1.
James G. Blaine
–
In the general election, he was narrowly defeated by Democrat Grover Cleveland. Blaine was one of the late 19th century’s leading Republicans and champion of the moderate reformist faction of the party known as the “Half-Breeds. ”Blaine was born in the western Pennsylvania town of West Brownsville and after moved to Maine. Nicknamed “the Magnetic Man, he was a speaker in an era that prized oratory. He began his career as an early supporter of Abraham Lincoln. In Reconstruction, Blaine was a supporter of suffrage. Initially a protectionist, he worked for a reduction in the tariff. His efforts at expanding the United States trade and influence began the shift to a more active American foreign policy, Blaine was a pioneer of tariff reciprocity and urged greater involvement in Latin American affairs. An expansionist, Blaine’s policies would lead in less than a decade to the establishment of the United States acquisition of Pacific colonies, James Gillespie Blaine was born January 31,1830 in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, the third child of Ephraim Lyon Blaine and his wife Maria Blaine. Blaine’s father was a western Pennsylvania businessman and landowner, and the lived in relative comfort. On his father’s side, Blaine was descended from Scotch-Irish settlers who first emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1745 and his great-grandfather, Ephraim Blaine, served as a Commissary-General under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. Blaine’s mother and her forebears were Irish Catholics who immigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1780s, Blaine’s parents were married in 1820 in a Roman Catholic ceremony, although Blaine’s father remained a Presbyterian. Following a common compromise of the era, the Blaines agreed that their daughters would be raised in their mother’s Catholic faith while their sons would be brought up in their father’s religion, in politics, Blaine’s father supported the Whig party. Blaine’s biographers describe his childhood as “harmonious, and note that the boy took an early interest in history, at the age of thirteen, Blaine enrolled in his father’s alma mater, Washington College, in nearby Washington, Pennsylvania. There, he was a member of the Washington Literary Society, Blaine succeeded academically, graduating near the top of his class and delivering the salutatory address in June 1847. After graduation, Blaine considered attending law school at Yale Law School, in 1848, Blaine was hired as a professor of mathematics and ancient languages at the Western Military Institute in Georgetown, Kentucky. Although he was eighteen years old and younger than many of his students. Blaine grew to enjoy life in his state and became an admirer of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. He also made the acquaintance of Harriet Stanwood, a teacher at the nearby Millersburg Female College, on June 30,1850, the two were married
James G. Blaine
–
James G. Blaine
James G. Blaine
–
Signature
James G. Blaine
–
The offices of the Kennebec Journal, where Blaine got his start in politics as editor.
James G. Blaine
–
James G. Blaine in the 1860s
2.
1884 Republican National Convention
–
The 1884 Republican National Convention was a presidential nominating convention held at the Exposition Hall in Chicago, Illinois, on June 3–6,1884. It resulted in the nomination of former House Speaker James G. Blaine from Maine for President, the ticket lost in the election of 1884 to Democrats Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks. In attendance were 1600 delegates and alternates and 6000 spectators, there were 820 official delegates,411 votes were needed to win the nomination. The incumbent President, Chester Arthur, was not a contender due to ill health. Blaine was the favorite going in, but there was a possibility that President Arthur could build a coalition with smaller candidates such as George F. Edmunds, there were also rumors that members of the Party would bolt if Blaine won the nomination. Neither Blaine nor Arthur were in attendance, Blaine was at his home in Augusta, Maine, and Arthur followed the events from the White House by telegraphy. To test the waters Blaine supporters nominated Powell Clayton as temporary chair of the Convention, a former Arthur supporter, Clayton was now in Blaines camp. He was popular with veterans, but was associated with the Star Route Frauds. Edmunds supporters, led by Henry C. Lodge moved to nominate John R. Lynch instead, the speech supporting Lynch was given by Theodore Roosevelt. Lynch won the vote 424 to 384, and Blaines nomination seemed for the first time vulnerable, the motion failed, again by the fortitude of Edmunds supporters. The day closed with John B. Henderson being elected permanent chair of the Convention and that evening leaders of Arthurs and Edmunds camps met in private in the Grand Pacific Hotel and tried to create a viable coalition. Arthurs team could not guarantee that his supporters would back Edmunds and it was more likely that the second choice of Arthur delegates was Blaine. The roll call of the States began the next evening, when Maine, Blaines state, was called, the cheering lasted ten minutes, during which time William H. West came to the platform and gave a speech to second the nomination. After Wests speech, pandemonium continued in the building, much to Wests chagrin, further speeches seconding the nomination were given by Cushman Kellogg Davis and Thomas C. When the roll call reached New York, it was Arthurs turn to be nominated, townsends speech was lackluster at best and poorly prepared, Townsend having been selected for the responsibility only after the roll call began. His speech was drowned out by hisses and eruptions of side conversations. The nomination was seconded by Harry H. Bingham, John R. Lynch, binghams speech was strong, Lynchs brief, and Winstons irritating
1884 Republican National Convention
1884 Republican National Convention
–
Nominees Blaine and Logan
1884 Republican National Convention
–
President Arthur
1884 Republican National Convention
–
Senator
George F. Edmunds of
Vermont
3.
