1.
Facade
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A façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. It is a loan word from the French façade, which means frontage or face. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the most important aspect from a design standpoint, from the engineering perspective of a building, the façade is also of great importance due to its impact on energy efficiency. For historical façades, many local zoning regulations or other laws restrict or even forbid their alteration. The word comes from the French foreign loan word façade, which in turn comes from the Italian facciata, from faccia meaning face, the earliest usage recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1656. It was quite common in the Georgian period for existing houses in English towns to be given a fashionable new façade, in modern highrise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls, the façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium or stainless steel. In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. The melting point of aluminium,660 °C, is reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building joints can be qualified, too, putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. Some building codes also limit the percentage of area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, on a film set and within most themed attractions, many of the buildings are only façades, which are far cheaper than actual buildings, and not subject to building codes. In film sets, they are held up with supports from behind. Within theme parks, they are usually decoration for the interior ride/attraction/restaurant, by Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow and Thomas Auer. ISBN 978-3-7643-7961-2 ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9 Giving buildings an illusion of grandeur Poole, the article outlines the development of the façade in ecclesiastical architecture from the early Christian period to the Renaissance
2.
Statue of Queen Victoria, Sydney
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The Statue of Queen Victoria, currently in Sydney, Australia, was made by John Hughes in 1908 and was originally located in Dublin. Made of bronze, it is situated on the corner of Druitt and it was the last royal statue to have been erected in Ireland. The Queen toured Ireland in April 1900, prompting the Royal Dublin Society to propose a national monument to her and her death nine months later spurred a second burst of enthusiasm. John Hughes, instructor in Modelling at the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art, was commissioned to create the statue and it was his most important commission to date. Almost a decade later, it was unveiled in Dublin, Ireland, at a ceremony with 1000 troops on parade, the Lord Lieutenant declared we are assembled here to dedicate this noble work of art to the perpetual commemoration of a great personality and a great life. The statue shows an effort to portray Victoria Regina as the Irish Queen rather than the British Sovereign and she is seated in a low chair rather than an elaborate throne, allowing the artist to contain the figure within a sphere rather than as a towering pillar. The star on her left breast, and the pendant badge, feature shamrocks, crowned harps, the St Patrick reference probably backfired. Round her neck the chain alternates the red and white roses of England, the statue sat atop a portland stone column, also designed by Hughes, with three sculptural groups to be placed below – Fame, Hibernia at Peace and Hibernia at War. This last group was known as Erin and the Dying Soldier. The statue had by now given the nickname The auld bitch by Irish writer James Joyce. ”In July 1948 it was removed from its original location. It was transported by lorry to the Royal Hospital Kilmainham, the hospital had also been a proposed site for the parliament, and was used as a storage location for property belonging to the National Museum of Ireland. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art, attempts to send the sculpture to London, Ontario did not succeed as neither the Canadian nor Irish governments wished to pay the cost of transport. In February 1980 the statue was transferred to a yard behind a disused childrens reformatory at Daingean, the associated sculptures from the base of the statue are currently in the collection of Dublin Castle. In the mid-1980s the iconic Queen Victoria Building in central Sydney was undergoing major renovations after decades of disuse, neil Glasser, Director of Promotions for the company undertaking the renovations, travelled to several former British colonies in hope of finding a statue. With a considerable amount of sleuthing the statue, sitting in long grass behind the reformatory, was rediscovered and proposed to be moved to Australia. In order to obtain approval, Glasser contacted John Teahan, the Director of the National Museum of Ireland, in August 1986 Fine Gael Taoiseach, Garret FitzGerald, authorised that the statue be given to Australia on loan until recalled. The statue was transported by sea to Australia that year, restored in Sydney and it was unveiled on Sunday 20 December 1987 by the Chief Commissioner of Sydney, Eric Neal. The irony of the British Queen being transported to Australia by ship was not lost on the Irish media
3.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
4.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
5.
Marketplace
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A market, or marketplace, is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods. In different parts of the world, a place may be described as a souk, bazaar. Some markets operate on most days, others may be once a week. The term, market comes from the Latin mercatus, the exact phrase was “Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun, ” which roughly translates as “I want to be at that market in the good town. ”Markets have existed since ancient times. Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria and these markets were typically situated in the towns centre where they were surrounded by alleyways occupied by skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. They would sell small surpluses from their farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment. Major producers such as the estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting, the nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii multiple markets served the population of approximately 12,000, produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the citys perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, on the opposite corner stood the macellum, thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid a tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government, a graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets, Saturn’s day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun’s day at Atella and Nola, Moon’s day at Cumae. etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of the importance to community life. Markets were also important centres of social life, in early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services - both luxuries and necessities and these centres of trade attracted sellers and would stimulate the growth of the town. A charter would protect trading privileges in return for an annual fee, from the 11th and 12th century, the number of markets and fairs burgeoned
6.
City of Sydney Library
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The City of Sydney Library is a network of eight branch libraries and two library links, located within the City of Sydney Council administrational area. A free public lending library service has existed in Sydney since 1877 when the New South Wales state government opened a branch of the State Library of New South Wales on Macquarie Street. By the end of the year there were over one thousand registered borrowers. In 1899 the lending library moved to the floor of the Queen Victoria Building. In 1918 the library moved again, this time to the old hall of the Queen Victoria Building. This provided space for a childrens library to open in the same year. The first branch opened in 1949 which also provided book deposit stations at a number of local schools. In 1970, the City library moved to yet larger premises within the Queen Victoria Building before taking up residence on Pitt Street in 1984, high rent fees prompted it to move again in 1994 to Town Hall House. In 2005 the Town Hall branch moved to its current location at Customs House at Circular Quay, the libraries also provide internet, copying and printing services. A Library Link has existed in Town Hall House, close to the location of the previous premises. The Library Link makes available a number of current newspapers and magazines, a collection, a self-operated check-in and check-out machine. Members can pick up books and other material held at other branches at the Library Link by contacting staff, in 2006 a link opened at Pyrmont offering a limited services. People are able to drop off books and pick up items they have asked for during the time that the volunteers are there, the library network has around 40,000 active members and processes 1,350,000 loans per year. Membership of the network is free to residents of the City of Sydney local government area
7.
