1.
Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks
–
Hetman of Zaporizhian Cossacks as a military title was not officially recognized internationally until the creation of the Cossack Hetmanate. With the creation of Registered Cossacks units their leaders were officially referred to as hetmans of His Royal Mercy of Zaporozhian Host, before 1648 and the establishment of Cossack Hetmanate there were numerous regional hetmans across the Dnieper-banks, who usually were starostas or voivodes. According to Mykola Hrushevsky they were not really considered as hetman, among other such starostas were Karpo Maslo from Cherkasy, Yatsko Bilous, Andrushko, and many others. Even Princes Konstanty Ostrogski and Bohdan Hlinski were conducting Cossack raids on Tatar uluses, the commanders of Zaporozhian Host often considered as hetmans in fact carried a title of Kosh Otaman. As from 1572, hetman was the title of commanders of the Registered Cossack Army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. From the 1648 Bohdan Khmelnytsky uprising, Hetman was the title of the head of the Cossack state, Cossack hetmans had very broad powers and acted as supreme military commanders and executive leader. Eventually the official powers of Cossack Hetmans were gradually diminished in the 18th century. Predslav Lyantskoronsky, not an actual hetman, he was a starosta of Khmilnyk Ostap Dashkevych, not an actual hetman and he also saw Cossack interests in the independence of Ukraine from Poland. Dmytro Hunia, leader in Zaporizhia Historians such as Mykola Arkas question legitimacy of the Teterias elections accusing the later in corruption, also some sources claim election of Teteria being taken place in January 1663. The election of Teteria led to the Povoloch Regiment Uprising in 1663, moreover, the political crisis that followed the Pushkar–Barabash Uprising divided the Cossack Hetmanate completely on both bank of Dnieper River. Coincidentally, on January 10,1663 the Tsardom of Muscovy created the new Little Russian Office within its Ambassadorial Office, in 1681 Mehmed IV appointed George Ducas the Hetman of Ukraine, replacing Khmelnytsky. Following the anathema on Mazepa and the election of Ivan Skoropadsky, upon the death of Skoropadsky, the Hetman elections were disrupted and were awarded as a gift and a type of princely titles, first to Moldavian nobleman and later to the Russian Empress favorite. On 5 April 1710 the council of cossacks, veterans of the battle at Poltava, Orlyk waged a guerrilla warfare at the southern borders of the Russian Empire with the support from Ottoman and Swedish empires. In 1675 John III Sobieski awarded the title to some Ostap Hohol, same thing happened in 1683 when John III Sobieski awarded the title to Stefan Kunicki and in 1684 to Andriy Mohyla. Those awards were given during the Great Turkish War, title existed in 1669 to 1683. Petro Doroshenko Yuri Khmelnytsky George Ducas The title existed in 1710-1760
Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks
–
Historical map of Cossack Hetmanate and territory of Zaporozhian Cossacks under rule of Russian Empire (1751).
Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks
Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks
Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks
2.
Ivan Mazepa
–
Ivan Stepanovych Mazepa served as the Hetman of Zaporizhian Host in 1687–1708. It is claimed that he was awarded a title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1707 for his efforts for the Holy League, the political consequences and interpretation of this desertion have resonated in the national histories both of Russia and of Ukraine. The Russian Orthodox Church laid an anathema on Mazepas name in 1708, anti-Russian elements in Ukraine from the 18th century onwards were derogatorily referred to as Mazepintsy. Mazepa was probably born on March 30,1639, in Mazepyntsi, near Bila Tserkva, then part of the Kiev Voivodeship in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and his mother was Maryna Mokievska, and his father was Stefan Adam Mazepa. Maryna Mokievska came from the family of a Cossack officer who fought alongside Bohdan Khmelnytsky and she gave birth to two children – Ivan and Oleksandra. Stefan Mazepa served as an Otaman of Bila Tserkva, a Cossack representative of the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Rzecz Pospolita, Ivan Mazepa was educated first in the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, then at a Jesuit college in Warsaw. As a page Mazepa was sent to study gunnery in Deventer in 1656–1659, from 1659 he served at the court of the Polish king, John II Casimir on numerous diplomatic missions to Ukraine. His service at the Polish royal court earned him a reputation as an alleged catholicized Lyakh – later the Russian Imperial government would use this slur to discredit Mazepa. During this time arose the legend of his affair with Madam Falbowska that inspired number of European Romantics, such Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo. In 1663 Mazepa returned home when his father fell ill, after the death of his father he inherited the title of the Czernihów cupbearer. In 1674–1681 Mazepa served as a courtier of Doroshenkos rival Hetman Ivan Samoylovych after was taken hostage on the way to Crimea by the Kosh Otaman Ivan Sirko in 1674. In 1677–1678 Mazepa participated in the Chyhyryn campaigns during which Yuri Khmelnytsky, with the support from the Ottoman Empire, the young educated Mazepa quickly rose through the Cossack ranks, and in 1682–1686 he served as an Aide-du-Camp General. In 1687 Ivan Mazepa accused Samoylovych of conspiring to secede from Russia, secured his ouster, at the same time Ivan Mazepa signed the Kolomak Articles that were based on the Hlukhiv Articles of Demian Mnohohrishny. Gradually, Mazepa accumulated great wealth, becoming one of Europes largest land owners, a multitude of churches were built all over Ukraine during his reign in the Ukrainian Baroque style. He expanded the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, the educational institution of Ukraine at the time, to accommodate 2,000 students, founded schools. In 1702, the Cossacks of Right-bank Ukraine, under the leadership of hetman Semen Paliy, began an uprising against Poland, which after early successes was defeated. In the beginning of the 18th century, as the Russian Empire lost significant territory in the Great Northern War, Peter I decided to reform the Russian army and to centralize control over his realm. In Mazepas opinion, the strengthening of Russias central power could put at risk the broad autonomy granted to the Cossack Hetmanate under the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654
Ivan Mazepa
–
Ivan Mazepa Іван Мазепа
Ivan Mazepa
–
10
Hryvnia banknote depicting Ivan Mazepa.
Ivan Mazepa
–
A plate with hetman Ivan Mazepa's coat of arms. It was once placed on the
Chernihiv college.
Ivan Mazepa
–
Charles XII and
Mazepa at
Dnieper River after the
Battle of Poltava
3.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
–
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 13th century until 1795. The state was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija, the Grand Duchy later expanded to include large portions of the former Kievan Rus and other Slavic lands, including territory of present-day Belarus, parts of Ukraine, Poland and Russia. At its greatest extent in the 15th century, it was the largest state in Europe and it was a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state with great diversity in languages, religion, and cultural heritage. Consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 12th century, Mindaugas, the first ruler of the Grand Duchy, was crowned as Catholic King of Lithuania in 1253. The pagan state was targeted in the crusade by the Teutonic Knights. The multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state emerged only at the reign of Gediminas. The reign of Vytautas the Great marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and it also marked the rise of the Lithuanian nobility. After Vytautass death, Lithuanias relationship with the Kingdom of Poland greatly deteriorated, Lithuanian noblemen, including the Radvila family, attempted to break the personal union with Poland. However, the unsuccessful Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars with the Grand Duchy of Moscow forced the union to remain intact, eventually, the Union of Lublin of 1569 created a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In this federation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania maintained its political distinctiveness and had separate government, laws, army, shortly after, the unitary character of the state was confirmed by adopting the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The newly reformed Commonwealth was invaded by Russia in 1792 and partitioned between the neighbours, with a truncated state remaining only nominally independent, after the Kościuszko Uprising, the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria in 1795. The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania name the name of the state as Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia. The title of Grand Duchy was consistently applied to Lithuania from the 14th century onward, in the 12th century, Slavic chronicles refer to Lithuania as one of the areas attacked by the Rus. Pagan Lithuanians initially paid tribute to Polotsk, but they grew in strength. The sudden spark of military raids marked consolidation of the Lithuanian lands in Aukštaitija, the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights, crusading military orders, were established in Riga in 1202 and in Prussia in 1226. The Christian orders posed a significant threat to pagan Baltic tribes, the peace treaty with Galicia–Volhynia of 1219 provides evidence of cooperation between Lithuanians and Samogitians. This treaty lists 21 Lithuanian dukes, including five senior Lithuanian dukes from Aukštaitija, although they had battled in the past, the Lithuanians and the Žemaičiai now faced a common enemy. Likely Živinbudas had the most authority and at least several dukes were from the same families, the formal acknowledgment of common interests and the establishment of a hierarchy among the signatories of the treaty foreshadowed the emergence of the state
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
–
Navahrudak Castle
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
–
Trakai Island Castle
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
–
Gediminas Tower in Vilnius
4.