Pyrrhus of Epirus
–
Pyrrhus was a Greek general and statesman of the Hellenistic period. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house and he was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, caused him heavy losses and he is the subject of one of Plutarchs Parallel Lives. Pyrrhus was the son of Aeacides and Phthia, a Thessalian woman, and he had two sisters, Deidamia and Troias. In 317 BC, when Pyrrhus was only two, his father was dethroned, Pyrrhus family took refuge with Glaukias of the Taulantians, one of the largest Illyrian tribes. Pyrrhus was raised by Beroea, Glaukiass wife and a Molossian of the Aeacidae dynasty, Glaukias restored Pyrrhus to the throne in 306 BC until the latter was banished again, four years later, by his enemy, Cassander. Thus, he went on to serve as an officer, in the wars of the Diadochi, in 298 BC, Pyrrhus was taken hostage to Alexandria, under the terms of a peace treaty made between Demetrius and Ptolemy I Soter. There, he married Ptolemy Is stepdaughter Antigone and restored his kingdom in Epirus in 297 BC with financial, Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II of Epirus murdered. In 295 BC, Pyrrhus transferred the capital of his kingdom to Ambrakia, next, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius and in 292 BC he invaded Thessaly while Demetrius was besieging Thebes but was repulsed. By 286 BC, Pyrrhus had taken control over the kingdom of Macedon, the Greek city of Tarentum, in southern Italy, fell out with Rome due to a violation of an old treaty that specified Rome was not to send warships into the Tarentine Gulf. In 282 BC, the Romans installed garrisons in the Greek cities of Thurii, Locri, and Rhegium, Tarentum was now faced with a Roman attack and certain defeat, unless they could enlist the aid of greater powers. Rome had already made itself into a power, and was poised to subdue all the Greek cities in Magna Graecia. The Tarentines asked Pyrrhus to lead their war against the Romans, Pyrrhus was encouraged to aid the Tarentines by the Oracle of Delphi. His goals were not, however, selfless and he recognized the possibility of carving out an empire for himself in Italy. He made an alliance with Ptolemy Ceraunus, King of Macedon and his most powerful neighbor, and arrived in Italy in 280 BC. Pyrrhus entered Italy with an army consisting of 20,000 infantry,3,000 cavalry,2,000 archers,500 slingers, and 20 war elephants in a bid to subdue the Romans. The elephants had been loaned to him by Ptolemy II, who had also promised 9,000 soldiers, there are conflicting sources about casualties. Hieronymus of Cardia reports the Romans lost about 7,000 while Pyrrhus lost 3,000 soldiers, dionysius gives a bloodier view of 15,000 Roman dead and 13,000 Epirot
Pyrrhus of Epirus
–
Bust of Pyrrhus at the
National Archaeological Museum of Naples
Pyrrhus of Epirus
–
Coin of Pyrrhus minted at
Syracuse, 278 BC. Obverse: Veiled head of
Phtia with oak wreath, ΦΘIAΣ (of Phtia). Reverse:
Thunderbolt, BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΠΥΡΡOΥ (of King Pyrrhus).
Pyrrhus of Epirus
–
The
Siege of Sparta, by
François Topino-Lebrun
Pyrrhus of Epirus
–
Coin of Pyrrhus,
Kingdom of Epirus (inscription in
Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΠΥΡΡΟΥ - Basileōs Pyrrhou, i.e. "(of) King Pyrrhus").
4.
Epirus (ancient state)
–
Epirus was an ancient Greek state, located in the geographical region of Epirus in the western Balkans. The homeland of the ancient Epirotes was bordered by the Aetolian League to the south, Thessaly and Macedonia to the east, and Illyrian tribes to the north. For a brief period, the Epirote king Pyrrhus managed to make Epirus the most powerful state in the Greek world, Epirus has been occupied since at least Neolithic times by seafarers along the coast and by hunters and shepherds in the interior who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large tumuli containing shaft graves, similar to the Mycenaean tombs, the Dorians invaded Greece from Epirus and Macedonia at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, though the reasons for their migration are obscure. The regions original inhabitants were driven southward into the Greek mainland by the invasion and these were the Chaonians of northwestern Epirus, the Molossians in the center, and the Thesprotians in the south. The Molossian Aeacidae dynasty managed to create the first centralized state in Epirus from about 370 BC onwards and she was to become the mother of Alexander the Great. On the death of Arybbas, Alexander the Molossian, uncle of Alexander the Great of Macedon, after some successes on the battlefield, he was defeated by a coalition of Italic tribes at the Battle of Pandosia in 331 BC. In 330 BC, upon Alexander the Molossians death, the term Epirus appears as a political unit in the ancient Greek records for the first time. Subsequently, the coinages of the three major Epirote tribal groups came to an end, and a new coinage was issued with the legend Epirotes. After Alexanders I death, Aeacides of Epirus, who succeeded him, espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander, aeacidess son Pyrrhus came to the throne in 295 BC. Pyrrhus, being a general, was encouraged to aid the Greeks of Tarentum and decided to initiate a major offensive in the Italian peninsula. Due to its martial abilities, the Epirote army defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea. Subsequently, Pyrrhuss forces nearly reached the outskirts of Rome, but had to retreat to avoid a conflict with a more numerous Roman army. The following year, Pyrrhus invaded Apulia and the two met in the Battle of Asculum where the Epirotes won the original Pyrrhic victory. In 277 BC, Pyrrhus captured the Carthaginian fortress in Eryx and this prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus. Meanwhile, he had begun to display despotic behavior towards the Sicilian Greeks, though he defeated the Carthaginians in battle, he was forced to abandon Sicily. Pyrrhuss Italian campaign came to an end following the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum, having lost the vast majority of his army, he decided to return to Epirus, which finally resulted in the loss of all his Italian holdings. Because of his victories, the term Pyrrhic victory is often used for a victory with devastating cost to the victor
Epirus (ancient state)
Epirus (ancient state)
–
Coin of the Epirote League, depicting
Zeus (left) and a lighting bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ", "of the Epirotes" (right).
Epirus (ancient state)
–
Political structure of the ancient Greek world (8th–5th centuries BC).
5.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
6.
