populous state of India in terms of tribal population. Odia is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by 33.2 million according to the 2001 Census. The ancient kingdom of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE resulting in the Kalinga War, the modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April 1936, as a province in British India, and consisted predominantly of Odia-speaking regions. April 1 is celebrated as Odisha Day, the region is also known as Utkala and is mentioned in Indias national anthem, Jana Gana Mana. Cuttack was made the capital of the region by Anantavarman Chodaganga in c,1135, after which the city was used as the capital by many rulers, through the British era until 1948. Thereafter, Bhubaneswar became the capital of Odisha, the term Odisha is derived from the ancient Prakrit word Odda Visaya as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I, which is dated to 1025. Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region Odra Rashtra, the inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom on the walls of temples in Puri call the region Odisha or Odisha Rajya. After a brief debate, the house, Lok Sabha, passed the bill. On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha, the house of Parliament, also passed the bill. Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in places in the region. Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata, Vayu Purana, the Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata. Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE, which was the eighth year of his reign. According to his own edicts, in that war about 100,000 people were killed,150,000 were captured, the resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism, by c.150 CE, emperor Kharavela, who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria, conquered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill, subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Shashanka. It was also a part of Harshas empire, later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region
6.
District collector
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A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collectors were members of the Indian Civil Service, and were charged with supervising general administration in the district, warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in 1772. As District Magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the courts and in particular. The office was meant to achieve the purpose of collecting revenue. The Superintendent of Police, Inspector General of Jails, the Surgeon General, the Divisional Forest Officer, until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Services. The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947, the role of the District Collector remained largely unchanged, except for separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. They are appointed by the State government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service officers in the state, the members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission or promoted from Provincial Civil Services. A District Magistrate, District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Commissioner are transferred from this post by State government, District Collectors are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district. Acts as ex-officio chairman of the District Development Authority in absence of Divisional Commissioner, a District Magistrate/District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District Commissioner is assisted by some I. A. S and P. C
7.
Indian Administrative Service
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The Indian Administrative Service is the All India administrative civil service. IAS officers hold key and strategic positions in the Union Government, States governments, along with the Indian Police Service and Indian Forest Service, the IAS is one of the three All India Services — its cadre can be employed by both the Union Government and the individual States. On attaining the upper levels of Super Time Scale to Apex Scale, they can go on to head whole departments and subsequently entire Ministries of Governments of India, IAS officers represent Government of India at the international level in bilateral and multilateral negotiations. On deputations they work at Intergovernmental organisations like World Bank and United Nations or its Agencies, IAS officers at various levels of administration play vital roles in conducting free, fair and smooth elections in India under the direction of Election Commission of India and states. The erstwhile Imperial Civil Service was the highest civil service of the British Empire in British India during British rule in the period between 1858 and 1947, Civil servants were divided into two categories - covenanted and uncovenanted. The covenanted civil service consisted of only white British civil servants occupying the higher posts in the government, the uncovenanted civil service was solely introduced to facilitate the entry of Indians at the lower rung of the administration. With the passing of the Government of India Act 1919, the Imperial Services headed by the Secretary of State for India, were split into two – All India Services and Central Services. At the time of the partition of India and the departure of the British in 1947, the part which went to India was named the Indian Administrative Service, while the part that went to Pakistan was named the Civil Service of Pakistan. IAS officers are recruited from Civil Services Examination conducted by the Union Public Service Commission and they are also promoted from State Civil Services and selected from non-state civil service. After getting selected, candidates undergo training at LBSNAA, Mussoorie for IAS, being an All India Service, officers of the IAS are allotted to State cadres at the beginning of their service. They continue to work in that cadre or are deputed to Government of India, there is one cadre for each Indian state, except for three joint cadres, Assam–Meghalaya, Manipur–Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh–Goa–Mizoram–Union Territories. The insider-outsider ratio is maintained as 1,2, with one-third of the recruits as insiders from the same state. The rest are posted as outsiders according to the roster in states other than their home states, the next year the roster starts from H, for either Haryana or Himachal Pradesh. This highly intricate system, in vogue since the mid-1980s, had ensured that officers from different states are placed all over India, changes of state cadre is permitted on grounds of marriage to an All India Service officer of another state cadre or under other exceptional circumstances. The officer may go to their home state cadre on deputation for a limited period, the centralising effect of cadre system was considered extremely important by the systems framers, but has received increasing criticism over the years. There are also concerns that such reform, the IAS will be unable to move from a command and control strategy to a more interactive. A civil servant is responsible for the law and order and general administration in the area under his work, most IAS officers start their careers in the state administration at the sub-divisional level as a sub divisional magistrate. They are entrusted with the law and order situation of the city along with general administration and they proceed to various posts in the State and Central Governments, and also local-self Governments, and Public Sector Undertakings
8.
Superintendent of police (India)
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In India, a District Senior Superintendent of Police or Superintendent of Police heads the police force of a district. In metropolitan areas having police commissionerate system, the head of police is called Deputy Commissioner of Police. Superintendents of Police are officers of the Indian Police Service and they are entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of a district of a state or a union territory of India. They are assisted by the officers of the State Police Service and their rank badge is the State Emblem above one star, although those selected for higher rank or with fifteen or more years service wear the State Emblem above two stars. The rank of superintendent of police is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant colonel of the Indian army
9.