Principality of Moldavia
–
Moldavia is a historical region, and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river. The western half of Moldavia is now part of Romania, the eastern side belongs to the Republic of Moldova, the original and short-lived reference to the region was Bogdania, after Bogdan I, the founding figure of the principality. Dragoș was accompanied by his female hound called Molda, when reached the shores of an unfamiliar river. The dogs name would have given to the river and extended to the country. The old German Molde, meaning open-pit mine the Gothic Mulda meaning dust, dirt, a Slavic etymology, marking the end of one Slavic genitive form, denoting ownership, chiefly of feminine nouns. In several early references, Moldavia is rendered under the composite form Moldo-Wallachia, Ottoman Turkish references to Moldavia included Boğdan Iflak and Boğdan. See also names in other languages, the name of the region in other languages include French, Moldavie, German, Moldau, Hungarian, Moldva, Russian, Молдавия, Moldaviya, Turkish, Boğdan Prensliği, Greek, Μολδαβία. The inhabitants of Moldova were Christians, archaeological works revealed the remains of a Christian necropolis at Mihălășeni, Botoșani county, from the 5th century. The place of worship, and the tombs had Christian characteristics, the place of worship had a rectangular form with sides of 8 and 7 meters. Similar necropolis and place of worship were found at Nicolina, in Iași The Bolohoveni, the chronicle shows that this land is bordered on the principalities of Halych, Volhynia and Kiev. Archaeological research also identified the location of 13th-century fortified settlements in this region, Alexandru V. Boldur identified Voscodavie, Voscodavti, Voloscovti, Volcovti, Volosovca and their other towns and villages between the middle course of the rivers Nistru/Dniester and Nipru/Dnieper. The Bolohoveni disappeared from chronicles after their defeat in 1257 by Daniil Romanovichs troops, in the early 13th century, the Brodniks, a possible Slavic–Vlach vassal state of Halych, were present, alongside the Vlachs, in much of the regions territory. On the border between Halych and the Brodniks, in the 11th century, a Viking by the name of Rodfos was killed in the area by Vlachs who supposedly betrayed him. In 1164, the future Byzantine Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, was prisoner by Vlach shepherds around the same region. In 1342 and 1345, the Hungarians were victorious in a battle against Tatar-Mongols, the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz mentioned Moldavians as having joined a military expedition in 1342, under King Władysław I, against the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1353, Dragoș, mentioned as a Vlach Knyaz in Maramureș, was sent by Louis I to establish a line of defense against the Golden Horde forces of Mongols on the Siret River and this expedition resulted in a polity vassal to Hungary, centered around Baia. His realm extended north to the Cheremosh River, while the part of Moldavia was still occupied by the Tatar Mongols. After first residing in Baia, Bogdan moved Moldavias seat to Siret, disfavored by the brief union of Angevin Poland and Hungary, Bogdans successor Lațcu accepted conversion to Roman Catholicism around 1370, but his gesture was to remain without consequences
Principality of Moldavia
–
Neamț Citadel
Principality of Moldavia
–
Flag
Principality of Moldavia
–
Căpriana Monastery (1429)
Principality of Moldavia
–
Suceava Seat Fortress
5.
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
Ukrainian language
–
Miniature of
St Luke from the
Peresopnytsia Gospels (1561).
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian-speaking world
Ukrainian language
–
The 1921 Soviet recruitment poster. It uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text: "Son! Enroll in the school of
Red commanders, and the defense of
Soviet Ukraine will be ensured."
Ukrainian language
–
Anti-russification protest. The banner reads "For Ukrainian Children – a Ukrainian school!".
6.
Polish language
–
Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
Polish language
–
The oldest printed text in Polish – Statuta synodalia Episcoporum Wratislaviensis printed in 1475 in
Wrocław by Kasper Elyan.
Polish language
–
Polish
Polish language
–
The
Jakub Wujek Bible in Polish, 1599 print
7.
Ashmyany
–
Ašmiany is a town in Grodno Region, Belarus, located at 50 km from Vilnius, capital of the Ašmiany raion. It lies in the basin of the Oshmianka River and it is also known as Aschemynne in the Chronicles of the Teutonic Knights. It was the birthplace of Lucjan Żeligowski, who was a Polish general, town and region surrounding modern Ašmiany was once within the ethnic Lithuanian territory. Between the 17th and 18th centuries a lot of local Lithuanians died out due to wars and famine, with time Lithuanians were outnumbered by Slavs. Presently, its Lithuanian past is sealed in the townss name, towns name derivative from river name Ašmena, which is originated from appellative Lithuanian word akmuo. Link between consonants š and k is old and echoed in Lithuanian words, respectively ašmuo and akmuo, present name Ashmyany is using plural form of name and is a modern invention, as through ancient towns history, its name was recorded in Lithuanian singular form. The first reliable mentioning of Ašmiany tells that after the death of Gediminas in 1341 the town was inherited, among other places, in 1384, the Teutonic Knights attempted to attack Ašmiany as a beginning attempt to destroy the hereditary state of Jogaila. The Teutons managed to destroy the town, but it quickly recovered, in 1402 another Teutonic attack on the city occurred, but was bloodily repelled and the Teutons were forced to withdraw to Medininkai. In 1413 the town one of the most notable centres of trade. Because of that, in 1432 it became a battlefield of an important battle between the forces of Jogaila under Žygimantas Kęstutaitis and the forces of Švitrigaila allied with the Teutonic Order. After the town was taken by the royalists, it became a property of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. However, less than a century later the town was yet again destroyed and burnt to the ground, the recovery did not occur as quickly as the previous time and in 1537 the town was granted with several royal privileges to facilitate the reconstruction. In 1566 the town received a city charter based on the Magdeburg Law. In the 16th century the town became one of the most notable centres of Calvinism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, after Mikołaj the Red Radziwiłł founded a collegiate. It was also then that the received the first Coat of Arms in its history. Composed of three fields parted per pale, it featured a shield, a holding a weigh and the Ciołek coat of arms. In the effect of the Partitions of Poland of 1795, the town was annexed by Imperial Russia, during the November Uprising it was liberated by a local priest Jasiński and Colonel Count Karol Przeździecki with help of town population. However, in April 1831 they were forced to withdraw to the Naliboki forest in the face of a Russian offensive, some 500 people, women, children and elderly seeking refuge in the Dominican Catholic Church were massacred there
Ashmyany
–
Panorama view
Ashmyany
–
Coat of Arms
8.