Battle of Heraclea
–
Tarentum was a Greek colony, part of Magna Graecia. The Greeks in Tarentum had grown afraid of Roman expansion after the Third Samnite War, after the surrender of the Samnites in 290 BC, the Romans founded many colonies in Apulia and Lucania, the most important of which was Venusia. In 282 BC, after a battle against the Samnites, Lucanians, Bruttians and Thurii, Roman troops entered the Italian Greek colonies of Croton, Lokroi, and Rhegium. Democrats from Tarentum knew that as soon as Rome finished its war with the Gauls, Lucanians, Etruscans, Samnites, and Bruttians, they would enter Tarentum. The second faction in Tarentum were the aristocrats, led by Agis, the aristocrats, however, could not surrender directly and become unpopular with the population. The Tarentines were angry, because the Romans had signed an agreement not to sail into the Gulf of Taranto, a few of the ships were sunk, and one was captured. The Tarentines knew that they had few chances of victory against Rome and they decided to call for help from Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. The army and fleet of Tarentum moved to Thurii and helped the democrats there exile the aristocrats, the Roman garrison placed in Thurii withdrew. The Romans sent a mission to settle the matter and take back the prisoners but the negotiations ended abruptly. In 281 BC, Roman legions under the command of Lucius Aemilius Barbula entered Tarentum, Tarentum, with Samnite and Salentinian reinforcements, then lost a battle against the Romans. After the battle the Greeks chose Agis to sign a truce and these talks were also broken off when 3,000 soldiers from Epirus under the command of Milon entered the town. The Roman consul withdrew and suffered losses from attacks by the Greek ships, Pyrrhus decided to help Tarentum because he was in debt to them — they had earlier helped him conquer the island of Corcyra. He also believed that he could count on help from the Samnites, Lucanians, Etruscans, Umbrians, and Bruttians and his ultimate goal was to re-conquer Macedon he had lost in 285 BC, but did not have enough money to recruit soldiers. He planned to help Tarentum, then go to Sicily and attack Carthage, after winning a war against Carthage and capturing south Italy he would have enough money to organise a strong army and capture Macedon. Before he left Epirus, Pyrrhus formed an alliance and borrowed soldiers and money from the pretender to the Macedonian throne and his long-time friend and ally Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king of Ptolemaic Egypt, also promised to send 9,000 soldiers and 50 war elephants. He also recruited cavalry from Thessaly and archers and slingers from Rhodes — as their rulers wanted to avoid a war with Epirus, in the spring of 280 BC Pyrrhus landed without losses in Italy. After hearing of Pyrrhus arrival in Italy the Romans mobilized eight legions with auxiliares and they divided it into four armies, One army under the command of Barbula, with orders to distract the Samnites and Lucanians so they could not join Pyrrhus army. A second army left behind to secure Rome, a third army under the command of consul Tiberius Coruncanius marched against Etruscans, to avoid an alliance between them and Pyrrhus
Battle of Heraclea
–
battle sites and places of the Pyrrhic War
7.
Battle of Asculum
–
The battle took place during the Pyrrhic War, after the Battle of Heraclea of 280 BC, which was the first battle of the war. There exist accounts of battle by three ancient historians, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch and Cassius Dio. Asculum was in Lucanian territory, In southern Italy, Cassius Dio wrote that during the winter of 280/279 BC both sides prepared for the next battle. In the spring of 279 BC, Pyrrhus invaded Apulia, many places were captured or capitulated. The Romans came upon him near Asculum and encamped opposite him, in Plutarchs account, instead, after resting his army, Pyrrhus marched to Asculum to confront the Romans. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Pyrrhus had 70,000 infantry, the Romans had more than 70,000 infantry, of whom about 20,000 where Romans, the rest being troops from allies. The Romans had about 8,000 cavalry and Pyrrhus had slightly more, Pyrrhus had men from Thesprotia, Ambracia and Chaon, two cities and a district in Epirus, and mercenaries from the Aetolians, Acarnanians and Athamanians. These Greeks fought in the Macedonian Phalanx battle formation and he had cavalry squadrons from Thessaly. The Greeks of the city of Tarentum, in southern Italy were allies of Pyrrhus, Pyrrhus also had allies from three Italic peoples in southern Italy, the Bruttii, Lucani and Samnites. Among the allies of Rome mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus there were the Frentani, Marrucini, Paeligni, Dauni, there might also have been contingents from the Marsi, and Vestini, who were also allies of Rome. Since Pyrrhus elephants had caused much terror and destruction in the Battle of Heraclea and they were four-wheeled and had poles mounted transversely on upright beams. They could be swung in any direction, some had iron tridents, spikes or scythes and some had ‘cranes that hurled down heavy grappling irons’. Many poles protruded in front of the wagons and had fire-bearing grapnels wrapped in cloth daubed with pitch, the wagons carried bowmen, hurlers of stones and slingers who threw iron caltrops and men who threw grapnels on fire against the trunks and faces of the elephants. The Romans had 300 such wagons, Pyrrhus lined up the Macedonian phalanx of the Epirots and Ambracians, mercenaries from Tarentum with white shields, and the Bruttii and Lucani allies on the right wing. The Thesprotians and Chaonians were deployed in the next to the Aetolian, Acarnanian and Athamanian mercenaries. The Samnites formed the left wing, on there right wing of the cavalry there were the Samnite, Thessalian and Bruttii squadrons and Tarentine mercenaries. On the left wing, there were the Ambracian, Lucanian and Tarentine squadrons and he divided the light infantry and the elephants in two groups and placed them behind the wings, on a slightly elevated position. Pyrrhus had an agema of 2000 picked cavalrymen who were kept behind the line and were to help hard-pressed troops
Battle of Asculum
–
Battle sites and places of the Pyrrhic War
8.