Shopping mall
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A shopping arcade is a specific form serving the same purpose. Many early shopping arcades such as the Burlington Arcade in London, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, however, many smaller arcades have been demolished, replaced with large centers or malls, often accessible by vehicle. Technical innovations such as lighting and escalators were introduced from the late 19th century. From the late 20th century, entertainment venues such as movie theaters, as a single built structure, early shopping centers were often architecturally significant constructions, enabling wealthier patrons to buy goods in spaces protected from the weather. In places around the world, the shopping centre is used, especially in Europe, Australia. Mall is a term used predominantly in North America, outside of North America, shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also used. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, malls are commonly referred to as shopping centres, the majority of British shopping centres are located in city centres, usually found in old and historic shopping districts and surrounded by subsidiary open air shopping streets. Large examples include West Quay in Southampton, Manchester Arndale, Bullring Birmingham, Liverpool One, Trinity Leeds, Buchanan Galleries in Glasgow and these centres were built in the 1980s and 1990s, but planning regulations prohibit the construction of any more. Out-of-town shopping developments in the UK are now focused on retail parks, planning policy prioritizes the development of existing town centres, although with patchy success. Bullring, Birmingham is the busiest shopping centre in the UK welcoming over 36.5 million shoppers in its opening year, there are a reported 222 malls in Europe. In 2014, these malls had combined sales of $12.47 billion and this represented a 10% bump in revenues from the prior year. One of the earliest examples of public shopping areas comes from ancient Rome, One of the earliest public shopping centers is Trajans Market in Rome located in Trajans Forum. Trajans Market was probably built around 100-110 CE by Apollodorus of Damascus, the Grand Bazaar of Istanbul was built in the 15th century and is still one of the largest covered shopping centers in the world, with more than 58 streets and 4,000 shops. Numerous other covered shopping arcades, such as the 19th-century Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus, Syria, isfahans Grand Bazaar, which is largely covered, dates from the 10th century. The 10-kilometer-long, covered Tehrans Grand Bazaar also has a lengthy history, the oldest continuously occupied shopping mall in the world is likely to be the Chester Rows. Dating back at least to the 13th century, these covered walkways housed shops, with storage, different rows specialized in different goods, such as Bakers Row or Fleshmongers Row. The Marché des Enfants Rouges in Paris opened in 1628 and still runs today, the Oxford Covered Market in Oxford, England opened in 1774 and still runs today. The Passage du Caire was opened in Paris in 1798, the Burlington Arcade in London was opened in 1819
8.
Romanesque Revival architecture
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Romanesque Revival is a style of building employed beginning in the mid-19th century inspired by the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque architecture. Unlike the historic Romanesque style, however, Romanesque Revival buildings tended to feature more simplified arches, an early variety of Romanesque Revival style known as Rundbogenstil was popular in German lands and in the German diaspora beginning in the 1830s. By far the most prominent and influential American architect working in a free Romanesque manner was Henry Hobson Richardson, in the United States, the style derived from examples set by him are termed Richardsonian Romanesque, of which not all are Romanesque Revival. In Scotland the style started to emerge with the Duke of Argyl’s castle at Inverary, started in 1744, and castles by Robert Adam at Culzean, Oxenfoord, Dalquharran and it was at this point that the Norman Revival became a recognisable architectural style. In 1817 Thomas Rickman published his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest To the Reformation and it was now realised that ‘round-arch architecture’ was largely Romanesque in the British Isles and came to be described as Norman rather than Saxon. The start of an archaeologically correct Norman Revival can be recognised in the architecture of Thomas Hopper and his first attempt at this style was at Gosford Castle in Armagh in Ireland, but far more successful was his Penrhyn Castle near Bangor in North Wales. This was built for the Pennant family, between 1820 and 1837, however, the Norman Revival did catch on for church architecture. It was Thomas Penson, a Welsh architect, who would have been familiar with Hopper’s work at Penrhyn, Penson was influenced by French and Belgian Romanesque architecture, and particularly the earlier Romanesque phase of German Brick Gothic. At St David’s Newtown, 1843–47 and St Agatha’s Llanymynech,1845, he copies the tower of St. Salvators Cathedral, other examples of Romanesque revival by Penson are Christ Church, Welshpool, 1839–1844, and the porch to Langedwyn Church. He was an innovator in his use of Terracotta to produce decorative Romanesque mouldings, during the 19th century the architecture selected for Anglican churches depended on the churchmanship of particular congregations. Some of the examples of this Romanesque architecture is seen in Non-conformist or Dissenting churches. A good example of this is by the Lincoln architects Drury and Mortimer, after about 1870 this style of Church architecture in Britain disappears, but in the early 20th century, the style is succeeded by Byzantine Revival architecture. Two of Canadas provincial legislatures, the Ontario Legislative Building in Toronto, University College, one of seven colleges at the University of Toronto, is a chief example of the Romanesque Revival style. The building, designed by Frederic Cumberland and William G. Storm, was intended to be Gothic in style but was rejected by the governor general. Construction of the design began on 4 October 1856. The facade of University College has thick walls, incorporating layers of both stone and brick. The building possesses a number of round arches characteristic of the Roman Revival style, the arches are configured in arcades, most notably on the south side of the building. There is a deal of ornamentation on both the interior and exterior of University College
9.