Indian Police Service
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The Indian Police Service or IPS, is one of the three All India Services of the Government of India. It has replaced the Indian Imperial Police in 1948, a year after India gained independence from Britain, the service is not a force itself but provides leaders and commanders to staff the state police and all-India Central Armed Police Forces. Its members are the officers of the police. The Bureau of Police Research and Development is responsible for research, in 1861, the British Government introduced the Indian Councils Act of 1861. The act created the foundation of a modern and professionalised police bureaucracy in India and it introduced, a new cadre of police, called Superior Police Services, later known as the Indian Imperial Police. The highest rank in the service was the Inspector General, in 1902-03, a Police Commission was established for the Police reforms under Sir Andrew Frazer and Lord Curzon. It recommended the appointment of Indians at officer level in the police, Indians could rise only to the ranks of Inspector of Police, the senior N. C. O. However they were not part of Indian Imperial Police, from 1920, Indian Imperial Police was open to Indians and the entrance examination for the service was conducted both in India and England. Prior to Independence, senior police officers belonging to the Imperial Police were appointed by the Secretary of State on the basis of a competitive examination. The first open civil service examination for admission to the service was held in England in June 1893 and it is not possible to pinpoint an exact date on which the Indian Police came formally into being. In this sense,1907 could be regarded as the starting point, in 1948, a year after India gained independence, the Imperial Police was replaced by IPS. In 1972, Kiran Bedi joined the IPS, becoming the first woman police officer, as per media reports in 2016, there is massive shortfall of IPS officers in India, which is nearly 19% to 22% of total strength. Historically, few officers have been awarded United Nations Medal and have participated in Indian Army United Nations peacekeeping missions, the Indian Police Service is not a force itself but a service providing leaders and commanders to staff the state police and all-India Central Armed Police Forces. Its members are the officers of the police. Leading and commanding the Indian Intelligence Agencies like Research and Analysis Wing, Intelligence Bureau, Central Bureau of Investigation, Indian Federal Law Enforcement Agencies, Civil and Armed Police Forces in all the states and union territories. To interact and coordinate closely with the members of other All India Services and with the Indian Revenue Service, to lead and command the force with courage, uprightness, dedication and a strong sense of service to the people. Endeavor to inculcate in the forces under their command such values. IPS officers are recruited from Civil Services Examination and they are also promoted from State Police Services and DANIPS
10.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
11.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
12.
Bhubaneswar
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Bhubaneswar, also spelt as Bhubaneshwar /ˌbʊbəˈneɪʃwər/, the capital of the Indian state of Odisha. It is the largest city in Odisha and is a centre of economic, along with the old town, the region of Bhubaneswar, historically was often depicted as Ekamra Kshetra. Although the modern city of Bhubaneswar was formally established only in 1948, with many 8th-12th century CE Hindu temples, which span the entire spectrum of Kalinga architecture, Bhubaneswar is often referred to as a Temple City of India. With Puri and Konark it forms the Swarna Tribhuja, one of eastern Indias most visited destinations, Bhubaneswar replaced Cuttack as the capital on 19 August 1949,2 years after India gained its independence from Britain. The modern city was designed by the German architect Otto Königsberger in 1946, along with Jamshedpur and Chandigarh, it was one of modern Indias first planned cities. Bhubaneswar and Cuttack are often referred to as the cities of Odisha. The metropolitan area formed by the two cities had a population of 1.7 million in 2011, Bhubaneswar is categorised as a Tier-2 city. An emerging information technology and education hub, Bhubaneswar is one of the countrys fastest-developing cities, the foundation of the modern Bhubaneswar city was laid in 1948, although the areas in and around the city have a history going back to 1st century BCE or earlier. Dhauli, near Bhubaneswar is the site of the Kalinga War, one of the most complete edicts of the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, dating from between 272–236 BCE, remains carved in rock 8 kilometres to the southwest of the modern city. After the decline of the Mauryan empire, the area came under the rule of Mahameghavahana dynasty and his Hathigumpha inscription is located at the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar. The area was ruled by several dynasties, including Satavahanas, Guptas, Matharas. In 7th century, Somavamshi or Keshari dynasty established their kingdom in the area, after the Kesharis, the Eastern Gangas ruled Kalinga area until 14th century CE. Their capital Kalinganagar was located in present-day Bhubaneswar district, after them, Mukunda Deva of the Bhoi dynasty – the last Hindu ruler of the area until the Marathas – developed several religious buildings in the area. Most of the temples in Bhubaneswar were built between 8th and 12th centuries, under Shaiva influence. The Ananta Vasudeva Temple is the old temple of Vishnu in the city. In 1568, the Karrani dynasty of Afghan origin gained control of the area, during their reign, most of the temples and other structures were destroyed or disfigured. In the 16th century, the area came under Mughal control, the Marathas, who succeeded the Mughals in mid-18th century, encouraged pilgrimage in the region. In 1803, the area came under British colonial rule, and was part of the Bengal Presidency, Bihar and Orissa Province, the capital of the British-ruled Orissa Province was Cuttack, which was vulnerabile to floods and suffered from space constraints
13.