Pyrrhic War
–
The Pyrrhic War was a war fought by Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus. Pyrrhus was asked by the people of the Greek city of Tarentum in southern Italy to help them in their war with the Roman Republic. A skilled commander, with a strong army fortified by war elephants, Pyrrhus enjoyed initial success against the Roman legions, but suffered heavy losses even in these victories. Plutarch wrote that Pyrrhus said after the battle of the war, If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans. He could not call up more men from home and his allies in Italy were becoming indifferent, the Romans, by contrast, had a very large pool of military manpower and could replenish their legions even if their forces were depleted in many battles. This has led to the expression Pyrrhic victory, a term for a victory that inflicts losses the victor cannot afford in the long term, worn down by the battles against Rome, Pyrrhus moved his army to Sicily to instead war against the Carthaginians. After several years of campaigning there, he returned to Italy in 275 BC, following this, Pyrrhus returned to Epirus, ending the war. Three years later, in 272 BC, the Romans captured Tarentum, the Pyrrhic War was the first time that Rome confronted the professional mercenary armies of the Hellenistic states of the eastern Mediterranean. Romes victory drew the attention of states to the emerging power of Rome. Ptolemy II, the king of Egypt, established relations with Rome. After the war, Rome asserted her hegemony over southern Italy, to the south of the Roman sphere of influence in Italy there were a number of city-states founded by Greek settlers from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Tarentum was the largest and most powerful Greek city in Italy, the Tarentines attacked a Roman fleet off their coast, sinking some of their ships and capturing some prisoners. As a result, Rome declared war, there are different versions of the events which led to the declaration of war. Appian, Cassius Dio and Zonaras appear to have been intent on blaming the war on the Tarentines, the part of the text of Dionysius of Halicarnassus which deals with the events in the run-up to the declaration war has been lost and Plutarch did mention them. In Appians version, in 282 BC ten Roman ships appeared close to Tarentum, according to Appian, Publius Cornelius Dolabella was sailing along the coast of Magna Graecia, sight-seeing. A demagogue reminded the townsfolk about an old treaty in which Romans had bound themselves not to sail beyond the promontory of Lacinium and he persuaded them to attack the ships, four were sunk and one was captured with all on board. This would have happened in 282 BC, the year after Dolabellas consulship, Appian did not explain why the consul was sight-seeing with so many ships. Neither Cassius Dio nor Zonaras mentioned any treaties between the Romans and the Tarentines, however, the Tarentines had not participated in these battles
Pyrrhic War
–
Caricature from The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott a Beckett: "Pyrrhus arrives in Italy with his Troupe."
Pyrrhic War
–
The route of
Pyrrhus of Epirus during his campaigns in southern
Italy and
Sicily.
9.
Plutarch
–
Plutarch was a Greek biographer and essayist, known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia. He is classified as a Middle Platonist, Plutarchs surviving works were written in Greek, but intended for both Greek and Roman readers. Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the town of Chaeronea, about 80 km east of Delphi. The name of Plutarchs father has not been preserved, but based on the common Greek custom of repeating a name in alternate generations, the name of Plutarchs grandfather was Lamprias, as he attested in Moralia and in his Life of Antony. His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are mentioned in his essays and dialogues. Rualdus, in his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus, recovered the name of Plutarchs wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, interestingly, he hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation. The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and the second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarchs treatise De animae procreatione in Timaeo is dedicated to them, another person, Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarchs son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy at the Academy of Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67, at some point, Plutarch took Roman citizenship. He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman Empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, at his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays, Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the matters of the town. The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria, however, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian. Plutarch spent the last thirty years of his serving as a priest in Delphi. He thus connected part of his work with the sanctuary of Apollo, the processes of oracle-giving
Plutarch
–
Ruins of the Temple of
Apollo at
Delphi, where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the
oracle.
Plutarch
–
Parallel Lives,
Amyot translation, 1565
Plutarch
–
Plutarch's bust at
Chaeronea, his home town.
Plutarch
–
A page from the 1470 Ulrich Han printing of Plutarch's
Parallel Lives.
10.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
–
Dionysius of Halicarnassus was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Caesar Augustus. His literary style was Atticistic — imitating Classical Attic Greek in its prime, Dionysius opinion of the necessity of a promotion of paideia within education, from true knowledge of Classical sources, endured for centuries in a form integral to the identity of the Greek elite. At some time he moved to Rome after the termination of the civil wars, during this period, he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown, in the 19th century, it was commonly supposed that he was the ancestor of Aelius Dionysius of Halicarnassus. His majir work, entitled Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία, embraced the history of Rome from the period to the beginning of the First Punic War. The first three books of Appian, Plutarchs Life of Camillus and Life of Coriolanus also embody much of Dionysius, according to him, history is philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from the point of view of a Greek rhetorician. But he carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work, the last two treatises are supplemented by letters to Gn. Latin orators and rhetoricians adopted Dionysius method of imitatio and discarded Aristotles mimesis, Dionysius is one of the primary sources for the accounts of the Roman foundation myth and the myth of Romulus and Remus. He was heavily relied upon for the publications of Livy. He writes extensively on the myth, sometimes attributing direct quotes to its figures, the myth spans the first 2 volumes of his Roman Antiquities, beginning with Book I chapter 73 and concluding in Book II chapter 56. Dionysius claims that the twins were born to a vestal named Ilia Silvia and her family descends from Aeneas of Troy and the daughter of King Latinus of the Original Latin tribes. Proca, her grandfather had willed the throne to his son Numitor but he was deposed by her uncle. For fear of the threat that Numitors heirs might pose, the king had Ilias brother, the truth about the crime was known by some, including Numitor, who feigned ignorance. Amulius then appointed Ilia to the Vestal priestesshood, where her vow of chastity would prevent her from producing any further male rivals, despite this, she became pregnant a few years later, claiming to have been raped. The different accounts of the conception are laid out. The sources variously relate that it was a suitor, Amulius himself, the latter is supposed to have comforted Ilia by making her grieve, and telling her that she would bear twins whose bravery and triumphs would be unmatched. Ilia hid her pregnancy with claims of illness so as to avoid her vestal duties, Amulius suspected her and employed physicians and his wife to monitor her for signs of being with child. When he did discover the truth, she was placed under armed guard, after being informed of the delivery of the twins, Amulius suspected that she had in fact given birth to triplets
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
–
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
11.