George Street, Sydney
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George Street is a street in the central business district of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. It was Sydneys original high street, and remains one of the busiest streets in the city centre and it is about 3 km long, and connects a number of the citys most important buildings and precincts. There are more high rise buildings here than on any street in Australia. Amongst Australias 100 largest listed companies, more are located here than on any other street, from here Broadway is the continuation of George Street turning westwards, leading to the western suburbs as Parramatta Road. The origins of George Street lie in the layout of the Sydney Cove colony, captain Arthur Phillip placed the convicts and marines on the rocky western slopes of the bay. This track that eventually became George Street is one of the two thoroughfares, along with the track that became Bridge Street. It is possible that George Street was the first street in Australia, the Street was formally named for King George III of the United Kingdom by Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. In 1937, Frank Jenner committed to telling ten different people on George Street about Christianity every day thenceforward, until 2016, George Street was the route for Sydneys Anzac Day parade until made unavailable by to CBD and South East Light Rail construction work. It now proceeds via Elizabeth Street, being a major street through central Sydney, George Street is often seen in terms of a number of distinct sections or precincts. From south to north, they include, Railway Square, the end of George Street is a confluence of several busy streets. It is so-named because it is adjacent to the Sydney Central station, Railway Square is today ringed by hotels and small-scale retail, and is also the site of a campus of the Sydney Institute of TAFE. Chinatown, Sydneys traditional, main Chinatown is located in Haymarket, the Chinatown precinct is situated mostly to the west of the street but also extends to the east of the street. Close by is the Capitol Theatre, which hosts the Sydney runs of international musicals. The Haymarket Library of the City of Sydney, which is the branch of the City library service for Chinese language materials, is located on George Street. The Cinema District also houses many video arcades, Internet cafes, fast food restaurants and these are well served by Town Hall railway station. The surrounding area features large scale operations, such as the main Sydney store of the department store Myer. Pitt Street Mall, a retail precinct, is located close by. An important cross street in this precinct is Martin Place, the location of the Cenotaph, Wynyard railway Station is located in the northern part of this precinct
10.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
11.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
12.
Clover Moore
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Clover Margaret Moore is an Australian politician. She has been the Lord Mayor of the City of Sydney since 2004 and she was an independent member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1988 to 2012, representing the electorates of Bligh and Sydney. Moore is the first popularly elected female Lord Mayor of Sydney, Moore resigned as a state MP as a result of new state laws preventing dual membership of state parliament and local councils. Following her re-election as mayor in the 2012 elections, she was forced to resign the seat she held for 24 years before the first meeting of the new council. This resulted in a 2012 Sydney by-election on 27 October in which she endorsed independent candidate Alex Greenwich of the Australian Marriage Equality who won in a landslide victory, Clover Moore grew up in the suburb of Gordon, on Sydneys North Shore. She attended Loreto Kirribilli at Kirribilli, before studying teaching at Sydney University, while at university, she married Peter Moore, an architect. After graduating, the moved to London. They returned to Australia five years later and settled in the inner-city suburb of Redfern, Moore was elected to the South Sydney Council in 1980. The following year, the government amalgamated the City of Sydney and South Sydney Councils, Moore developed a visible profile in the community, campaigning on a variety of issues both in her position as councillor and in the broader community. In late 1987, Moore was the favourite to become the citys first female Lord Mayor, however, the state government abruptly sacked the council and called in commissioners to run it. Moore decided to take the opportunity to run for the Legislative Assembly as an independent at the 1988 election, despite not having the backing of a party, she won the seat of Bligh, narrowly defeating Liberal member Michael Yabsley. In 1991 she co-authored the New South Wales Charter of Reform of Government, in the same year, she was re-elected for a second term with a massive swing in her favour, increasing her share from 26.7 per cent to 43 per cent. Her power also increased dramatically when, along with fellow independents Peter Macdonald and Tony Windsor, Moore was to again take the spotlight when the Independent Commission Against Corruption handed down a finding that was sharply critical of Liberal Premier Nick Greiner on 1 June 1992. Hence before the Court ruling was handed down, Greiners hand was forced and she went on to hold her seat with a largely safe margin at the 1995 and 1999 elections. The LGBT community thanked her for her support by featuring likenesses of her in the Sydney Gay and she was re-elected again in 2003. In early 2004, the Australian Labor Party government, under Bob Carr, sacked and re-amalgamated the City of Sydney, the move came largely as a surprise, with then-Lord Mayor Lucy Turnbull being notified by a fax posted under her door. However, several of these suburbs also made up Moores state electorate of Bligh, when Turnbull announced soon after that she would not seek re-election, Lee appeared to have the position won. By the following day, The Sydney Morning Herald was already predicting that she would present a challenge to Lee
13.