Zaporozhian Cossacks
–
Today much of its territory is flooded by the waters of Kakhovka Reservoir. The Zaporizhian Sich grew rapidly in the 15th century from serfs fleeing the more controlled parts of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and it became established as a well-respected political entity with a parliamentary system of government. The Host went through a series of conflicts and alliances involving the three powers, including supporting an uprising in the 18th century and their leader signed a treaty with the Russians. This group was disbanded in the late 18th century by the Russian Empire. The Cossacks served a role of conquering the Caucasian tribes. The name Zaporozhtsi comes from the location of their fortress, the Sich, in Zaporozhia and it is not clear when the first Cossack communities on the Lower Dnieper began to form. There are signs and stories of people living in the steppes as early as the 12th century AD. At that time they were not called Cossacks, since cossack is a Turkish word meaning a free man, during the early 12th century, other Asiatic tribes occupied the steppes to the north of the Black Sea, in such places as Polovci, Pechenihu, Kasahu and others. There were also groups of people who fled into these wild steppes from the lands of Kievan Rus in order to escape oppression or criminal pursuit. Their lifestyle largely resembled that of the now called Cossacks. They survived chiefly from hunting and fishing and raiding the Asiatic tribes for horses, in the 16th century, a great organizer, Dmytro Vyshnevetsky, a Ruthenian noble, united these different groups into a strong military organization. Cossacks were made up mostly of escaped serfs who preferred the dangerous freedom of the wild steppes, however, many serfs from Poland and Muscovy and even Tatars from Crimea could become part of the Cossack host. They had to accept Orthodox Christianity as their religion, and adopt its rituals, registered Cossacks were a part of the Commonwealth army until 1699. From the second part of the 16th century, the Cossacks started raiding Ottoman territories, the Polish government could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks but, since they were nominally subjects of the Commonwealth, it was held responsible for raids by their victims. Reciprocally, the Tatars living under the Ottoman rule launched raids in the Commonwealth, Cossacks, however, were raiding wealthy merchant port cities in the heart of the Ottoman Empire, which were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the Dnieper River. By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Constantinople, in internal agreements, forced by the Poles, the Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding. However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle glorified raids, during this time, the Habsburg Monarchy sometimes covertly employed Cossack raiders to ease Ottoman pressure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatars shared an animosity towards each other due to the damage done by raids from both sides, Cossack raids followed by Tatar retaliation, or Tatar raids followed by Cossack retaliation, were an almost regular occurrence
Zaporozhian Cossacks
–
Cossacks of Azov boarding the Turk
corsairs.
Zaporozhian Cossacks
–
Historical map of Ukrainian Cossack Hetmanate and territory of Zaporozhian Cossacks under rule of Russian Empire (1751).
Zaporozhian Cossacks
–
Zaporozhian Cossacks
9.
Starshyna
–
Starshina might be in Slavonic armed forces, the designation of a military rank, comparable to OR-8 in NATO, or a military appointment, comparable to company sergeant major in the Army. The equivalent in the modern days Russian Navy is Glavnyj starshina of the ship, in Tsardom of Russia and later Imperial Russia of 17-20th centuries a volostnoy starshina was a chief of a volost. He was in charge of the distribution of taxes, resolving conflicts within obshchina, distribution of the usage of community lands, assigning people for military service, etc. The rank of starshina was introduced into Russian military ranks in 1826. In the Soviet Army, a starshina was the highest non-commissioned officer among conscripts, in the Soviet Navy, it was introduced in 1942 as a petty officer rank, every enlisted seaman ranking above Matrose, 1st class is a starshina of various ranks. Polkovnyk or colonel was the higher rank. Later sometime after the Khmelnytskys Uprising it also was associated with the Ukrainian nobility which derived out of the officership, ranks and rank insignia of the Red Army 1918–1935. ⇒ Belarusian, Старшыня, starshynia ⇒ Bulgarian, Старшина, starshina ⇒ Ukrainian, Старшина, Cossack starshyna at the Encyclopedia of Ukraine
Starshyna
–
Uzbek, stashina (аксакал) village Chodshagent (ru: Ходжагент), 1868, drawing by
V.V. Vereshchagin.
Starshyna
–
Starshina in the Russian Army
Starshyna
–
Bashkirs - starshina with starshina insignia — medal,
Orenburg, 1892.
10.
Hetman of Ukraine
–
Hetman of Ukraine is a former historic government office and political institution of Ukraine that is equivalent to a head of state. As a head of state the position was established at first by Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Cossack Hetmanate in the mid 17th century, during that period the office was electoral. Later in the late 18th century it was liquidated by the Russian government during the expansion of the Russian territory towards the Black Sea coast. The position and title was reestablished in 1918 by the Ukrainian General Pavlo Skoropadsky, the Law on the Provisional State System of Ukraine was announced at the session of the Central Council of Ukraine on April 29,1918 which laid a legal groundwork for the new position. Pavlo Skoropadsky transformed Ukraine into the autocratic Ukrainian State under the protectorate of the Central powers, during his term the Communist Party was prohibited on the territory of Ukraine for the first time. After the uprising led by the Directorate of Ukraine, Pavlo Skoropadsky surrendered the title, transferring the power to the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. List of leaders of Ukraine Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks Last Hetman
Hetman of Ukraine
Hetman of Ukraine
–
Hetman of Ukraine Гетьман України
11.
Hetman
–
Hetman is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders. For much of the history of the Principality of Moldavia, the Hetman was the second in rank in the army after the ruling prince, the Hetman was also the highest military officer in Ukraines Hetmanates, the Zaporizhian Host and the Ukrainian State. The title was used by Ukraines Cossacks from the 16th century, hejtman is today the term for the elected governor of a Czech region. One theory derives the word from the Early Modern High German Heubtmann, with Heubt meaning head, hauptmann was a common military title during medieval times, literally meaning captain but functionally corresponding rather to todays general. Moreover, it has suggested that the Czech language may have served as an intermediary. The first Polish title of Grand Crown Hetman dates from 1505, the title of Hetman was given to the leader of the Polish Army and until 1581 the Hetman position existed only during specific campaigns and wars. After that, it became a permanent title, as were all the titles in the Kingdom of Poland, at any given time the Commonwealth had four Hetmans – a Great and Field Hetman for each of both Poland and Lithuania. Hetmans were not paid for their job by the Royal Treasury, Hetmans were the main commanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the armys chain of command. The fact that they could not be removed by the monarch made them very independent and this system worked well when a Hetman had great ability and the monarch was weak, but sometimes produced disastrous results in the opposite case. The contrast with states bordering the Commonwealth, where sovereigns could dismiss their army-commanders at any time, was immense, in 1648 the Zaporizhian Host elected a Hetman of their own igniting the Ukrainian struggle for independence. The military reform of 1776 limited the powers of the Hetmans, the Hetman office was abolished after the third partition of Poland in 1795. At the end of the century, the commanders of the Zaporizhian Cossacks were called Koshovyi Otaman or Hetmans. In 1572, the hetman was a commander of the Registered Cossack Army of the Rzeczpospolita too, from 1648, the start of Bohdan Khmelnytskys uprising, a hetman was the head of the whole Ukrainian State — Hetmanshchyna. Although they were elected, Ukrainian Hetmans had very broad powers and acted as heads of the Cossack state, their military commanders. After the split of Ukraine along the Dnieper River by the 1667 Polish-Russian Treaty of Andrusovo, Ukrainian Cossacks became known as Left-bank Cossacks, in the Russian Empire, the office of Cossack Hetman was abolished by Catherine II of Russia in 1764. The last Hetman of the Zaporozhian Army was Kyrylo Rozumovsky, who reigned from 1751 until 1764, the title was revived in Ukraine during the revolution of 1917 to 1920. This regime lasted until late 1918, when it was overthrown by a new Directory of the re-established Ukrainian Peoples Republic, ataman Bulawa Hatman Hetmans sign Media related to Hetmans at Wikimedia Commons Hetman
Hetman
–
Ukrainian Hetman
Bohdan Zinoviy Khmelnytsky
12.