Male
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A male organism is the physiological sex that produces sperm. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a female gamete, or ovum. A male cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs. Not all species share a common sex-determination system, in most animals, including humans, sex is determined genetically, but in some species it can be determined due to social, environmental, or other factors. For example, Cymothoa exigua changes sex depending on the number of females present in the vicinity, the existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across species by the type of gametes produced, male/female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to animals, male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures, as of the year 2012, the United Arab Emirates has the highest ratio of human males in the world, followed by Qatar. A common symbol used to represent the male sex is the Mars symbol, the symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of Mars. It was first used to sex by Carl Linnaeus in 1751. The symbol is called a stylized representation of the Roman god Mars shield. According to Stearn, however, all the historical evidence favours that it is derived from θρ, the sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may change during the course of an organisms life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are male or female, hermaphroditic animals. Most mammals, including humans, are determined as such by the XY sex-determination system where males have an XY sex chromosome. During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, a Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The part of the Y-chromosome which is responsible for maleness is the region of the Y-chromosome. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have a ZZ sex chromosome may be found in birds and some insects and other organisms
14.
Female
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Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, that produces non-mobile ova. Most female mammals, including humans, have two X chromosomes. The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, a female individual cannot reproduce sexually without access to the gametes of a male. Some organisms can reproduce sexually and asexually. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species, oogamy is a form of anisogamy. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Other than the difference in the type of gamete produced. The concept is not limited to animals, egg cells are produced by chytrids, diatoms, water moulds and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, the word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning woman. It is not etymologically related to the male, but in the late 14th century the spelling was altered in English to parallel the spelling of male. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands, the mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young for some time after birth. Mammary glands are most obvious in humans, as the human body stores large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples. Mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are vestigial in the male of the species, most mammalian females have two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size, one of the females X chromosomes is inactivated in each cell of placental mammals while the paternally derived X is inactivated in marsupials. In birds and some reptiles, by contrast, it is the female which is heterozygous and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes. Intersex conditions can give rise to other combinations, such as XO or XXX in mammals. However, these conditions result in sterility. A common symbol used to represent the female sex is ♀, according to Schott, the most established view is that the male and female symbols are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of these planets, namely Thouros and Phosphoros
15.
Lok Sabha
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The Lok Sabha is the Lower house of Indias bicameral Parliament, with the Upper house being the Rajya Sabha. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi, under the current laws, the strength of Lok Sabha is 545, including the two seats reserved for members of the Anglo-Indian community. The total elective membership is distributed among the states in proportion to their population, a total of 131 seats are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership, term of the House The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and the expiration of the period of five years. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies boundaries has been carried out by the Delimitation Commission based on the Indian census of 2001, the 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha has its own channel, Lok Sabha TV. A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947, the Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India, although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, the Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form. The Lok Sabha was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952 and he / She should not be less than 25 years of age. He / She possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament, a seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances, When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, when the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the Anti-Defection Law, a member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. System of elections in Lok Sabha Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, for the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha, each state is divided into territorial constituencies. This provision does not apply for states having a population of less than 6 million, note, The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census of which relevant figure have been published. Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha, motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha
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Odisha Legislative Assembly
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The Odisha Legislative Assembly is the unicameral state legislature of Odisha state in eastern India. The seat of the Legislative Assembly is at Bhubaneshwar, the capital of the state, the Legislative Assembly comprises 147 Members of Legislative Assembly. The Governor may also time to time prorogue the Assembly or dissolve the Assembly. When the Governor summons the Assembly, summons are sent to each member by name, indicating the date, time, prorogation by the Governor terminates the session of the Assembly and within a session the Speaker may adjourn the House from time to time or adjourn sine die. Under special circumstance, the speaker can allow the House to continue till 9 pm local time. e, the Ministers concerned are required to answer the questions relating to the group. The first hour of every sitting of the Assembly is available for answering questions, Questions are classified as Starred Questions Unstarred Questions Short Notice Starred Questions. If a member desires oral answer, he is required to indicate the question by putting a mark before it. The questions are answered in the order in which they are printed in the list of questions put for the day, Members are