City of Sydney
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The City of Sydney is the local government area covering the Sydney central business district and surrounding inner city suburbs of the greater metropolitan area of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. On 6 February 2004, the local government area of the City of South Sydney was formally merged into the City of Sydney. The leader of the City of Sydney holds the title of the Lord Mayor of Sydney, the current Lord Mayor is Councillor Clover Moore who has been in office since 27 March 2004. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 1. 3% of the population, the median age of people in the City of Sydney was 32 years. Children aged 0 –14 years made up 7. 1% of the population and people aged 65 years, of people in the area aged 15 years and over,25. 5% were married and 10. 1% were either divorced or separated. Population growth in the City of Sydney between the 2001 Census and the 2006 Census was 3. 31%, and in the subsequent five years to the 2011 Census, population growth was 4. 57%. The median weekly income for residents within the City of Sydney was more than 1.5 times the national average. The proportion of dwellings in the City of Sydney that are apartments or units is 73. 6%, the proportion of residents in the Sydney local government area that claimed Australian ancestry was approximately half the national average. ^a 1996 Census figures refer to the City of Sydney prior to its merger with the City of South Sydney, in 1972 the Council had prepared the City of Sydney Strategic Plan, only the second city to prepare a comprehensive assessment and plan of major issues for the future. With triennial reviews, this development of the City for twenty years. A1987 Liberal re-organisation saw Sydney Council split, with southern suburbs forming a new South Sydney Council and this was thought to advantage the Liberal government of the day, as the southern suburbs had traditionally voted Labor. In 2004, the Labor State Government undid this change, again merging the councils of the City of Sydney, critics claimed that this was performed with the intention of creating a super-council which would be under the control of Labor, which also controlled the State Government. Critics of the claimed that this was a result of a voter backlash against the party for attempting to create the super-council. The daily administration of the City of Sydney is performed by its General Manager, currently Monica Barone, Sydney City Council is composed of ten Councillors, including the Lord Mayor, for a fixed four-year term of office. The Lord Mayor is directly elected while the nine other Councillors are elected proportionally. On 26 January 1788, he named it after Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney, who was the secretary at the time. The City of Sydney was established on 20 July 1842 by the Corporation Act which encompasses present-day Woolloomooloo, Surry Hills, Chippendale and Pyrmont, there were six wards established by boundary posts. A boundary post still exists in front of Sydney Square, the boundaries of the City of Sydney have changed fairly regularly since 1900
14.
GIC Private Limited
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With a network of nine offices in key financial capitals around the world, GIC invests internationally in equities, fixed income, money-market instruments, real estate and special investments. GIC is one of a few global firms with the highest corporate credit ratings by both Standard & Poors and Moodys, of AAA and Aaa respectively. Its investment portfolio is managed by its three subsidiaries, GIC Asset Management Pte Ltd, GIC Real Estate Pte Ltd and GIC Special Investments Pte Ltd, in 2008, The Economist reported that Morgan Stanley had estimated the funds assets at US$330 billion. In addition to GIC, the Government of Singapore owns another sovereign wealth fund, Temasek Holdings and he was advised by a foreign merchant bank, N M Rothschild & Sons, and established the GIC. The government then embarked on a change in investment policy by investing the bulk of its reserves in longer-term, high-yielding assets rather than in liquid. An undisclosed number of those who left the MAS in 1981 went to work for the new GIC, in the late 1990s, four of its most senior positions were held by former Monetary Authority of Singapore officers. Traditionally, GIC has kept a low profile in its investments, during the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007–2010, however, a number of its investments attracted controversy. In 2013, according to the Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute, the GIC was one of the most active SWF investors for the year. In 2006, at the height of the US real estate bubble, it made a US$200 million investment in the equity of Stuyvesant Town—Peter Cooper Village, the largest apartment complex in Manhattan. The management of the complex, Tishman Speyer Properties and BlackRock Realty, defaulted on their loan in 2010, in late 2007, during the first phase of the crisis, GIC invested $11 billion Swiss francs for a 7. 9% stake in the Swiss bank UBS. The loans were converted into equity in 2010, with an estimated 70% loss of value, GIC had acknowledge that the timing for the investment could have been better. It also stated that investments made at that time have had positive returns which offset the losses on UBS. GICs total portfolio has fully recovered to its value prior to the financial crisis. In 2008, GIC invested US$6.88 billion for a 9% stake in Citigroup, in 2009, it pared its stake to less than 5%, realising a $1.6 billion profit, with another $1.6 billion paper profit on its remaining holding. As of 2013, GIC holds around 44% of its portfolio in North and South America, 25% in Europe, the consortium includes Snam an Italian gas storage and transport operator, Singapores GIC and EDF. GIC has the ability to invest across a spectrum of financial assets, from sovereign debt to infrastructure. GIC does not disclose the amount of funds it manages and its annual profit, revealing the exact amount would expose the full size of Singapores financial reserves and make it easier for speculators to attack the Singapore dollar during periods of vulnerability. It included two composite portfolios and volatility statistics to reflect the level of risk and to offer perspective in reading the 5-year and 10-year figures
15.
Sydney sandstone
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It forms the bedrock for much of the region of Sydney, Australia. Well known for its quality, it is the reason many Aboriginal rock carvings and drawings in the area still exist. This bedrock gives the city some of its personality by dint of its meteorological, horticultural, aesthetic, one author describes Sydneys sandstone as a kind of base note, an ever-present reminder of its Georgian beginnings and more ancient past. Sydney sandstone was deposited in the Triassic Period probably in a delta and is the caprock which controls the erosion. Six kilometres of sandstone and shale lie under Sydney and this means that the highest part of the visible lines almost always faces approximately south. It is a porous stone and acts as a giant filter. It is composed of pure silica grains and a small amount of the iron mineral siderite in varying proportions. It oxidises to the warm yellow-brown colour that is notable in the buildings which are constructed of it, the sand was washed from Broken Hill, and laid down in a bed that is about 200 metres thick. Currents washed through it, leaching out most of the minerals and they washed out channels in some places, while in others, the currents formed sand banks that show a characteristic current bedding or cross-bedding that can often be seen in cuttings. At a time in the past, monocline formed to the west of Sydney. The monocline is a bend that raises the sandstone well above where it is expected to be seen. From the beginnings of the colony in 1788, settlers and convicts had to work with the stone, the sandstone had a negative effect on farming because it underlay most of the available flat land at a very shallow depth. In the late 19th century, it was thought that the sandstone might contain gold, some efforts were made at the University to test this idea. The sandstone is the basis of the nutrient-poor soils found in Sydney that developed over millennia and came to nurture a brilliant and it is, for example, the heartland of those most characteristic of Australian trees, the eucalypts. As plants cannot afford to lose leaves to herbivores when nutrients are scarce so they defend their foliage with toxins, in eucalypts, these toxins give the bush its distinctive smell. Sandstone escarpments box in the Sydney area on three sides, to the west the Blue Mountains, and to the north and south, the Hornsby and Woronora plateaux. These escarpments, avoided by the settlers, kept Sydney in its bounds. Other rock types found in Sydney include Narrabeen shale and the younger Wianamatta shale, the quality of the sandstone known to Sydneysiders as Yellow block became well known early
16.