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk
–
The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk or Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host was a 1710 constitutional document written by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk, a Cossack of Ukraine. The Constitution limited the authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. Pylyp Orlyks Constitution was unique for its period, and was one of the first state constitutions in Europe. After the Battle of Poltava, when Charles XII of Swedens and Hetman Ivan Mazepas armies were defeated by Peter I of Russia, together, Orlyk, Mazepa and their Cossack forces retreated to the city of Bendery. The Zaporizhian Cossack Army also settled in this area, when Mazepa died on 5 April 1710, Pylyp Orlyk was elected as the Hetman of the Zaporizhia Host. On the same day, he declared the Pacts and Constitutions of Rights, hence, Orlyks Constitution is sometimes referred to by the city of its proclamation, Bendery. The document is made up of a preamble and 16 articles, according to the introduction, using all available means, Moscow limited and nullified rights and freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host and eventually subjugated the free Cossack nation. Ivan Mazepas politics and alliance with Charles XII of Sweden are explained as logical and inevitable, the independence of the new state from Russia is given as the primary goal of the Bendery Constitution. Articles 1-3 dealt with general Ukrainian affairs and they proclaimed the Orthodox faith to be the faith of Ukraine, and independent of the patriarch of Moscow. The Sluch River was designated as the boundary between Ukraine and Poland, the articles also recognized the need for an anti-Russian alliance between Ukraine and the Crimean Khanate. Articles 4-5 reflected the interests of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, who constituted the majority of the Bendery emigration. The General Council was to consist not only of the staff and the regimental colonels. Articles 11-16 protected the rights of towns, limited the taxation of peasants and poor Cossacks, Charles XII, king of Sweden and the protector of Ukraine, happened to be in Bendery at the time, and confirmed these articles. On 9 April 2010 in Bender was opened the Constitution monument on the 300th anniversary of its creation, the memorial sign was constructed as a book with engraved information about the history of the writing of the Constitution and its full name in Ukrainian and Latin. Dogovor i postanovlenie mezhdu Getmanom Orlikom i voiskom Zaporozhskim v 1710, in Chteniia v Imperatorskom obshchestve istorii i drevnostei rossiiskikh Krupnyts’kyi, Hetman Pylyp Orlyk i ioho politychna diial’nist’ Vasylenko, M
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk
–
The first page of the Bendery Constitution. This copy is written in Latin and probably penned by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk. The original is kept in the
National Archives of Sweden.
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk
–
Charles XII and
Mazepa at the
Dnieper River
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk
–
Hetman Pylyp Orlyk
13.
Vileyka
–
Vileyka is a town in Belarus and the administrative center of the Vileyka Raion in the Minsk Region. It is located on the River Viliya,100 km northwest of Minsk, the first documentary record dates from 16 November 1460. Population of Vileyka district in 2009,55 thousand people, international phone code, +3751771 xxxxx. The 43rd Russian Navys long-haul communications center is located near Vileyka and it provides VLF communication between Russian Navys headquarters and atomic submarines in the Atlantic, Indian and parts of the Pacific Ocean. In the 10th–13th centuries, the territory was under the Principality of Polotsk, the town was first mentioned in 1460 as a borough center of the Vileyka Starostwo of the Ashmyany county in Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1635 - Władysław IV Vasa bestowed Vileyka upon Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski for exclusive service to the state,1765 - Vileyka has 30 houses,165 inhabitants, and became a county center. 1793 - during the Second Partition of Poland the town is ceded to the Russian Empire,1795 - under the decree of Catherine II of Russia the town receives the status of a city and becomes a center of Vileyka uyezd in Minsk Governorate, then Vilna Governorate. 1810, May 24 - almost the entire city is destroyed by the fire,1861 -2931 inhabitants,1880 –3450, by the end of 19th century - more than 3500 inhabitants. 1907 - the city acquires a branch of Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway,1915, September 14 - occupied by the German Army, but several days later recovered by the Russian Army during the Sventiany Offensive. Over 15,000 civilians massacred including 6,972 Polish Jews,1941, July 12 and 30 - German SS forces murder the remaining Jewish citizens in Vileyka. 1944, July 2 - Vileyka recaptured by troops of the 3rd Belorussian Front of the Red Army during the Minsk Offensive, the town’s population numbers 30,000 people. There is a station of the Molodechno-Polotsk line in the town. The roads to Maladzechna, Smarhoń, Myadzel, Dokshytsy, Pleshchanitsy run through the town, the town’s industry is represented by the Zenit plant, wood processing enterprises, a motor repair plant, building materials plants, light and food enterprises. Vileyka also houses the Museum of Regional Studies, the territory of the Vileyka district is 2400 km². Forests account for 41% of the territory, the main part of the district is situated within the borders of Narach-Vileyka lowland. Unofficial reference and information site of Vileyka
Vileyka
–
Vialejka Church of Rev.
Mary of Egypt
14.
Belarus
–
Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over 40% of its 207,600 square kilometres is forested and its strongest economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing. In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Belarus declared independence as the Belarusian Peoples Republic, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922 and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland after the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, during WWII, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years, in 1945 the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR. The parliament of the declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990. Alexander Lukashenko has served as the president since 1994. Belarus has been labeled Europes last dictatorship by some Western journalists, Lukashenko continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy. Though not directly espousing communism like the five remaining communist countries of China, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam and North Korea, in 2000 Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, with some hints of forming a Union State. Over 70% of Belaruss population of 9.49 million resides in urban areas, more than 80% of the population is ethnic Belarusian, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages, Belarusian and Russian, the Constitution of Belarus does not declare any official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Belarus is the only European country to retain capital punishment in both law and practice, the name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus, i. e. White Rus. There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus, an alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population. A third theory suggests that the old Rus lands that were not conquered by the Tatars had been referred to as white, other sources claim that, before 1267, the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered White Rus. The name Rus is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia, in some languages, including German and Dutch, the country is generally called White Russia to this day. The Latin term Alba Russia was used again by Pope Pius VI in 1783 to recognize the Society of Jesus there, exclaiming Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used White Rus to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Belarus
–
Stamp with the
Cross of St. Euphrosyne from 1992
Belarus
–
Flag
Belarus
–
Principalities of Kievan Rus'
Belarus
–
Khatyn Memorial. The Nazis murdered civilians in 5,295 different localities in
occupied Soviet Belarus.
15.
Czechs
–
Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii and the land Bohemia. The Czech diaspora is found in numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Switzerland, Italy. The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group, the West Slavs have origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Bohemians settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period and they formed an independent principality in the 9th century, the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty. According to mythology, the father of the Czech people were Forefather Čech. The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks, the Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having much higher than the other way around. Czech people have a history of coexistence with Germanic people. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture, the Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism. The Czech ethnonym was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the tribes in the late 9th century. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown, according to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards Čech as a derivative of the root čel-, the Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century. The name Bohemia is Germanic, English used that name until after the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line,34. 2% of Czech males belong to R1a, which is particularly common in a large region extending from South Asia and Southern Siberia to Central Europe and Scandinavia. The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin, presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, according to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, in 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198
Czechs
–
Forefather Čech on the
Říp Mountain
Czechs
–
An overview of the Celtic
Hallstatt (yellow), the preceding
La Tène (green) cultures and
Boii
Czechs
–
Statue of
Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, a saint patron of the Czech people at the
Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc
Czechs
–
The brothers Lech and Czech, founders of
West Slavic lands of
Lechia (
Poland) and
Bohemia in " Chronica Polonorum " (1506)
16.