restricted to three such questions for any sitting day. The questions are asked in the listed by the member who requested it. Supplementary questions can be asked for the purpose of eliciting information on any matter of fact. The Speaker decides the number of supplementary questions according to the importance of a question, on urgent matter and matters of public importance, members are allowed to put short notice questions, in which case notice period of 14 clear days is not observed. The speaker has the discretion of allowing such a question and the period for a response from the ministry involved. Notices of questions are required to be in writing in appropriate forms, in order that a question may be admissible, it is required to satisfy the various conditions detailed in the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the House. The Speaker decides the admissibility of questions, after a question is admitted, it is sent to the department concerned for furnishing answers to the Minister concerned. List of Starred, Unstarred and Short Notice question are drawn for each category, Questions are listed as per the order of priority determined by ballot. The dates on which ballot will be held are intimated to members sufficiently in advance, Members are free to witness the ballot. The Speaker may allot half-an-hour on three sittings in a week for such discussion, the main business of the day may be consideration of a Bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion. A bill is a draft of an Act introduced in the Legislature by the Minister, in that case, it is not necessary to move for leave to introduce the Bill and if the Bill in afterwards introduced, it is necessary to publish it again
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Climate of India
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The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter, though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, during the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma and this is underscored by Indias vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India, tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation, elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus, these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The nations climate is influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned according to the Köppen climate classification system. A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, Indias two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate
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Climatic regions of India
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India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 °C even in the coolest month. Tropical wet The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and it is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year, Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the wet forests in these regions. Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 °C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the low level areas can go above 45 °C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. Tropical semi-arid climate A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and this region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, the coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 °C and 24 °C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean temperatures of around 32 °C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall, hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Sub-tropical arid climate Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall, cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm
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Jagannath
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Jagannath is considered a form of Vishnu or his avatar Krishna by the Hindus. Jagannath is worshipped as part of a triad on the Ratnavedi along with his brother Balabhadra, the icon of Jagannath is a carved and decorated wooden stump with large round eyes and with stumps as hands, with the conspicuous absence of legs. The worship procedures, practices, sacraments and rituals of Jagannath do not conform with those of classical Hinduism and it is made of wood, which is an exception to common Hindu iconographic deities of metal or stone. The origin and evolution of Jagannath worship, as well as iconography, is unclear and has been subject to academic debate. The oldest and most famous Jagannath deity is established in Puri, the temple of Jagannath in Puri is regarded as one of the Char Dham in India. The most famous festival related to Jagannath is the Ratha yatra and they are transported to the Gundicha Temple, in three massive wooden chariots drawn by devotees. Coinciding with the Ratha Yatra festival at Puri, similar processions are organized at Jagannath temples throughout the world, etymologically, Jagannath means Master, Lord of the World, Universe. The word has Sanskrit origin, being a tatsama in Odia and it is a relational-case Tatpurusa compound word. Jagannātha is a genitive tat-puruṣa-samāsa, derived from Jagat, meaning is moving and nātha, meaning lord, refuge, Jagannatha can thus also mean He the shelter of the Revolving World In the Odia language, Jagannath refers to multiple names, as Jagā or Jagabandhu. Further, on the basis of the appearance of the deity, names like Kālya, Darubrahman, Dāruēdabatā, Chakāākhi or Chakānayan. Some scholars have suggested that the word is a Sanskritization of a tribal word and they have presented arguments concerning the Jagannaths tribal origins. Savaras the early inhabitants of Odisha were tree worshippers who called their god Jaganata from whom the word Jagannath may have been derived. The incarnations emanate from Jagannath, who is the cause of all material creation, therefore, Jagannath does not have any life stories and lila, in contrast to Avatars like Parshurama, Rama, Krisna etc. According to them Jagannath is Sunnya Purusa, Nirakar and Niranjan who is present in Nilachala to do cosmic play. He is adorned and worshipped as different Avatars on special occasions, various traditions identify Jagannath with different Avatars of Vishnu. However he is most frequently identified with Krishna, the eighth Avatar of Vishnu, the Puranas relate that the Narasimha Avatar of Vishnu appeared from a wooden pillar. It is therefore believed that Jagannath is worshipped as a murti or Daru Brahma with the Sri Narasimha hymn dedicated to the Narasimha Avatar. Jagannath when worshipped alone is called Dadhi Vaman Sanskrit for the Dwarf who likes curds, every year in the month of Bhadra, Jagannath is dressed and decorated in the form of the Vamana avatar of Vishnu
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Solar deity