Paulus Orosius
–
Paulus Orosius — less often Paul Orosius in English — was a Gallaecian Chalcedonian priest, historian and theologian, a student of Augustine of Hippo. It is possible that he was born in Bracara Augusta, then capital of the Roman province of Gallaecia, in order to meet with them Orosius travelled to cities on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, such as Hippo Regius and Alexandria. These journeys defined his life and intellectual output, Orosius did not just discuss theological matters with Saint Augustine, he also collaborated with him on the book City of God. In addition, in 415 he was chosen to travel to Palestine in order to information with other intellectuals. He was also able to participate in a Church Council meeting in Jerusalem on the same trip, the date of his death is also unclear, although it appears to have not been earlier than 418, when he finished one of his books, or later than 423. Part of its importance comes from the fact that the author shows his historiographical methodology, the book is a historical narration focusing on the pagan peoples from the earliest time up until the time Orosius was alive. Orosius was an influential figure both for the dissemination of information and for rationalising the study of history. Despite the importance of his books many questions regarding his life. This is particularly true for sources of information regarding his birth and death, however, his life has been widely studied and there are a number of authors who propose dates for both events. The main biographical references for Orosius come from the writings of Gennadius of Massilia and Braulio of Zaragoza, in addition, Orosius is mentioned in letters written by Saint Augustine. While there is no doubt regarding his surname of Orosius, there are questions regarding the use of the name Paulus. Basically the problem is that it is not completely certain if he used this name or if he was simply called Orosius and whether Paulus has been added with the passing of time. This could have happened given that the initial P for priest was always placed next to his name, however, this idea is flawed as authors writing immediately after Orosius’s death use the name Paulus. Whatever the truth of the matter this subject has been widely studied, the subject of his birthplace is still disputed although a broad consensus has now been reached. Basically there are four theories regarding his birthplace, that can be summarised as follows, Born in Braga, if he was not born in Braga, it is likely he was born in the area around the town. This idea is supported by Orosius’s own works and two written by Saint Augustine, the 166th and the 169th. Born in Tarragona, this theory has been put forward because in his Histories Orosius talks of Tarraconem nostra, the 19th-century author Teodoro de Mörner held this opinion, but nowadays it does not seem reasonable to support the idea solely based on one indication. Originated in A Coruña, this is a new theory solely based on the fact that Orosius twice mentioned it in the geographical section of his Histories
Paulus Orosius
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Paulus Orosius, shown in a miniature from the Saint-Epure codex.
Paulus Orosius
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Panorama of present day Braga, the most likely birthplace for Orosius.
Paulus Orosius
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The Commonitorium and the Histories are a response, at least in their origins, to the direct influence that
Saint Augustine exercised over Orosius.
Paulus Orosius
–
Page from a manuscript of Orosius’s Histories held in
Florence.
12.
Johann Peter Krafft
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Johann Peter Krafft was a German-Austrian painter. Krafft was born in Hanau, Hesse, at the age of ten, he began his art studies at the Hanau Akademie. In 1799, he moved to Vienna and studied at the Academy of Fine Arts for three years under the tutelage of Heinrich Füger, from 1802 to 1808, he studied in Paris, with Jacques-Louis David and François Gérard, and then in Rome. On his return to Vienna, he became a professional painter. He also painted battle scenes, from both the contemporary Napoleonic wars and earlier times, his depictions tending to present the Habsburg cause in a positive. In 1828, Krafft became director of the Imperial and Royal Picture Gallery in Belvedere Palace, johann Peter Krafft died at the age of 76 in Vienna, where he was buried at the Zentralfriedhof
Johann Peter Krafft
–
self-portrait, circa 1820
13.
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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USS Wasp was a United States Navy aircraft carrier commissioned in 1940 and lost in action in 1942. She was the ship named USS Wasp, and the sole ship of a class built to use up the remaining tonnage allowed to the U. S. for aircraft carriers under the treaties of the time. As a reduced-size version of the Yorktown-class aircraft carrier hull, Wasp was more vulnerable than other United States aircraft carriers available at the opening of hostilities, Wasp was initially employed in the Atlantic campaign, where Axis naval forces were perceived as less capable of inflicting decisive damage. After supporting the occupation of Iceland in 1941, Wasp joined the British Home Fleet in April 1942, Wasp was then transferred to the Pacific in June 1942 to replace losses at the battles of Coral Sea and Midway. After supporting the invasion of Guadalcanal, Wasp was sunk by the Japanese submarine I-19 on 15 September 1942, Wasp was a product of the Washington Naval Treaty. After the construction of the carriers Yorktown and Enterprise, the U. S. was still permitted 15,000 long tons to build a carrier, the Navy sought to squeeze a large air group onto a ship with nearly 25% less displacement than the Yorktown-class. In order to weight and space, Wasp was constructed with low-power machinery. Additionally, Wasp was launched with almost no armor, modest speed and, more significantly, absence of side protection of the boilers and internal aviation fuel stores doomed her to a blazing demise. These were inherent design flaws that were recognized when constructed but could not be remedied within the allowed tonnage and these flaws, combined with a relative lack of damage control experience in the early days of the war, were to prove fatal. Wasp was the first carrier fitted with a deck edge elevator, the elevator consisted of a platform for the front wheels and an outrigger for the tail wheel. The two arms on the sides moved the platform in a half-circle up and down between the deck and the hangar deck. Wasp remained at Boston through May, fitting out, before she got underway on 5 June 1940 for calibration tests on her radio direction finder gear. After further fitting out while anchored in Boston harbor, the new aircraft carrier steamed independently to Hampton Roads, Virginia, four days later, she sailed for the Caribbean in company with the destroyer Morris. En route, she conducted the first of many carrier qualification tests, among the earliest of the qualifiers was Lieutenant, junior grade David McCampbell, who later became the Navys top-scoring ace in World War II. Wasp arrived at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in time to ship in honor of Independence Day. A fatal incident marred the carriers shakedown, on 9 July, one of her Vought SB2U-2 Vindicator dive bombers crashed 2 nautical miles from the ship. Wasp bent on speed to close, as did the plane-guarding destroyer Morris. The latters boats recovered items from the baggage compartment
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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USS Wasp entering
Hampton Roads
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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Wasp was the first carrier fitted with a deck edge elevator.