Vilnius University
–
Vilnius University is the oldest university in the Baltic states and one of the oldest in Northern Europe. It is the largest university in Lithuania, the university was founded in 1579 as the Jesuit Academy of Vilnius by Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, Stephen Báthory. It was the third oldest university in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the aftermath of the Third Partition of Poland and the November Uprising, the university was closed down and suspended its operation until 1919. In the aftermath of World War I the university saw failed attempts to restart it by Lithuania, in 1945 the Polish community of students and scholars of Stefan Batory University was transferred to Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń. After Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the wide-ranging Vilnius University ensemble represents all major architectural styles that predominated in Lithuania, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Classicism. The university has been known by many names during its history, due to its long history of Jewish, Polish and Russian influence or rule, the city portion of its name is rendered as Vilna, Wilna or Wilno, in addition to the modern Lithuanian Vilnius. 1579–1782, Alma Academia et Universitas Vilnensis Societatis Iesu, the Latin name is rendered into English as Jesuit Academy, Jesuit College, or Academy of Vilnius. 1782–1803, Schola Princeps Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae, Principal School of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1803–1832, the following year Walerian Protasewicz, the bishop of Vilnius, purchased several buildings in the city center and established the Vilnian Academy. Initially, the academy had three divisions, humanities, philosophy, and theology, the curriculum at the college and later at the academy was taught in Latin. At the beginning of the 17th century there are records about special groups that taught Lithuanian-speaking students Latin, the first students were enrolled into the Academy in 1570. A library at the college was established in the same year, in its first year of existence the college enrolled 160 students. His edict was approved by Pope Gregory XIIIs bull of October 30,1579, the first rector of the Academy was Piotr Skarga. Lithuanians at the time comprised about one third of the students, others were Germans, Poles, Swedes, in 1575, Duke Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł and Elżbieta Ogińska sponsored a printing house for the academy, one of the first in the region. The printing house issued books in Latin and Polish and the first surviving book in Lithuanian printed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in 1595 and it was Kathechismas, arba Mokslas kiekvienam krikščioniui privalus authored by Mikalojus Daukša. The academys growth continued until the 17th century, the following era, known as The Deluge, led to a dramatic drop in the number of students who matriculated and in the quality of its programs. In the middle of the 18th century, education authorities tried to restore the academy and this led to the foundation of the first observatory in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in 1753, by Tomasz Żebrowski. The Commission of National Education, the worlds first ministry of education, took control of the academy in 1773, the language of instruction changed from Latin to Polish. Thanks to the rector of the academy, Marcin Poczobutt-Odlanicki, the academy was granted the status of Principal School in 1783, the commission, the secular authority governing the academy after the dissolution of the Jesuit order, drew up a new statute
Vilnius University
–
The Grand Courtyard of Vilnius University and the Church of St. John,
Jan Kazimierz Wilczyński, drawing, circa 1850
Vilnius University
–
Vilnius University
Vilnius University
–
A bronze door at the Vilnius University Library commemorates the first
Lithuanian book.
Vilnius University
–
The Grand Courtyard of Vilnius University and
Church of St. Johns.
17.
Vilnius
–
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 542,664 as of 2015. Vilnius is located in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states, Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania as well as of the Vilnius District Municipality. Vilnius is classified as a Gamma global city according to GaWC studies and its Jewish influence until the 20th century has led to it being described as the Jerusalem of Lithuania and Napoleon named it the Jerusalem of the North as he was passing through in 1812. In 2009, Vilnius was the European Capital of Culture, together with the Austrian city of Linz, the name of the city originates from the Vilnia River. The city has also known by many derivate spellings in various languages throughout its history. The most notable names for the city include, Polish, Wilno, Belarusian, Вiльня, German, Wilna, Latvian, Viļņa, Russian, Вильнюс, Yiddish, ווילנע , Czech. A Russian name from the time of the Russian Empire was Вильна/Вильно, the name Vilna is still used in Finnish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Hebrew. Wilna is still used in German, along with Vilnius, the neighborhoods of Vilnius also have names in other languages, which represent the languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the area. Historian Romas Batūra identifies the city with Voruta, one of the castles of Mindaugas, during the reign of Vytenis a city started to emerge from a trading settlement and the first Franciscan Catholic church was built. These letters contain the first unambiguous reference to Vilnius as the capital, According to legend, Gediminas dreamt of an iron wolf howling on a hilltop and consulted a pagan priest for its interpretation. He was told, What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus, the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, the location offered practical advantages, it lay within the Lithuanian heartland at the confluence of two navigable rivers, surrounded by forests and wetlands that were difficult to penetrate. The duchy had been subject to intrusions by the Teutonic Knights, Vilnius was the flourishing capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the residence of the Grand Duke. Gediminas expanded the Grand Duchy through warfare along with strategic alliances and marriages, at its height it covered the territory of modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of modern-day Poland and Russia. His grandchildren Vytautas the Great and Jogaila, however, fought civil wars, during the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392, Vytautas besieged and razed the city in an attempt to wrest control from Jogaila. The two later settled their differences, after a series of treaties culminating in the 1569 Union of Lublin, the rulers of this federation held either or both of two titles, Grand Duke of Lithuania or King of Poland. In 1387, Jogaila acting as a Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło, the city underwent a period of expansion. The Vilnius city walls were built for protection between 1503 and 1522, comprising nine city gates and three towers, and Sigismund August moved his court there in 1544
Vilnius
–
Top:
Vilnius Old Town Middle left:
Vilnius Cathedral Middle right:
St. Anne's Church The 3rd row:
Vilnius business district (Šnipiškės) The 4th row:
Presidential Palace.
Vilnius
–
King
Mindaugas Monument
Vilnius
–
St. Nicholas Church (built before 1387) is the oldest church in Vilnius.
Vilnius
–
Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania
18.
Kyiv Mohyla Academy
–
National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is a national, coeducational research university located in Kiev, Ukraine. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, the predecessor, was established in 1615. The NaUKMA is located on the Academys grounds in the ancient Podil neighborhood, in 1991, it was re-organized, and teaching began the following year. NaUKMA takes part in international university collaborations, such as the European University Association. The university is bilingual in Ukrainian and English and it is one of Ukraine’s few universities with internationally recognized diplomas. With around 3000 students, NaUKMA is one of the smallest universities in Ukraine, alumni of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy played a formative role in the intellectual and church life of Ukraine and Russia in 17th and 18th centuries. Among the most notable alumni were hetman Ivan Mazepa and philosopher Hryhori Skovoroda, the university is known as pro-Western and served as headquarters for Orange Revolution activists. The predecessor of NaUKMA is one of the oldest academic and theological schools among Orthodox Christian East European countries, the Academy was first opened in 1615 as the school of the Kyiv bratstvo. In 1632 the Kiev Pechersk Lavra school and Kiev Brotherhood School merged into the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium, the Collegium was named Mohylańska, the proponent of Western educational standards at the institution. The admissions were open to all social classes, however, upon their return to Ukraine, they were turning back to their Orthodox roots, which also was necessary in order to attain positions in the clergy or Academia. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy also supported a number of other colleges built on its model, hetmans – military leaders of the Zaporozhian Cossacks – were close to the monarch and actively supported the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. The school flourished under the term of Hetman Ivan Mazepa, an alumnus, Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed in 1817 by Tzar Alexander I of Russia. In response alumni of the Academy made a numerous unsuccessful petitions to the monarch regarding to turning Kyiv-Mohyla Academy into a University, instead, in 1819 Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was turned into Kiev Theological Academy- a purely clerical institution. On comparable terms to its predecessors admissions became open only to the children of the existing clergy, the key positions were held mostly by the alumni of the Saint Petersburg Seminary. In years the need of a new type of the educational institution in the Capital of Ukraine Kiev has-been realized certainly. The psychological pressure of the mass upon the authorities for allowing an establishment of such a school was growing. Thereby Saint Vladimir University, as the first European type secular University of Kiev, was established in 1834 by the Tzar Nicholas I of Russia. During the Soviet Union era Kiev Theological Academy was closed, its library plundered, as of today the University building outside wall still bears mosaic portraying a military ship and the quotes by Vladimir Lenin as a remembrance of the schools totalitarian past
Kyiv Mohyla Academy
–
Petro Mohyla, the benefactor of Kiev Collegium.