George McRae
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George McRae was born in Edinburgh in 1858. The register of his records his father as Duncan and his mother as Mary. He arrived in Sydney in 1884 and was appointed Assistant Architect in the City Architect’s office and he became City Architect and City Building Surveyor in 1889. He held this position until 1897, when he was appointed Principal Assistant Architect to Walter Liberty Vernon in the Government Architects Branch, in 1912 he succeeded Vernon as New South Wales Government Architect and held the position until he died in 1923. McRae married Katie Prescott in St Marks, Darling Point on 8 May 1895, george McRae was responsible for the design of many buildings in Sydney and other places, several of which still survive and are heritage-listed. Former Parcels Post Office, Railway Square, Sydney,1913 and this distinctive building used to house a post office, Telecom Telex machine centre and a tool store, it has now been fully restored and reopened as an executive hotel. Taronga Zoo lower entrance, top entrance and Indian elephant house, Mosman, Sydney,1916, part of the market complex that included the vegetable market, Hay Street, and the markets bell tower, Quay Street. Corn Exchange, Sussex Street, Sydney, built by City Council in 1887, a two-storey building with an unusual curved facade, listed on the Register of the National Estate. This included the house, which now has a Local Government Heritage listing. McRaes funeral was held on 18 June 1923 at Rookwood Cemetery and was attended by a number of people from the Public Works Department. He was survived by his wife, son and two daughters
17.
William Priestly MacIntosh
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William Priestly MacIntosh was a sculptor in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. His works often decorated significant public buildings in Sydney, Brisbane, Canberra, many of them are now heritage-listed. MacIntosh was born near Ayr in Scotland in 1857 and died in Sydney in 1930, before immigrating to New South Wales in 1880, he studied anatomy and sculpture in Edinburgh. By 1896 MacIntosh was executing every kind of sculpture, working from a yard in Hereford Street and he was still actively working at the time of his death at his residence and studio in Kogarah
18.
Royal Clock
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The Royal Clock is located on the upper level of the southern half of the Queen Victoria Building in Sydney, Australia. It was designed by Neil Glasser and made by Thwaites & Reed of Hastings in England, the plaque on the side of the clock reads By appointment to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. Turret Clockmakers Thwaites & Reed Ltd Hastings England, the clock activates on the hour from 9 am until 9 pm. Each performance begins with the music of the trumpet voluntary as miniature trumpeters emerge from the tops of each of the four outer turrets. The trumpeters withdraw at the end of the voluntary, the six scenes are viewed through windows on both sides of the clock that face the railed walkways. Each scene briefly illuminates to display a diorama of English royal history, most of the scenes include mechanical animation. One of these for example, depicts the execution of King Charles I, the Royal Clocks performance is accompanied by music written by Jeremiah Clarke called The Prince of Denmarks March. The six scenes depict, King Cnut commanding the tide to halt, King Harold dying on the field at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. King John signing the Magna Carta in 1215, also present in the scene is Stephen Cardinal Langton. Henry VIII and his six wives, Queen Elizabeth I knighting Sir Francis Drake aboard the Golden Hind in 1588. The execution of King Charles I in 1649, official site of Thwaites & Reed
19.
Sydney Town Hall
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It is located on George Street, in the Sydney central business district opposite the Queen Victoria Building and alongside St Andrews Cathedral. Sited above the Town Hall station and between the city shopping and entertainment precincts, the steps of the Town Hall are a meeting place. The Town Hall was built in the 1880s – on the site of the former Old Sydney Burial Ground, the cemetery was Sydneys first permanent cemetery and it is estimated that at least 2000 burials were made in the Old Sydney Burial Ground between 1782 and 1820. The Town Hall was built from local Sydney sandstone in the grand Victorian Second Empire style, the Town Hall has been described as having lavishly ornamented composition with focal tower and fanciful roofs. The building consists of the original Town Hall, mayoral suites and these were designed by J. H. Wilson in 1866, having won a civic competition to design a town hall for the rapidly-growing city. Construction of his designs were completed under the architectural direction of Albert Bond in 1869. Wilson also designed the interior of the original Town Hall meeting room, the clock tower was completed in 1873 to the design of E. and T. Bradbridge and whose clock was installed in 1884. The building houses the Sydney City Council Chamber, reception rooms, the Centennial Hall contains the Grand Organ, the worlds largest pipe organ with tubular pneumatic action, built from 1886 to 1889 and installed in 1890 by the English firm of William Hill & Son. The organ possesses one of only two full-length 64′ organ stops in the world, before the opening of the Sydney Opera House and its Concert Hall, the Town Hall was Sydneys premier concert hall, and many notable performances took place there. In the later years, it has discovered that Town Hall lies on top of part of a cemetery complex. Renovations were undertaken in 2008-9 primarily to upgrade the mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, the renovations, completed by Sydney builder Kell & Rigby, included removing 6,000 cubic metres of sandstone from underneath the building. The Sydney Town Hall still serves as an important presence and meeting place for the city of Sydney to this very day, the building itself regularly undergoes cleaning and restoration to preserve it for future generations. List of town halls in Sydney Architecture of Sydney A short documentary on the history of Sydney Town Hall A history of Sydney Town Hall Official website Building history. Office of Environment & Heritage, Government of New South Wales
20.