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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Wasp on 27 December 1940
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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Wasp and the heavy cruiser Wichita in Scapa Flow.
14.
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
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In similar fashion to the battles of Coral Sea, Midway, and the Eastern Solomons, the ships of the two adversaries were rarely in direct visual range of each other. Instead, almost all attacks by both sides were mounted by carrier or land-based aircraft, in support of this offensive, and with the hope of engaging Allied naval forces, Japanese carriers and other large warships moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands. From this location, the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied naval forces, especially carrier forces, Allied naval forces also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle, with the same objectives of breaking the stalemate and decisively defeating their adversary. After an exchange of air attacks, Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with one carrier sunk. The participating Japanese carrier forces, however, also retired because of high aircraft, the high casualties for the Japanese prevented their carrier forces from further significant involvement in the battle for Guadalcanal, contributing to the eventual Allied victory in that campaign. On 7 August 1942, Allied forces landed on Japanese-occupied Guadalcanal, Tulagi, the landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U. S. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign. S, carrier task forces remained in the South Pacific area. The area of ocean in which the U. S. carrier task forces operated was known as Torpedo Junction by U. S. forces because of the concentration of Japanese submarines in the area. On 31 August, USS Saratoga was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-26 and was out of action for three months for repairs, with power knocked out from torpedo damage, Wasps damage-control teams were unable to contain the ensuing large fires, and she was abandoned and scuttled. Although the U. S. However, at night, when aircraft were not able to operate effectively, by mid-October, both sides had roughly an equal number of troops on the island. The stalemate was interrupted by two large-ship naval actions. On the night of 11/12 October, a U. S. naval force intercepted and defeated a Japanese naval force en route to bombard Henderson Field in the Battle of Cape Esperance. Although still marginally operational, it several weeks for the airfield to recover from the damage. At this time, the U. S. made two moves to try to break the stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal, first, repairs to Enterprise were expedited so that she could return to the South Pacific as soon as possible. Nimitz felt that Ghormley had become too myopic and pessimistic to lead Allied forces effectively in the struggle for Guadalcanal, Halsey was reportedly respected throughout the U. S. naval fleet as a fighter. Upon assuming command, Halsey immediately began making plans to draw the Japanese naval forces into a battle, writing to Nimitz, the Japanese Combined Fleet was also seeking to draw Allied naval forces into what was hoped to be a decisive battle. Two fleet carriers—Hiyō and Junyō—and one light carrier—Zuihō—arrived at the main Japanese naval base at Truk Atoll from Japan in early October, from 20–25 October, Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal attempted to capture Henderson Field with a large-scale attack against U. S. troops defending the airfield. However, the attack was defeated with heavy casualties for the Japanese during the Battle for Henderson Field
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
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Anti-aircraft shell bursts, fired at attacking Japanese aircraft, fill the sky above USS Enterprise (center left) and her screening ships during the battle on October 26, 1942.
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
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USS Wasp burns after being torpedoed on 14 September
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
–
Enterprise conducts air operations in the South Pacific on 24 October 1942. The aircraft pictured is an
F4F Wildcat.
15.
Vukovar
–
Vukovar is a city in eastern Croatia. It has Croatias largest river port, located at the confluence of the Vuka River, Vukovar is the seat of Vukovar-Syrmia County. The citys registered population was 26,468 in the 2011 census, the name Vukovar means town on the Vuka River. The name of the Vuka River itself originates from the Slavic word vuk, in other languages, the city in German is known as Wukowar and in Hungarian as Vukovár or Valkóvár. In the late 17th century, the medieval Croatian name Vukovo was supplanted by the Hungarian Vukovár, historically, Vukovar was divided into the Old Vukovar, New Vukovar and former workers Bata village with Bata Shoes factory, today known as the Vukovar suburb Borovo Naselje. Vukovar is located 20 km northeast of Vinkovci and 36 km southeast of Osijek, Vukovar is located on the main road D2 Osijek—Vukovar—Ilok and on the Vinkovci—Vukovar railway. The city is out along the Danube River. Vukovar proper is in the southeast while Borovo Naselje forms a unit in the northwest. Slavic tribes settled in area in the 6th century. In the 11th–12th century, the region was part of the Kingdom of Croatia, from the 13th to 16th century part of the Kingdom of Hungary, Vukovar was mentioned first in the 13th century as Volko, Walk, Wolkov. In 1231, Vukovo obtained its first privileges and later the right to taxes on passages along the Danube. At the end of the 17th century, the population numbered about 3,000 inhabitants. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Vukovar was the seat of Syrmia County of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, in 1918, Vukovar became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Between 1918 and 1922, Vukovar was the seat of the county of Syrmia. After 1929, Vukovar was part of the Sava Banovina, between 1941 and 1944, Vukovar was part of the Independent State of Croatia. During World War II the city was bombed by the Allies, in 2008 an unexploded bomb was found in the city from this period. From 1945, it was part of the Peoples Republic of Croatia within the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Vukovar was heavily damaged during the Croatian War of Independence. Approximately 2,000 self-organised defenders defended the city for 87 days against approximately 36,000 JNA troops supplemented with 110 vehicles and tanks, the city suffered heavy damage during the siege and was eventually overrun
Vukovar
–
Republic of Croatia square
Vukovar
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Main street with arcades
Vukovar
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Satellite picture of Danube and Vukovar
Vukovar
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Vukovar, Radnički dom (Workers' Hall)
16.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
Roman Empire
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The
Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD)
Roman Empire
–
Aureus of
Augustus, the first
Roman Emperor.
Roman Empire
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A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England
Roman Empire
–
A 5th-century
papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by
Cicero
17.