Kyiv Mohyla Academy
–
National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
Kyiv Mohyla Academy
–
Mosaic on NaUKMA building portraying
Soviet State symbols and the quotes by
Vladimir Lenin: "To study, to study, and only to study..." and "Party – the mind, the honor and consciousness of our epoch". This mosaic replaced the image of an open Bible previously presented at the Kiev Theological Academy wall.
Kyiv Mohyla Academy
–
Main entrance to the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
19.
Mazepa
–
Ivan Stepanovych Mazepa served as the Hetman of Zaporizhian Host in 1687–1708. It is claimed that he was awarded a title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1707 for his efforts for the Holy League, the political consequences and interpretation of this desertion have resonated in the national histories both of Russia and of Ukraine. The Russian Orthodox Church laid an anathema on Mazepas name in 1708, anti-Russian elements in Ukraine from the 18th century onwards were derogatorily referred to as Mazepintsy. Mazepa was probably born on March 30,1639, in Mazepyntsi, near Bila Tserkva, then part of the Kiev Voivodeship in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and his mother was Maryna Mokievska, and his father was Stefan Adam Mazepa. Maryna Mokievska came from the family of a Cossack officer who fought alongside Bohdan Khmelnytsky and she gave birth to two children – Ivan and Oleksandra. Stefan Mazepa served as an Otaman of Bila Tserkva, a Cossack representative of the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Rzecz Pospolita, Ivan Mazepa was educated first in the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, then at a Jesuit college in Warsaw. As a page Mazepa was sent to study gunnery in Deventer in 1656–1659, from 1659 he served at the court of the Polish king, John II Casimir on numerous diplomatic missions to Ukraine. His service at the Polish royal court earned him a reputation as an alleged catholicized Lyakh – later the Russian Imperial government would use this slur to discredit Mazepa. During this time arose the legend of his affair with Madam Falbowska that inspired number of European Romantics, such Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo. In 1663 Mazepa returned home when his father fell ill, after the death of his father he inherited the title of the Czernihów cupbearer. In 1674–1681 Mazepa served as a courtier of Doroshenkos rival Hetman Ivan Samoylovych after was taken hostage on the way to Crimea by the Kosh Otaman Ivan Sirko in 1674. In 1677–1678 Mazepa participated in the Chyhyryn campaigns during which Yuri Khmelnytsky, with the support from the Ottoman Empire, the young educated Mazepa quickly rose through the Cossack ranks, and in 1682–1686 he served as an Aide-du-Camp General. In 1687 Ivan Mazepa accused Samoylovych of conspiring to secede from Russia, secured his ouster, at the same time Ivan Mazepa signed the Kolomak Articles that were based on the Hlukhiv Articles of Demian Mnohohrishny. Gradually, Mazepa accumulated great wealth, becoming one of Europes largest land owners, a multitude of churches were built all over Ukraine during his reign in the Ukrainian Baroque style. He expanded the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, the educational institution of Ukraine at the time, to accommodate 2,000 students, founded schools. In 1702, the Cossacks of Right-bank Ukraine, under the leadership of hetman Semen Paliy, began an uprising against Poland, which after early successes was defeated. In the beginning of the 18th century, as the Russian Empire lost significant territory in the Great Northern War, Peter I decided to reform the Russian army and to centralize control over his realm. In Mazepas opinion, the strengthening of Russias central power could put at risk the broad autonomy granted to the Cossack Hetmanate under the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654
Mazepa
–
Ivan Mazepa Іван Мазепа
Mazepa
–
10
Hryvnia banknote depicting Ivan Mazepa.
Mazepa
–
A plate with hetman Ivan Mazepa's coat of arms. It was once placed on the
Chernihiv college.
Mazepa
–
Charles XII and
Mazepa at
Dnieper River after the
Battle of Poltava
20.
Battle of Poltava
–
It is widely believed to have been the beginning of Swedens decline as a Great Power, as the Tsardom of Russia took its place as the leading nation of north-eastern Europe. The battle also bears major importance in Ukrainian national history, as Hetman of Zaporizhian Host Ivan Mazepa sided with the Swedes, seeking to create an uprising in Ukraine against the tsardom. Today, in place of battle there is a State Cultural Heritage Preserve Complex in Poltava known as the Poltava Battle Field and consists of monuments, Charles XII had led Swedish forces to early victories in North Zealand and in the Battle of Narva in November 1700. However, it would take six years before he defeated Augustus II of Saxony-Poland, Peter I withdrew from Poland in the spring of 1706, and offered to surrender all of his Baltic possessions to Sweden except St. Petersburg, but Charles refused. Peter subsequently adopted a policy in order to deprive the Swedish forces of supplies. Charles ordered an attack on the Russian heartland with a possible assault on Moscow from his campaign base in Poland. The Swedish army of almost 44,000 men left Saxony on 22 August 1707, Charles took the field in November after waiting for reinforcements to arrive. Continuing east, Charles crossed the Vistula River on 25 December 1707, then continued through a hostile Masuria, at the time, the Russians had been occupied with a large rebellion of Don Cossacks, known as the Bulavin Rebellion. This revolt was contained in part by the forces of the Cossack Hetmanate led by Hetman Ivan Mazepa, the Swedes continued to the area around Smorgon and Minsk, where the army went into winter quarters. Charles left 8,000 dragoons under Major-General Ernst Detlof von Krassow in western Poland, poor weather and road conditions kept the Swedish troops in winter quarters until June 1708. In July the Swedes defeated Marshal Boris Sheremetyevs forces at the Battle of Holowczyn, during the spring, General Lewenhaupt in Courland had been ordered to gather supplies and to march his army of about 12,000 men to join Charles forces. However, his departure from Mitau was delayed until late June, rather than winter in Livonia or wait for Lewenhaupt, Charles decided to move southward into the Ukraine and to join Mazepa, who had decided to rebel against Peter. Peter sent Sheremetev to shadow the Swedish army, Lewenhaupt followed south and was attacked while crossing a river near a small village that gave name to the Battle of Lesnaya, losing the supply train and half of his force. In need of resupply, Charles moved towards Baturyn, Mazepas headquarters, anticipating the Swedish arrival, Menshikov ordered the merciless massacre of the population, razing the city and destroying or looting arms, ammunition and food. By the spring of 1709 Charles force had shrunk to half of its original size, after the coldest winter in Europe in over 500 years, Charles was left with 20,000 soldiers and 34 cannons. Short of supplies, Charles laid siege to the Russian fortress at Poltava on the Vorskla River on 2 May 1709, Peters force of 80,000 marched to relieve the siege. Upon his arrival, Peter built a camp on the Vorskla,4 km north of Poltava. While observing the Russian position on 20 June, Charles was struck by a stray bullet, in addition, Charles last hope of reinforcement expired, as the Swedish forces under von Krassow had turned aside to deal with the anti-Swedish Sandomierz Confederation in Poland
Battle of Poltava
–
The Battle of Poltava by
Denis Martens the Younger (1726)
Battle of Poltava
–
Map of the battlefield. Poltava is to the south. Near the Russian fortified camp in the middle, notice the "T" formation of Russian redoubts between the Budyschenski wood to the west and the Yakovetski wood to the east. The original Russian camp is to the north and is marked "20.25.6". The Pushkaryovka camp, with the Swedish baggage, would be in the southwest corner of the map.