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A solar deity is a sky deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it, usually by its perceived power and strength. Solar deities and sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms, the Sun is sometimes referred to by its Latin name Sol or by its Greek name Helios. The English word sun stems from Proto-Germanic *sunnǭ, the Neolithic concept of a solar barge is found in the later myths of ancient Egypt, with Ra and Horus. Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the sun-god and Horus as a god of the sky, as the Old Kingdom theocracy gained power, early beliefs were incorporated with the expanding popularity of Ra and the Osiris-Horus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting sun, Osiris became the divine heir to Atums power on Earth and passes his divine authority to his son Horus. Early Egyptian myths imply the sun is within the lioness, Sekhmet, at night and is reflected in her eyes, or that it is within the cow, Hathor, during the night, being reborn each morning as her son. Mesopotamian Shamash plays an important role during the Bronze Age, similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship, as with the Incan Inti. Proto-Indo-European religion has a chariot, the sun as traversing the sky in a chariot. In Germanic mythology this is Sol, in Vedic Surya, and in Greek Helios, svarog is the Slavic solar deity, represented as a spirit of fire. During the Roman Empire, a festival of the birth of the Unconquered Sun was celebrated on the winter solstice—the rebirth of the sun—which occurred on December 25 of the Julian calendar. In late antiquity, the centrality of the sun in some Imperial religious systems suggest a form of a solar monotheism. The religious commemorations on December 25 were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ, the Tiv people consider the Sun to be the son of the supreme being Awondo and the Moon Awondos daughter. The Barotse tribe believes that the Sun is inhabited by the sky god Nyambi, some Sara people also worship the sun. Even where the sun god is equated with the supreme being, the Ancient Egyptian god of creation, Amun is also believed to reside inside the sun. So is the Akan creator deity, Nyame and the Dogon deity of creation, also in Egypt, there was a religion that worshiped the sun directly, and was among the first monotheistic religions, Atenism. Sun worship was prevalent in ancient Egyptian religion, the earliest deities associated with the sun are all goddesses, Wadjet, Sekhmet, Hathor, Nut, Bast, Bat, and Menhit. First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurse Horus, Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus. From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the sun was worshipped as the deity Re, and portrayed as a falcon headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent
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Konark
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Konark is a medium town in the Puri district in the state of Odisha, India. It lies on the coast by the Bay of Bengal,65 kilometers from the capital of the state and it is the site of the 13th-century Sun Temple, also known as the Black Pagoda, built in black granite during the reign of Narasimhadeva-I. The temple is a World Heritage Site, the temple is now mostly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India. On 16 February 1980, Konark lay directly on the path of a solar eclipse. The name Konârka is derived from the Sanskrit word Kona and word Arka in reference to the temple which was dedicated to the Sun god Surya. The Sun Temple was built in the 13th century and designed as a chariot of the Sun God, Surya. Some of the wheels are 3 meters wide, only six of the seven horse still stand today. The temple fell into disuse after an envoy of Jahangir desecrated the temple in the early 17th century. In the days of its grandeur, the idol of Sun God used to remain suspended in the air with the help of the huge magnet at the peak. There was a diamond in the centre of the idol which reflected the sun rays that passed, in 1627, the then Raja of Khurda took the Sun idol from Konark to the Jagannath temple in Puri. The Sun temple belongs to the Kalingan school of Indian temple architecture. The alignment of the Sun Temple is along the East-West direction, the inner sanctum or vimana used to be surmounted by a tower or shikara but it was razed in the 19th century. The audience hall or jagamohana still stands and comprises majority of the ruins, the roof of the dance hall or natmandir has fallen off. It stands at the end of the ruins on a raised platform. In 1559, Mukunda Gajapati came to throne in Cuttack and he aligned himself as an ally of Akbar and an enemy of the Sultan of Bengal, Sulaiman Khan Karrani. After a few battles, Odisha finally fell, the fall was also aided by the internal turmoil of the state. In 1568, the Konark temple was damaged by the army of Kalapahad. Kalapahad is also said to be responsible for damages to other temples during the conquest. As of 2011 India census, Konark had a population of 16,779, in Konark, 14% of the population is under 6 years of age
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Chilika Lake
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It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest lagoon in the world after The New Caledonian barrier reef in New Caledonia. It is the largest wintering ground for birds on the Indian sub-continent. The lake is home to a number of threatened species of plants, the lake is an ecosystem with large fishery resources. It sustains more than 150,000 fisher–folk living in 132 villages on the shore, the lagoon hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak migratory season. Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh. These birds travel great distances, migratory birds probably follow much longer routes than the lines, possibly up to 12,000 km. In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of importance under the Ramsar Convention. According to a survey,45 percent of the birds are terrestrial in nature,32 percent are waterfowl, the lagoon is also home to 14 types of raptors. Around 152 rare and endangered Irrawaddy dolphins have also been reported, plus, the lagoon supports about 37 species of reptiles and amphibians. The highly productive chilika lagoon eco-system with its rich fishery resources sustains the livelihood for many men who live in. The water spread area of the Lagoon ranges between 1165 and 906 km2 during the monsoon and summer respectively, a 32 km long, narrow, outer channel connects the lagoon to the Bay of Bengal, near the village Motto. More recently a new mouth has been opened by CDA which has brought a new lease of life to the lagoon, microalgae, marine seaweeds, sea grasses, fishes and crabs also flourish in the brackish water of the Chilika Lagoon. Geological evidence indicates that Chilika Lake was part of the Bay of Bengal during the stages of the Pleistocene period. Excavations were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India at Golabai Sasan just north of Chilika lake in Khurdha district, Golabai provides evidence of a sequence of Chilika area culture in three phases, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age. Radiocarbon dating traced the earliest level of Golbai to 2300 BCE, the site is located on the left bank of the Malaguni River, a tributary of the Daya River, which flows into Chilika Lake. This location, which access to the sea via Chilika Lake. The recovery of many woodworking adzes and other shows that Golabai was a boat-building centre. Significantly, Golabai is the excavated site in Odisha where boat building has been revealed
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Administrative division