Sydney central business district
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The Sydney central business district is the main commercial centre of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It extends southwards for about 3 km from Sydney Cove, the point of first European settlement in which the Sydney region was initially established, due to its pivotal role in Australias early history, it is one of the oldest established areas in the country. Geographically, its north–south axis runs from Circular Quay in the north to Central railway station in the south, at the 2011 Australian Census, the CBD recorded a population of 14,308. Sydney CBD is very used to refer not only to the CBD proper. The Sydney CBD is Australias main financial and economic centre, as well as a hub of economic activity for the Asia-Pacific region. The city centre employs approximately 13% of the Sydney regions workforce and it produced $64.1 billion worth of goods and services in 2011–12. Culturally, the city centre is Sydneys focal point for nightlife and it is also home to some of the citys most significant buildings and structures. The Sydney CBD is an area of very densely concentrated skyscrapers and other buildings, interspersed by parks such as Hyde Park, The Domain, Royal Botanic Gardens. George Street is the Sydney CBDs main north–south thoroughfare, the CBD runs along two ridge lines below Macquarie Street and York Streets. Between these ridges is Pitt Street, running close to the course of the original Tank Stream, bridge Street, took its name from the bridge running east–west that once crossed this stream. Pitt Street is the heart of the city which includes the Pitt Street Mall. Macquarie Street is a historic precinct that houses such buildings as the State Parliament House, administratively, the Sydney CBD falls under the authority of the local government area of the City of Sydney. The New South Wales state government also has authority over some aspects of the CBD, the Sydney CBD is home to some of the largest Australian companies, as well as serving as an Asia-Pacific headquarters for many large international companies. Sydneys CBD is serviced by rail, light rail, buses. There is a largely-underground CBD rail loop, accessed in both directions via Central, which services five additional CBD stations, plus a spur line to Bondi Junction which services two. The only light rail line currently operating links the southern part of the CBD, buses, both government-run and privately owned, service the CBD along several dozen routes to both inner and more remote suburbs. NightRide is an bus service that operates between midnight and 5, 00am, with most services running from George Street outside the Sydney Town Hall. Sydney Ferries operate largely from Circular Quay, on the edge of the CBD
21.
Ritchie Brothers
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Ritchie Brothers was an Australian railway rolling stock and tram manufacturer based in the Sydney suburb of Auburn. In 1857, Robert Ritchie took over the business of Joseph Whiting of Parramatta. In 1876, Ritchie was awarded a contract by the Government of New South Wales for 150 wagons, in 1882, the business relocated to Auburn. Ritchie Brothers built carriages for the New South Wales Government Railways including American suburban carriages, Bradfield suburban and it also built D and N class trams for the Sydney tram network
22.
Market Street, Sydney
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Market Street is a street in the central business district of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. It runs from Sussex Street near Darling Harbour in the west, Market Street is located in the heart of the Sydney central business district shopping precinct. The two flagship David Jones department stores in Sydney are located in Market Street, diagonally across the Castlereagh Street intersection, Market Street provides the southern border of Pitt Street Mall and features such shopping centres as Centrepoint, the Queen Victoria Building and Sydney Central Plaza. The State Theatre is located between Pitt and George Street intersections, a footbridge at the end of Market street provides a direct link to Pyrmont Bridge and Darling Harbour. All traffic travels one way along Market Street, from east to west, a flyover is located at the end Market Street which links traffic to the Western Distributor and then Ultimo, Pyrmont, the Anzac Bridge and beyond. Market Street is where prominent cricketer Victor Trumper owned a sporting goods store and it was at this store in a series of meetings between Trumper, J J Giltinan and others, that the creation of the New South Wales Rugby Football League was conceived
23.
York Street, Sydney
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York Street is a street in the central business district of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. York Street runs 1 kilometre in a north to south direction only and is used predominantly by buses from northern districts of Sydney. From its northern terminus at the junction of Grosvenor Street with the Bradfield Highway, York Street runs south past Wynyard railway station, with intersections at King. The southern terminus of York Street is at Druitt Street, adjacent to the Sydney Town Hall, between Market Street and Druitt Street, traffic is restricted to buses, bicycles and service vehicles only. Two lines of the T1 North Shore, Northern & Western Line run under York Street, scots Presbyterian Church is located at 2 York Street, on the corner of York and Margaret Street. The church was founded in 1882, the congregation has been relocated on several occasions to different sites in the Sydney CBD prior to moving in February 2006 into its current site at 44 Margaret St, known as the Assembly Building. The Grace Hotel, a historic art-deco building opened in 1930 and modelled on Chicagos Tribune Tower that is now a hotel
24.