Battle of Poltava
–
The most grandiose of
Mikhail Lomonosov 's mosaics depicts the Battle of Poltava
Battle of Poltava
–
Charles XII and
Mazepa at the
Dnieper River after Poltava by
Gustaf Cederström
21.
Charles XII of Sweden
–
Charles XII, also Carl, Latinized to Carolus Rex, was the King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718. He belonged to the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, a line of the House of Wittelsbach. Charles was the surviving son of Charles XI and Ulrika Eleonora the Elder. He assumed power, after a caretaker government, at the age of fifteen. Leading the Swedish army against the alliance Charles won multiple victories despite being usually significantly outnumbered, a major victory over a Russian army some three times the size in 1700 at the Battle of Narva compelled Peter the Great to sue for peace which Charles then rejected. Russia was now the remaining hostile power. The defeat was followed by Surrender at Perevolochna, two campaigns met with frustration and ultimate failure, concluding with his death at the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718. At the time, most of the Swedish Empire was under military occupation. This situation was later formalized, albeit moderated in the subsequent Treaty of Nystad, Charles was an exceptionally skilled military leader and tactician as well as an able politician, credited with introducing important tax and legal reforms. With the war consuming more than half his life and nearly all his reign, Charles, like all kings, was styled by a royal title, which combined all his titles into one single phrase. The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XII does not mean that he was the 12th king of Sweden by that name, Swedish kings Erik XIV and Charles IX gave themselves numerals after studying a mythological history of Sweden. He was actually the 6th King Charles, the non-mathematic numbering tradition continues with the current King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, being counted as the equivalent of Charles XVI. In late 1699 Charles sent a detachment to reinforce his brother-in-law Duke Frederick IV of Holstein-Gottorp. A Saxon army simultaneously invaded Swedish Livonia and in February 1700 invested Riga, Russia also declared war, but stopped short of an attack on Swedish Ingria until September 1700. Leading a force of 8,000 and 43 ships in an invasion of Zealand, Charles rapidly compelled the Danes to submit to the Peace of Travendal in August 1700, Russia had opened their part of the war by invading the Swedish-held territories of Livonia and Estonia. Charles countered this by attacking the Russian besiegers at the Battle of Narva, the Russians outnumbered the Swedish army of ten thousand men by almost four to one. Charles attacked under cover of a blizzard, effectively split the Russian army in two and won the battle, many of Peters troops who fled the battlefield drowned in the Narva River. The total number of Russian fatalities reached about 10,000 at the end of the battle, while the Swedish forces lost 667 men, Charles did not pursue the Russian army
Charles XII of Sweden
–
The 15-year-old Charles in 1697 as king of the Swedish Empire
Charles XII of Sweden
–
Charles XII in military dress
Charles XII of Sweden
Charles XII of Sweden
–
Charles XII and
Mazepa at the
Dnieper River after
Poltava by
Gustaf Cederström
22.
Tighina
–
Bender is a city within the internationally recognized borders of Moldova under de facto control of the unrecognized Transnistria Republic since 1992. It is located on the bank of the river Dniester in the historical region of Bessarabia. Together with its suburb Proteagailovca, the city forms a municipality, Bender is located in the buffer zone established at the end of the 1992 War of Transnistria. While the Joint Control Commission has overriding powers in the city, first mentioned in 1408 as Тягянякяча in a document in Old Slavonic, the town was known in the Middle Ages as Tighina in Moldavian sources and later as Bender in Ottoman sources. The fortress and the city were called Bender for the most part of the time they were a rayah of the Ottomans, and during most of the time they belonged to the Russian Empire. They were known as Tighina in the Principality of Moldavia, in the part of the Russian Empire period. The city is part of the region of Bessarabia. During the Soviet period the city was known in the Moldavian SSR as Бендер in Moldovan written then with the Cyrillic alphabet, independent Moldova officially knows the city as Bender, but otherwise both names are in use. The town was first mentioned as an important customs post in a grant issued by the Moldavian voivode Alexander the Good to the merchants of Lviv on October 8,1408. The name Tighina is found in documents from the half of the 15th century. The town was the main Moldavian customs point on the road linking the country to Tatar Crimea. During his reign of Moldavia, Stephen III had a wooden fort built in the town to defend the settlement from Tatar raids. In 1538, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent conquered the town from Moldavia and its fortifications were developed into a full fortress under the same name under the supervision of the Turkish architect Koji Mimar Sinan. The Ottomans used it to keep the pressure on Moldavia, about the same time the fortress was attacked by Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the 18th century, the area was expanded and modernized by the prince of Moldavia Antioh Cantemir. During the second half of the 18th century, the fortress three times to the Russians during the Russo-Turkish Wars. Along with Bessarabia, the city was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1812, many Ukrainians, Russians and Jews settled in or around Bender, and the town quickly became predominantly Russian-speaking. By 1897, speakers of Romanian and Moldovan made up only around 7% of Benders population, Tighina was part of the Moldavian Democratic Republic in 1917–1918, and after 1918, as part of Bessarabia, the city belonged to Romania, where it was the seat of Tighina County
Tighina
Tighina
Tighina
Tighina
23.
Moldavia
–
Moldavia is a historical region, and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river. The western half of Moldavia is now part of Romania, the eastern side belongs to the Republic of Moldova, the original and short-lived reference to the region was Bogdania, after Bogdan I, the founding figure of the principality. Dragoș was accompanied by his female hound called Molda, when reached the shores of an unfamiliar river. The dogs name would have given to the river and extended to the country. The old German Molde, meaning open-pit mine the Gothic Mulda meaning dust, dirt, a Slavic etymology, marking the end of one Slavic genitive form, denoting ownership, chiefly of feminine nouns. In several early references, Moldavia is rendered under the composite form Moldo-Wallachia, Ottoman Turkish references to Moldavia included Boğdan Iflak and Boğdan. See also names in other languages, the name of the region in other languages include French, Moldavie, German, Moldau, Hungarian, Moldva, Russian, Молдавия, Moldaviya, Turkish, Boğdan Prensliği, Greek, Μολδαβία. The inhabitants of Moldova were Christians, archaeological works revealed the remains of a Christian necropolis at Mihălășeni, Botoșani county, from the 5th century. The place of worship, and the tombs had Christian characteristics, the place of worship had a rectangular form with sides of 8 and 7 meters. Similar necropolis and place of worship were found at Nicolina, in Iași The Bolohoveni, the chronicle shows that this land is bordered on the principalities of Halych, Volhynia and Kiev. Archaeological research also identified the location of 13th-century fortified settlements in this region, Alexandru V. Boldur identified Voscodavie, Voscodavti, Voloscovti, Volcovti, Volosovca and their other towns and villages between the middle course of the rivers Nistru/Dniester and Nipru/Dnieper. The Bolohoveni disappeared from chronicles after their defeat in 1257 by Daniil Romanovichs troops, in the early 13th century, the Brodniks, a possible Slavic–Vlach vassal state of Halych, were present, alongside the Vlachs, in much of the regions territory. On the border between Halych and the Brodniks, in the 11th century, a Viking by the name of Rodfos was killed in the area by Vlachs who supposedly betrayed him. In 1164, the future Byzantine Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, was prisoner by Vlach shepherds around the same region. In 1342 and 1345, the Hungarians were victorious in a battle against Tatar-Mongols, the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz mentioned Moldavians as having joined a military expedition in 1342, under King Władysław I, against the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1353, Dragoș, mentioned as a Vlach Knyaz in Maramureș, was sent by Louis I to establish a line of defense against the Golden Horde forces of Mongols on the Siret River and this expedition resulted in a polity vassal to Hungary, centered around Baia. His realm extended north to the Cheremosh River, while the part of Moldavia was still occupied by the Tatar Mongols. After first residing in Baia, Bogdan moved Moldavias seat to Siret, disfavored by the brief union of Angevin Poland and Hungary, Bogdans successor Lațcu accepted conversion to Roman Catholicism around 1370, but his gesture was to remain without consequences
Moldavia
–
Neamț Citadel
Moldavia
Moldavia
–
Căpriana Monastery (1429)
Moldavia
–
Suceava Seat Fortress
24.