Battle of Avarayr
–
The Battle of Avarayr was fought on 26 May 451 AD on the Avarayr Plain in Vaspurakan between the Armenian Army under Vardan Mamikonian and Sassanid Persia. It is considered one of the first battles in defense of the Christian faith in history, the battle is seen as one of the most significant events in Armenian history. The commander of the Armenian forces, Vardan Mamikonian, is considered a national hero, the Kingdom of Armenia under the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was the first nation to officially convert to Christianity, in 301 AD under Tiridates III. In 428, Armenian nobles petitioned Bahram V to depose Artaxias IV, as a result, the country became a Sassanid dependency with a Sassanid governor. He summoned the leading Armenian nobles to Ctesiphon, and pressured them into cutting their ties with the Orthodox Church as he had intended, Yazdegerd II himself was a Zoroastrian rather than a Christian, and his concern was not enforcing a Nestorian orthodoxy but securing political loyalty. But Yazdegerds policy created, rather than forestalled, a Christian rebellion in Armenia, when news about the compulsion of the nobles reached Armenia, a mass revolt broke out, on their return, the nobility, led by Vardan Mamikonian, joined the rebels. Yazdegerd II, hearing the news, gathered an army to attack Armenia. The 66, 000-strong Armenian army took Holy Communion before the battle, the Armenians were allowed to maintain a core of their national army led by a supreme commander who was traditionally of the Mamikonian noble family. The Armenian cavalry was, at the time, practically a force greatly appreciated as a tactical ally by both Persia and Byzantium. In this particular case, both officers and men were motivated by a desire to save their religion and their way of life. The Persian army, said to be three times larger, included war elephants and the famous Savārān, or New Immortal, cavalry, following the victory, Yazdegerd jailed some Armenian priests and nobles and appointed a new governor for Armenia. The Armenian Church was also unable to send a delegation to the Council of Chalcedon, the Armenian Church would reject the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, instead adhering to Miaphysitism. Armenian resistance continued in the following the battle, led by Vardans successor and nephew. In 484 AD, Sahag Bedros I signed the Nvarsak Treaty, thus, the Armenians see the Battle of Avarayr as a moral victory,26 May is considered to be a holy day by Armenians, and is one of the most important national and religious days in Armenia. Persian Armenia Zoroastrianism in Armenia Elishe, History of Vardan and the Armenian War,1982 Visions Of Ararat, Writings On Armenia By Christopher J. Walker, Page 3 Dr. Abd al-Husayn Zarrin’kub Ruzgaran, tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi Sukhan,1999
Battle of Avarayr
–
A 15th century Armenian miniature depicting the battle
Battle of Avarayr
–
Memorial to the Battle of Avarayr in
Gyumri, Armenia
18.
Vartan Mamikonian
–
Vardan Mamikonyan was an Armenian military leader, a martyr and a saint of the Armenian Church. He is best known for leading the Armenian army at the Battle of Avarayr in 451, a member of the Mamikonian family of Armenias highest caliber aristocrats, is revered as one of the greatest military and spiritual leaders of Armenia, and is considered a national hero by Armenians. According to Arshag Chobanian To the Armenian nation, Vartan is the most beloved figure, the most sacred in their history, major Armenian churches are named after Saint Vardan. Equestrian statues of St. Vardan are found in the Armenian capital Yerevan, Vardan Mamikonian was born in 387 AD at the village of Artashat of Daron region, north of the city of Moosh, to Hamazasp Mamikonian and to Sahakanoush, daughter of Isaac of Armenia. After Vardan became Sparapet in 432, the Persians summoned him to Ctesiphon, upon his return home in 450 AD, Vardan repudiated the Persian religion and instigated an Armenian rebellion against their Sassanian overlords. Vardan died in the Battle of Avarayr on the Avarayr Plain in Vaspurakan, the also known as the Battle of Vardanants, was fought on May 26,451 AD on the Avarayr Plain in Vaspurakan, between the Armenian Army under Saint Vardan and the Sassanid rulers. Vardan Mamikonian is the father of Vardeni Mamikonian, born around 409 AD, Shushanik has been canonized by the Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church and is venerated by the Armenian Apostolic Church. Known as Saint Shushanik, her feast day is celebrated on October 17, after his death, Vardan Mamikonian was consecrated as a saint of the Armenian Apostolic Church. He is also revered by the Armenian Catholic Church as a saint of the church and his commemoration day in the official Armenian Church calendar is usually in the month of February and on very rare occasions may fall in the first week of March. The actual Saint Vardan day is a day, as it always has to fall on a Thursday. Major Christian Armenian churches are named after Saint Vardan, including the St. Vartan Cathedral in New York City, Vardan or Vartan, are both common given names for Armenian males, the female version is Vardanoush or Vartanoush. Vardanyan, Vardanian, and Vartanian are also common Armenian family names
Vartan Mamikonian
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Vardan Mamikonian illustration in 1898 book Illustrated Armenia and Armenians
Vartan Mamikonian
–
The statue of Vardan Mamikonian in
Yerevan.
19.