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Administrative divisions are granted a certain degree of autonomy and are usually required to manage themselves through their own local governments. Countries are divided up into smaller units to make managing their land. For example, a country may be divided into provinces, which, in turn, are divided into counties, which, in turn, may be divided in whole or in part into municipalities, and so on. Administrative divisions are separate from dependent territories, with the former being an integral part of the state. However, the administrative division can include dependent territories as well as accepted administrative divisions. For clarity and convenience the standard reference for the largest administrative subdivision of a country is called the first-level administrative division or first administrative level. Next smaller is called second-level administrative division or second administrative level, there is no fixed rule, for all politics is local as is perhaps well demonstrated by their relative lack of systemic order. In the realm of self-government, any of these can and does occur along a stretch of road—which for the most part is passing through rural unsettled countryside. In British cultural legacy, most territorial entities begin with fairly expansive counties which encompass a large area. Within those entities are the large and small cities or towns, many sister cities share a water boundary which quite often serves as a border of both cities and counties. For example, Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts appear to the traveler as one large city, while locally they each are quite culturally different. Sovereign state, a national or supra-national division, country, a national or sub-national division. Administrative division codes of the Peoples Republic of China GADM, a database of country administrative areas. ISO 3166-2, specifically Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions — Part 2
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Block (district subdivision)
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A block is an administrative division of some South Asian countries. In Bhutan, a block is called a gewog and it is essentially for oil a group of villages. Gewogs are official units of Bhutan. The country is composed of 205 gewogs, each gewog is headed by a gup or headman. Block is a district sub-division which is next to Taluk level administration, for planning purpose district is divided into four levels Taluks Blocks Gram Panchayats Villages A taluk may consist of one or more number of blocks. Blocks are normally Planning & Development units of district in addition to taluks, Block would represent a compact area for which effective plans will prepared & implemented through Village Panchayats. For example, Muzaffarnagar District of Uttar Pradesh has 9 blocks namely, Block Development Officers monitor the implementation of all the programs related to planning and development of the blocks. Coordination of development and implementation of plans in all blocks of district is provided by a Chief Development Officer, BDO office is the main operation wing of the government for the development administration as well as regulatory administration
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Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
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Saka
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The Saka or Saca was the term used in Persian and Sanskrit sources for the Scythians, a large group of Eastern Iranian nomadic tribes on the Eurasian Steppe. Modern scholars usually use the term Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe, rené Grousset wrote that they formed a particular branch of the Scytho-Sarmatian family originating from nomadic Iranian peoples of the northwestern steppe in Eurasia. They migrated into Sogdiana and Bactria in Central Asia and then to the northwest of the Indian subcontinent where they were known as the Indo-Scythians, modern debate about the identity of the Saka is partly from ambiguous usage of the word by ancient, non-Saka authorities. According to Herodotus, the Persians gave the name Saka to all Scythians, however, Pliny the Elder claims that the Persians gave the name Sakai only to the Scythian tribes nearest to them. The Scythians to the far north of Assyria were also called the Saka suni by the Persians, the Assyrians, of the time of Esarhaddon, record campaigning against a people they called in the Akkadian the Ashkuza or Ishhuza. However, modern consensus is that the Saka language, ancestor to the Pamir languages in northern India and Khotanese in Xinjiang. Another people, the Gimirrai, who were known to the ancient Greeks as the Cimmerians, were associated with the Sakas. In ancient Hebrew texts, the Ashkuz are considered to be an offshoot from the Gimirri. The Saka were regarded by the Babylonians as synonymous with the Gimirrai, the Sakā paradraya were the western Scythians or Sarmatians. Both the Sakā tigraxaudā and Sakā haumavargā are thought to be located in Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, Sakā haumavargā is considered to be the same as Amyrgians, the Saka tribe in closest proximity to Bactria and Sogdiana. In the modern era, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler was the first to associate the Sakas with the Scyths, J. M. Sakā and Skuthai evidently constituted a generic name for the nomads on the northern frontiers. Persian sources often treat them as a tribe called the Saka. Modern scholars usually use the term Saka to refer to Iranian-speaking tribes who inhabited the Eastern Steppe, the Saka people were an Iranian people who spoke a language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. They are known to the ancient Greeks as Scythians and are attested in historical and archaeological records dating to around the 8th century BC. In the Achaemenid-era Old Persian inscriptions found at Persepolis, dated to the reign of Darius I, likewise an inscription dated to the reign of Xerxes I has them coupled with the Dahae people of Central Asia. The contemporary Greek historian Herodotus noted that the Achaemenid Persians called all of the Iranian Scythian peoples as the Saka. According to Herodotus, Cyrus the Great confronted the Massagetae, a related to the Saka. Darius the Great also waged wars against the eastern Sakas, who fought him with three armies led by three kings according to Polyaenus, in 520–519 BC, Darius I defeated the Sakā tigraxaudā tribe and captured their king Skunkha
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Bihar and Orissa Province
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Bihar and Orissa was a province of British India which included the present-day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and a part of Odisha. The territories were conquered by the British in the 18th and 19th centuries, and were part of the Bengal Presidency, on 1 April 1912 both Bihar and Orissa division were separated from the Bengal Presidency as Bihar and Orissa Province. On 1 April 1936 Bihar and Orissa became separate provinces, in 1756 Bihar was part of Bengal Subah of Mughal Empire while Orissa was a different Subah. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of British rule in India, based on the terms of the agreement, Alam granted the East India Company Diwani rights, or the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Emperor from the eastern province of Bengal-Bihar-Orissa. Here Behar means present Bangladesh & West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand. Orissa means district of Midnapore & East Singhbhum or the land between Subarnarekha river to Damodar River, the other part of medieval Orissa kingdom was divided between Nizam of Hyderabad & Maratha kingdom. Bihar and Orissa was separated from Bengal on 1 April 1912, a number of princely states, including the Orissa Tributary States, were under the authority of the provincial governor. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms enacted through the Government of India Act 1919 expanded the Bihar & Orissa Legislative Council from 43 to 103 members, the Legislative Council now consisted of 2 ex-officio Executive Councillors,25 nominated members and 76 elected members. The reforms also introduced the principle of dyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, on 1 April 1936, the province was divided into Bihar Province and Orissa Province, and the Odia speaking princely states placed under the authority of the Eastern States Agency. From 1912 to 1920, the province had a lieutenant governor heading the provincial government and this post was upgraded to governor in 1920, when Satyendra Prasanno Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha was appointed to fill it