Crimean Tatars
–
Crimean Tatars constituted the majority of Crimeas population from the time of its ethnogenesis until mid-19th century, and the relative largest ethnic population until the end of 19th century. Starting in 1967, some were allowed to return to Crimea, today, Crimean Tatars constitute approximately 12% of the population of Crimea. There remains a large diaspora of Crimean Tatars in Turkey and Uzbekistan, in the latest Ukrainian census,248,200 Ukrainian citizens identified themselves as Crimean Tatars with 98% of them living in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. An additional 1,800 citizens live in the city of Sevastopol, also on the Crimean peninsula, about 150,000 remain in exile in Central Asia, mainly in Uzbekistan. The official number of Crimean Tatars in Turkey is 150,000 with some Crimean Tatar activists estimating a figure as high as 6 million. The activists reached this number by taking one million Tatar immigrants to Turkey as a starting point, Crimean Tatars in Turkey mostly live in Eskişehir Province, descendants of those who emigrated in the late 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. In the Dobruja region straddling Romania and Bulgaria, there are more than 27,000 Crimean Tatars,24,000 on the Romanian side, and 3,000 on the Bulgarian side. However, the Cuman language is considered the ancestor of the current language of the Crimean Tatars with possible incorporations of the other languages like Crimean Gothic. Another theory suggests Crimean Tatars trace their origins to the waves of ancient people Scythians, Greeks, Goths, Italians and Armenians. Goths, Gypsies, and Greeks were assumed to be some of the ancestors of the Tatars on the coast of Crimea, while there were mixed hill Tatars, Italians and Greeks mixed with the coastal Crimean Tatars. The Crimean Tatars emerged as a nation at the time of the Crimean Khanate, the Turkic-speaking population of the Crimea had mostly adopted Islam already in the 14th century, following the conversion of Ozbeg Khan of the Golden Horde. Until the beginning of the 18th century, Crimean Tatars were known for frequent, at some periods almost annual, devastating raids into Ukraine and Russia. For a long time, until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive trade with the Ottoman Empire. One of the most important trading ports and slave markets was Kefe, slaves and freedmen formed approximately 75% of the Crimean population. Some researchers estimate that altogether up to 3 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate, the Don Cossacks and Kalmyk Mongols also managed to raid Crimean Tatars land. The last recorded major Crimean raid, before those in the Russo-Turkish War took place during the reign of Peter the Great, however, Cossack raids continued after that time, Ottoman Grand Vizier complained to the Russian consul about raids to Crimea and Özi in 1761. In 1769 one last major Tatar raid, which took place during the Russo-Turkish War, after a period of political unrest in Crimea, Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783. After the annexation, the wealthier Tatars, who had exported wheat, meat, fish and wine to other parts of the Black Sea, began to be expelled, further expulsions followed in 1812 for fear of the reliability of the Tatars in the face of Napoleons advance
Crimean Tatars
–
Mamai
Crimean Tatars
–
Flag of the Crimean Tatar people
Crimean Tatars
–
Mustafa Abdülcemil Qırımoğlu
Crimean Tatars
–
Juma Mosque
25.
Cossacks
–
Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people who became known as members of democratic, self-governing, semi-military communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Russia. The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimed Khazar origin, the Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule, the Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate. The Don Cossack Host, which had established by the 16th century. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia, and the Yaik, Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks. By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders, the expansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, and independence. By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had transformed into a special military estate. The government provided only firearms and supplies for them, Cossack service was considered the most rigorous one. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service and they also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders. During the Russian Civil War, Don and Kuban Cossacks were the first nations to open war against the Bolsheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic. The Cossack troops formed the core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to Decossackization, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took a part in Post-Soviet conflicts and Yugoslav Wars. In Russias 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity, there are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the United States. Max Vasmers etymological dictionary traces the name to the Old East Slavic word козакъ, kozak, the ethnonym Kazakh is from the same Turkic root. In written sources the name is first attested in Codex Cumanicus from the 13th century, in English, Cossack is first attested in 1590
Cossacks
–
Italian map of «European Tartaria» (1684).
Dnieper Ukraine is marked as « Ukraine or the land of
Zaporozhian Cossacks (Vkraina o Paese de Cossachi di Zaporowa)». On the east there is « Ukraine or the land of
Don Cossacks, who are subjects of
Muscovy (Vkraina ouero Paese de Cossachi Tanaiti Soggetti al Moscouita)».
Cossacks
–
Cossack Mamay – the ideal image of Cossack in Ukrainian folklore.
Cossacks
–
A Zaporozhian Cossack, 17th-18th century traditional clothing.
26.
Right-bank Ukraine
–
It was separated from the left bank during The Ruin. Right-bank Ukraine is bordered by the regions of Volhynia and Podolia to the west, Yedisan and Zaporozhia to the south, Left-bank Ukraine to the east. Main cities of the region include Cherkasy, Kropyvnytskyi, Bila Tserkva, Zhytomyr, the right and the left-bank Ukraines history is closely associated with the Khmelnytsky Rebellion of 1648–57. The territory belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the House of Vasa until the Russo-Polish War triggered by the Khmelnytskys Treaty of Pereyaslav pleaded in 1654 with the Muscovy. After the 13-year conflict, the victorious Tsardom of Russia incorporated the left-bank Ukraine along with the city of Kiev in 1667 following the Truce of Andrusovo, meanwhile, the right-bank Ukraine remained in the Commonwealth until the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. As part of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown it was divided into two voivodeships, Kiev and Bracław, in 1669 Hetman Petro Doroshenko submitted to the Ottoman Empire as a vassal. The southernmost Podolia in the right-bank Ukraine was invaded by Ottomans in 1672, the cities of Kiev and Braclav came under the control of Petro Doroshenko until they were captured by the Turks in 1681. Following the 1683 victory of the Christian powers in the Battle of Vienna, during the 18th century, two Cossack uprisings took place. In 1793 right-bank Ukraine was finally annexed by the Russian Empire in the Second Partition of Poland, in the 19th century, the population of right-bank Ukraine was mostly Ukrainian, but most of the land was owned by the Polish or Polonized Ukrainian nobility. Many of the towns and cities belonged to the Pale of Settlement and had a substantial Jewish population, while the Polish-speaking nobility was mostly Roman Catholic. Most of the peasantry became Greek Catholic only in the 18th century, the right-bank Ukraine was subsequently divided into four provinces, each with its own administration, Kiev, Volhynia, Kherson and Podolia. 1684–1689 Andriy Mohyla 1689–1692 Hryshko Ivanovych 1693–1699 Samiylo Samus
Right-bank Ukraine
–
Right-bank Ukraine.
27.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
–
A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
28.
Vienna
–
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