Battle of Malplaquet
–
After a late start to the campaigning season owing to the unusually harsh winter preceding it, the allied campaign of 1709 began in mid June. Villars moved after him, under new orders from Louis XIV to prevent the fall of Mons at all costs – effectively an order for the aggressive Marshal to give battle. After several complicated manoeuvres, the two faced each other across the gap of Malplaquet, south-west of Mons. Boufflers was officially Villars superior but voluntarily serving under him, the allies had about 86,000 troops and 100 guns and the French had about 75,000 and 80 guns, and they were encamped within cannon range of each other near what is now the France/Belgium border. At around 1.00 pm Villars was badly wounded by a ball which smashed his knee. The decisive final attack was made on the now weakened French centre by British infantry under the command of the Earl of Orkney and this enabled the Allied cavalry to advance through this line and confront the French cavalry behind it. A fierce cavalry battle now ensued, in which Boufflers personally led the troops of the Maison du Roi. He managed no less than six times to drive the Allied cavalry back upon the redans, finally, by 3.00 pm Boufflers, realising that the battle could not be won, ordered a retreat, which was made in good order. The Allies had suffered so many casualties in their attack that they could not pursue him, by this time they had lost over 21,000 men, almost twice as many as the French. Villars himself remarked on the enemys Pyrrhic victory via the flip-side of King Pyrrhus famous quote, If it please God to give your majestys enemies another such victory, they are ruined. A first-hand account of the Battle of Malplaquet is given in the book Amiable Renegade, Captain Peter Drake, an Irishman who spent most of his life as a mercenary in the service of various European armies, served the French cause in the battle and was wounded several times. Drake wrote his memoirs at an advanced age, in contrast with the Dukes previous victories, however, the French army was able to withdraw in good order and relatively intact, and remained a potent threat to further allied operations. Nonetheless, news of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the century, stunned Europe. For the last of his four great battlefield victories, the Duke of Marlborough received no letter of thanks from Queen Anne. The rumour post-battle that even Marlborough had died spawned one of the most popular French folk songs of all time, margery Allinghams mystery novel Sweet Danger includes a vital document hidden in the Malplaquet or Pontisbright drum. Battle of Malplaquet at Battlefield Anomalies, the French Army 1600–1900 Battle of Malplaquet at BritishBattles. com Amiable Renegade, The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake
Battle of Malplaquet
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Battle of Malplaquet, view from the allied side.
Battle of Malplaquet
–
Battle of Malplaquet
Battle of Malplaquet
–
The Battle of Malplaquet
20.
War of the Spanish Succession
–
The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Charles II had ruled over a vast global empire, and the question of who would succeed him had long troubled the governments of Europe, the English, the Dutch and the Austrians formally declared war in May 1702. By 1708, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy had secured victory in the Spanish Netherlands and in Italy, France faced invasion and ruin, but Allied unity broke first. With the Grand Alliance defeated in Spain and with its casualties mounting and aims diverging, French and British ministers prepared the groundwork for a peace conference, and in 1712 Britain ceased combat operations. The Dutch, Austrians, and German states fought on to strengthen their own negotiating position, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastatt partitioned the Spanish empire between the major and minor powers. The European balance of power was assured, in the late 1690s the declining health of King Charles II of Spain brought to a head the problem of his succession, a problem which had underlain much of European diplomacy for several decades. The empire was in decline, but remained the largest of the European overseas empires, unlike the French crown, the Spanish crowns could all be inherited by, or through, a female in default of a male line. The next in line after Charles II, therefore, were his two sisters, Maria Theresa, the elder, and Margaret Theresa, the younger, Maria Theresa had married Louis XIV in 1660 and by him she had a son, Louis, Dauphin of France. The testament of her father, Philip IV, reiterated this waiver and bequeathed the reversion of the whole of the Spanish dominions to his younger daughter, Margaret Theresa. However the French, using in part the excuse that the dowry promised Maria Theresa was never paid, nor was it clear whether a princess could waive the rights of her unborn children. Leopold I married Margaret Theresa in 1666, at her death in 1673 she left one living heir, Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Shortly before her death in 1692, she gave birth to a son, if he chose, Louis XIV could attempt to assert his will on Spain by force of arms, but the Nine Years War had been an immense drain on Frances resources. To seek a solution and gain support, Louis XIV turned to his long-standing rival William of Orange. England and the Dutch Republic had their own commercial, strategic and political interests within the Spanish empire, however, the Maritime Powers were in a weakened state and both had reduced their forces at the conclusion of the Nine Years War. Louis XIV and William III, therefore, sought to solve the problem of the Spanish inheritance through negotiation, based on the principle of partition, to take effect after the death of Charles II. However, the bulk of the empire – most of peninsular Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Spanish Empire was now divided between the three surviving candidates. By this new treaty Archduke Charles would receive most of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, and the overseas empire. For Leopold I, however, control of Spain and its empire was less important than Italy
War of the Spanish Succession
–
Philip V of Spain and the
Duke of Vendôme pictured after the victory at the 1710
Battle of Villaviciosa.
War of the Spanish Succession
–
Portrait of Louis XIV (1638–1715). Oil by
Hyacinthe Rigaud c. 1701. The War of the Spanish Succession was Louis XIV's last.
War of the Spanish Succession
–
Portrait of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1640–1705). Unknown.
War of the Spanish Succession
–
Charles II King of Spain (1665–1700). Anonymous. His death triggered the War of the Spanish Succession.
21.
Battle of Bunker Hill
–
The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17,1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts and it was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent Breeds Hill. In response,1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill, during the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breeds Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula. By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of forces on the Peninsula. Two assaults on the positions were repulsed with significant British casualties. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula, the battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent, the costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army. Boston, situated on a peninsula, was protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the militia, a force of about 15,000 men had surrounded the town. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the land access to Boston itself. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, in theory, they were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely. However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, if the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry Knox, the Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus at its northwest, extending about 1 mile southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet, lay at the end of the peninsula. Breeds Hill, at a height of 62 feet, was more southerly, the town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men
Battle of Bunker Hill
–
The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill by
John Trumbull
Battle of Bunker Hill
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1775 map of the Boston area (contains some inaccuracies)
Battle of Bunker Hill
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The Battle of Bunker Hill, by
Howard Pyle, 1897
Battle of Bunker Hill
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The Bunker Hill Monument
22.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
American Revolutionary War
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Clockwise from top left:
Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the
Siege of Yorktown,
Battle of Trenton,
The Death of General Warren at the
Battle of Bunker Hill,
Battle of Long Island,
Battle of Guilford Court House
American Revolutionary War
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Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in newspaper
American Revolutionary War
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This iconic 1846 lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.
American Revolutionary War
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The British marching to
Concord in April 1775
listen) PIRR-ik) is a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is tantamount to defeat. Someone who wins a Pyrrhic victory has been victorious in some way, though the heavy toll negates a true sense of achievement or profit.
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