Gregory Blaxland
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Gregory Blaxland was an English pioneer farmer and explorer in Australia, noted especially for initiating and co-leading the first successful crossing of the Blue Mountains by European settlers. N. Gregory attended The Kings School, Canterbury, in July 1799 in the church of St George the Martyr there, he married 20-year-old Elizabeth, daughter of John Spurdon, they had five sons and two daughters. The Blaxlands were friends of Sir Joseph Banks who appears to have influenced the decision of Gregory and his eldest brother, John. The government promised them land, convict servants and free passages, in accord with its policy of encouraging settlers of responsibility and he owned a farm at the South Creek. The crossing took 21 days, and 6 days to return, in recognition of the successful crossing, all three explorers were granted by Macquarie 1,000 acres of land west of the mountains. Blaxland is also noted as one of the first settlers to plant grapes for wine-making purposes and he was engaged during the next few years in wine-making. He had brought vines from the Cape of Good Hope and found a species resistant to blight, Blaxlands diaries show that he had a clear grasp of the scale upon which agricultural and pastoral activities would be profitable in Australia. Macquarie would not agree nor would he allow Blaxland land in the interior for his own flocks, Blaxland then had to dispose of his livestock, and joined the colonial opposition to Macquarie, and in 1819 sharply criticized his administration to Commissioner John Thomas Bigge. Blaxland visited England in 1822 taking with him a sample of his wine, while in England he published in February 1823 his Journal of a Tour of Discovery Across the Blue Mountains. Later the same year, Blaxland was awarded the medal of the Royal Society of Arts for the wine he had brought to London. His wife died in December 1826 and he successfully petitioned the Colonial Office for a drawback on the import duty on brandy imported into the colony and actually used in the manufacture of wine. Always a man of moody and mercurial character, Blaxland devoted his colonial activities almost entirely to the pursuit of his agricultural and viticultural interests and he committed suicide on 1 January 1853 in New South Wales and was buried in All Saints Cemetery in Parramatta. His son John was a prominent businessman and member of the New South Wales Legislative Council, in 1963 he was honoured, together with Lawson and Wentworth, on a postage stamp issued by Australia Post depicting the Blue Mountains crossing
25.
Lachlan Macquarie
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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, a chain of islands off the West Coast of Scotland. He was a gentleman of the Scottish Highland family clan MacQuarrie which possessed Ulva, Staffa, and a region of the Isle of Mull for over one thousand years, and his forebears were buried on Iona. Governor Macquaries father, a man of Intelligence, polite, and much of the world, supposedly attained the age of 103 years and his mother was the daughter of a Maclaine chieftain who owned a castle on the Isle of Mull. Macquarie left the island at the age of 14, if he did attend the Royal High School of Edinburgh, as tradition has it, it was only for a very brief period because, at the same age, he volunteered for the army. Macquarie joined the 84th Regiment of Foot on 9 April 1777, as a new recruit on the way to America he participated in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first naval victory for a British merchant ship over an American privateer and he was initially stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was commissioned as an ensign five months after his arrival. On 18 January 1781, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the 71st Regiment of Foot, and served them in New York City, Charleston. In June 1784 he returned to Scotland as a half-pay lieutenant, three years later, on Christmas Day 1787 he received his commission as lieutenant in the 77th Regiment, where he saw service with the army in India and Egypt. Macquarie became a Freemason in January 1793 at Bombay, in Lodge No.1 and he was promoted Captain on 9 November 1789, Major on 12 March 1801. Two years later,1803, he was in London, as Assistant Adjutant General to Lord Harrington, in 1803 and 1804 saw him on active service in India. In 1793 he married Jane Jarvis, daughter of the Chief Justice of Antigua, three years later she died of tuberculosis. In November 1807, Macquaries cousin Elizabeth Henrietta Campbell became his second wife, in April 1809 Macquarie was appointed Governor of New South Wales. At the head of troops he was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. Macquarie was promoted to Colonel in 1810, Brigadier in 1811 and Major-General in 1813, the Macquaries departed from England in May 1809 aboard HMS Dromedary, accompanied by HMS Hindostan. They reached Sydney on 28 December 1809 and he started as a governor on 1 January 1810 and he appointed John Campbell as his secretary. The first task Macquarie had to tackle was to restore orderly, lawful government, Macquarie was ordered by the British government to arrest both John Macarthur and Major George Johnston, two of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion
26.
Francis Greenway
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Francis Howard Greenway was an English-born architect who was transported to Australia as a convict for the crime of forgery. In New South Wales he worked for the Governor, Lachlan Macquarie and he became widely known and admired for his work displayed in buildings such as St Matthews Church in Windsor, New South Wales, St James Church, Sydney and Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney. Greenway was born in Mangotsfield, Gloucestershire, the son of Francis Greenway, Greenway became an architect of some eminence in Bristol and Bath. His only remaining building in the United Kingdom is the Clifton Club in Bristol, originally the Clifton Hotel and he also designed Christ Church Downend near Mangotsfield. Why he pleaded guilty is unknown, he may have told it was the only way to save his life. Whilst awaiting deportation to Sydney, Greenway spent time in Newgate Prison, Greenway arrived in Sydney, New South Wales on the transport General Hewitt in February 1814 to serve his sentence. On board the ship was the surgeon Dr. John Harris who was to give Greenway his first private commission in the colony which involved extending his residence on his Ultimo estate, Greenway first met Lachlan Macquarie in July 1814 to whom he had come recommended by Admiral Arthur Phillip. During the initial meeting Macquarie sought to test Greenway by asking him to copy a design of a town hall and courthouse from a pattern book. Greenway was so offended by this that he responded with a letter declaring his skills, Greenway fell into disrepute when Macquarie accused him of charging high fees whilst on a government retainer, and he was dismissed by the next governor, Thomas Brisbane, in 1822. He continued to follow his profession with little success, Greenway died of typhoid near Newcastle, New South Wales in 1837, aged 59. The exact date of his death is not known and he is believed to have been buried in the Glebe burial ground at East Maitland on 25 September 1837, but his grave is unmarked. Greenways face was shown on the first Australian decimal-currency $10 note, Greenway is the eponym of a NSW Federal electorate, a suburb of Canberra, and a high school in Beresfield, a suburb of Maitland. Francis Greenway Drive in the suburb of Cherrybrook is named in honour of Francis Greenway, the Vaucluse home of the renowned Australian architect Leslie Wilkinson was named Greenway in honour of Francis Greenway. The following Greenway buildings are listed on the Register of the National Estate, dictionary of Australian Artists Online Francis Greenway Drive Media related to Francis Greenway at Wikimedia Commons
27.