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Nayagarh district
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Nayagarh districtis one of the 30 districts of Odisha State in eastern India. It was created in 1992 when the erstwhile Puri District was split into three districts, namely Khurdha, Nayagarh and Puri. It is home to the Baisipali Wildlife Sanctuary and it is like a Hill station, so far as natural scenery is concerned. Chhena Poda is the favourite sweet for which Nayagarh is famous in Odisha, hemanta Kumar Padhi is now heading the district administration as the District Magistrate & Collector. Nayagarh princely state was created around the 13th century and is considered as an important part in the history of Odisha, King Suryamani of Baghela dynasty came to Puri and established his kingdom at Nayagarh. Present Nayagarh District consists of the four Garjat states of ex-states Ranpur, Nayagarh, Khandapara, the aboriginal Savaras and Kandhas are the indigenous people of Nayagarh District. Nayagarh District with its ex-states of Nayagarh, Khandapara, Daspalla, the birth history of Nayagarh in the 13th century is an important chapter in the political history of Odisha. Suryamani of Baghela dynasty came to Puri on a pilgrimage from Rewa State in Madhya Pradesh, on the way to Puri, both Suryamani and his brother Chandramani took rest at night at Gunanati. The area was full of tigers and at night a tiger attacked him, both the brothers fought the tiger and killed it. The local people praised the brothers and elected Suryamani as their leader. Suryamani gradually built his fort at Gunanati and married a Mali girl, after the death of his first wife, he again married a Kshatriya girl. From there, he then attacked Haripur and Ralaba, Ralaba was a very beautiful place. While sleeping a tiger attacked him at Ralaba, he again fought, at that moment, he saw a lady with an empty pot passed by to fetch water. Astonishingly, she returned with a little boy, immediately, Suryamani obstructed the way of that lady and wanted to know about the mystery. The lady told she was Bouri Thakurani and the tiger that the killed was the boy. She advised Suryamani to kill her and worship her as his deity, from that date Suryamani worshiped Bauri Thakurani at Ralaba and built his fort there and adopted Tiger Head as a state symbol. Ninth king of this dynasty Bagel Singh came on a hunting to a place in between Rukshi and Balaram mountains and saw a sight that a rabbit pressed down a dog there. After seeing this extraordinary event, he selected and shifted his capital to this place, as per his name, this place was known as Baghua Nayagarh
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Khordha district
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Khordha is an administrative division of the state of Odisha, India. It was formed on April 1,1993, by the division of former Puri District into Puri, Khurda, in the year 2000 the district name was changed to Khordha. The district headquarters is Khordha Town, formerly known as Jajarsingh, the capital city of Bhubaneswar is located in this district. Khurda is the most urbanized of all the districts of Odisha, Khurda Road, the railway station that serves the town is also the divisional headquarters of the East Coast Railway of the Indian Railways. Khurda is known for its brass utensils, cottage industries, railway coach manufacturing and it was the capital of Odisha from 1568 to 1803. It is also known for its fort, often described as the last independent fort, the commander who kept it free from British East India Company was ), Bakshi Jagabandhu, popularly called Paika Bakshi. The Savaras tribal group, who are still to be found in the district in some pockets, Khurda came into prominence when the first Rajas of the Khordha dynasty, Ramachandra Deva, made it the capital of his kingdom during the last part of the 16th century. Khurda occupies a place in the historical map of Odisha. Khurda was the capital of Odisha Kingdom from 1568, British government took Odisha under its rule in 1803. But it could not include Khurda in its territory till 1827, the strong protest from Paikas of Khurda shook the backbone of British rule in Odisha. Khurdagada is known as the Last Independent Fort of India, now the remains of this historic fort lies as an evidence of Indias glorious past. Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha belongs to this district and it is also the district headquarters of Khurda district located at 20. 11° N85. 40° E. The Daya and Kuakhai Rivers flow through Khurda, forest area,618.67 km² Temperature,41.4,9. Khurda, consists of 6 blocks, viz. Banapur, Begunia, Bolgarh, Chilika, Khurda Sadar, according to the 2011 census Khordha district has a population of 2,246,341, roughly equal to the nation of Latvia or the US state of New Mexico. This gives it a ranking of 201st in India, the district has a population density of 799 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 19. 65%, Khordha has a sex ratio of 925 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 87. 51%. Arikama, Village Arikama under Bolagarh block is famous for Maa Koshalsuni mandir in the forest and this green forest is protected by villagers of Arikama, Thanapalli etc. The annual festival on Mahasthami, Raja festival, annual Yagna are some of the festivals observed by the villagers and it is around 28 km away from Khurda and lies on Rajsunakhala Dhalapathar Road
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Puri district
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Puri is a coastal district of the Odisha state of India, famous for its historic antiquities, religious sanctuaries, architectural grandeur, sea-scape beauty, and its moderate climate. It holds a wealth of attractions for visitors and it boasts a continuous history from the 3rd century B. C. to the present, and unique monuments such as those of Lord Jagannath at Puri, and the Sun God at Konark. It has the Chilika Lake, the largest brackish water lakes in India and it offers an ideal resort for birds who migrate from different parts of the continent. By virtue of its location, the climate of Puri is equable throughout the year. This district comprises 1714 revenue villages and it has one subdivision,11 tehsils and 15 blocks. Puri is the municipality of the district. The District has been named after its headquarters town, Puri, According to Cunningham the ancient name of this town was Charitra mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang as Che-li-ta-lo. But the restoration of the word Che-li-ta-lo as Charitra and its identification with the town of Puri are open to doubt, the importance of the town as a seat of Vaisnavism increased when Chodaganga Deva constructed the temple of Purusottama Jagannath and installed the images of the deities. Thereafter, it became famous as the abode of Purusottama and was popularly called Purusottama Kshetra, like many other parts of Odisha, in the Puri District, river gravels and slits may be included among the various Pleistocene formations. So whatever information we have regarding the pre-historic cultures of this districts are mainly derived from different types of stone collected from the surface. In the drama Anargharaghava Natakam attributed to circa 9th century CE, in the Nagari Plate of Anangabhima III of the Saka year 1151-52 i. e. 1229-30 CE, the place is called Purusottama Kshetra. This name in the form of Purusottama Chhatar or only in the form Chhatar was used by the Mughals, even in Yoginitantra and Kalikapurana the city is referred to as Purusottam. Puri region was known as Utkal. The name Purusottama Kshetra was also for sometime known as Purusottama Puri, as the word Purusottama Kshetra was contracted into Kshetra or Chhatra, so also Purusottama Puri was expressed in the contracted form as Puri. In fact, in many early British records this town is known by the name Pooree, in modern times, the name of Puri has become the most popular of all the other names used for this town. Under Mughal Rule, Odisha for the purpose of administration was divided into three circars, namely Jaleswar, Bhadrak and kataka each of which Under Mughal was subdivided into Bishis. Puri formed a part of kataka circar, after their occupation of Odisha in 1751, the Marathas brought about some changes in the revenue divisions of the province. They divided Odisha, which extended from the river Suvarnarekha in the north to the lake Chilika in the south, into five Chakalas viz. Pipli, Kataka Soro
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Mahanadi
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The Mahanadi is a major river in East Central India. It drains an area of around 141,600 square kilometres and has a course of 858 kilometres. The river flows through the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha. The word Mahanadi literally comes from two odia words maha and nadi meaning The Great River. Like many other seasonal Indian rivers, the Mahanadi too is a combination of mountain streams. However its farthest headwaters lie 6 kilometres from Pharsiya village 442 metres above sea level south of Nagri town in Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh, the hills here are an extension of the Eastern Ghats and are a source of many other streams which then go on to join the Mahanadi. For the first 80 kilometres of its course, the Mahanadi flows in a direction and drains the Raipur district. It is a narrow river at this stage and the total width of its valley does not exceed 500–600 metres. After being joined by the Seonath, the flows in an easterly direction through the remaining part of its journey. It is joined by the Jonk and Hasdeo rivers here before entering into Odisha after covering about half of its total length, near the city of Sambalpur, it is dammed by the largest earthen dam in the world, the Hirakud Dam. A composite structure of earth, concrete and masonry, the dam measures 24 kilometres including the Dykes and it spans two hills, the Lamdungri on the left and the Chandili Dunguri on the right. It also forms the biggest artificial lake in Asia, with a reservoir holding 743 square kilometres at full capacity, after the formation of Chhattisgarh State, the major portion of Mahanadi basin now lies in Chhattisgarh. Presently, only 154 square kilometres area of Hasdeo River in Anuppur District lies in Madhya Pradesh. Before the construction of the dam in 1953, the Mahanadi was about a mile wide at Sambalpur and carried massive amounts of silt, especially during the monsoon. Today, it is a rather tame river after the construction of the dam and is joined by the Ib, Ong, Tel and other minor streams. It then skirts the boundaries of the Baudh district and forces a tortuous way between ridges and ledges in a series of rapids until it reaches Dholpur, Odisha. The rapids end here and the river rolls towards the Eastern Ghats, the Satakosia Gorge ends at Badamul of Nayagarh. Dense forests cover the hills flanking the river here, the river enters the Odisha plains at Naraj, about 11 kilometres from Cuttack, where it pours down between two hills that are a mile apart. A barrage has been constructed here to regulate the flow into Cuttack
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Bay of Bengal
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The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar, the Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres. Among the important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, on the south, Adams Bridge and from the southern extreme of Dondra Head to the north point of Poeloe Bras. The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region, in ancient Hindu scriptures, this water body is referred to as Mahodadhi while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning Gulf of the Ganges, in ancient maps. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vangopasagara, also called as Vangasagara. Even today in Bengali, it is known as Bongoposagor, many major rivers of the Indian subcontinent flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these and its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and this joins the Padma whereupon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove forest at the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal, the Brahmaputra at 2,948 km is the 28th longest River in the world. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal in India itself, the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr since the early Miocene period. The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the organic carbon deposited in the worlds oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers. Further south of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the rivers that flow from west to east in the Indian subcontinent. Many small rivers drain directly into the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal, some of the biggest ports in the world — Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata in India as well as Chittagong and Mongla in Bangladesh — are on the bay. Other Indian ports on the bay include Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, the islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India
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Bhargavi River
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Bhargavi River flows across Odisha, India. It forms the Mahanadi–Kuakhai distributary system branching off from the Kuakhai River, a branch of the Kuakhai River meets the Bay of Bengal after breaking up into numerous distributaries in the last 4.0 kilometres of its course. There are four main branches all branching off from the bank, Kanchi, the East Kania, the Naya Nadi. By various channels the first three are interconnected and finally join the Suna Munhi River, which flows into Bali Harchandi, the South Kania gets lost in the marshes on the western shore of Chilika
India
Puri district