New South Wales Government Architect
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Historically, the government architect was in charge of the governments public building projects across the state of New South Wales, Australia. The first appointed officer to the role, styled Colonial Architect, was Francis Greenway, Francis Greenway was the first official architect for the Colony of New South Wales in a role that was called Colonial Architect. He was appointed in 1816 by Governor Macquarie to be Acting Civil Architect and Assistant Engineer responsible to Captain J M Gill, Greenway was a convict who had been sentenced to transportation for forgery. Greenways works included the Macquarie Lighthouse on South Head, the Fort on Bennelong Point, greenways other major buildings include the Obelisk in Macquarie Place, the Church of St James, St Mathews Church at Windsor and the Hyde Park Barracks. Bigge generally agreed with the criticisms, and elements of his reports criticised Governor Macquarie’s administration including his excessive spending on public works. Bigges reports on the led to Macquaries resignation in 1821. Brisbanes two replacement appointees lasted only short terms, Governor Darling arrived in December 1825 and dismissed the incumbent architect, George Cookney, a few months later. Governor Bourke succeeded Darling in 1831, Bourke initiated a major enquiry into the Department of Public Works and suspended its Director, Charles Wilson. Bourke had received numerous allegations anonymously against Wilson and the Department, Wilson was dismissed and following him, six of the next top officers were also dismissed. In effect, the Department of Public Works ceased to function on the date of those dismissals,13 March 1832, Bourke established the Colonial Architects Department in 1832 to be responsible for the planning and supervision of the construction and repair of public buildings. From 1833 to 1835 the Department briefly became the Architectural Branch of the Department of the Surveyor General before the Colonial Architects Department was again separately established, to replace Greenway, Brisbane appointed Standish Lawrence Harris, a recently arrived free settler as Civil Architect in late 1822. Harris main achievement seems to be in preparing a report on the condition of the Colonys public buildings requested by the Governor, Governor Brisbane found Harriss fees to be excessive. The Civil Architect reported to the Chief Engineer, Major John Ovens, Ovens had stated that Harris services can no longer be useful to me and Harris was dismissed in October 1824. Other than his report on the public buildings, Harriss possible contribution was the completion of the new Courthouse at Sydney begun by Greenway. Harris made enlargements and prepared drawings and specifications, but there is doubt as to whether even his design was that ultimately adopted. Harris made recommendations about the organisation of the Office for Public Works and the role of the Civil Architect, George Cookney was an English architect, the son of Darcy Wentworths London agent. Cookney was sponsored by Wentworth and his son William Charles Wentworth, Governor Brisbane appointed him in April 1825, however, there were not a lot of projects he was asked to look at. The only major work completed by Cookney was a memorial at the Sydney suburb of La Pérouse to Jean-François de la Pérouse, the memorial was requested by Baron de Bougainville, the son of the more famous French explorer, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who visited Sydney in 1825
28.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
29.
Renaissance Revival architecture
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The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture, in England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture and this is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. If this were not confusing enough, the new Neo-Renaissance then frequently borrowed architectural elements from the succeeding Mannerist period, mannerism and Baroque being two very opposing styles of architecture. Mannerism was exemplified by the Palazzo del Te and Baroque by the Wurzburg Residenz, as a consequence a self-consciously Neo-Renaissance manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline, the Hagues Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, the style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments, if a building were of several floors the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was more severe in its design. Like all architectural styles the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly, one of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Womens Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s, richardsons style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his Marshall Field Warehouse in Chicago, however, while the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came between was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the opera houses of the Europe, such as Gottfried Sempers Burgtheater in Vienna. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is known as the Second Empire style. By 1875 it had become the style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. In Austria, it was pioneered by such names as Rudolf Eitelberger
30.
Queen Anne style architecture
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George Devey and the better-known Norman Shaw popularized the Queen Anne style of British architecture of the industrial age in the 1870s. Norman Shaw published a book of architectural sketches as early as 1858, Shaws eclectic designs often included Tudor elements, and this Old English style also became popular in the United States, where it became known as the Queen Anne style. Confusion between buildings constructed during the reign of Queen Anne and the Queen Anne Style still persists, in the late 1850s the name Queen Anne was in the air, following publication in 1852 of William Makepeace Thackerays novel, The History of Henry Esmond, Esq. A Colonel in the Service of Her Majesty Queen Anne, one minor side-effect of Thackerays novel and of Norman Shaws freehand picturesque vernacular Renaissance survives to this day. The British Victorian version of the style more closely with the Arts and Crafts movement than does its American counterpart. A good example is Severalls Hospital in Colchester, Essex, now defunct, in the 20th century Edwin Lutyens and others used an elegant version of the style, usually with red-brick walls contrasting with pale stone details. In the United States, the so-called Queen Anne style is used of a wide range of picturesque buildings with free Renaissance details rather than of a specific formulaic style in its own right. The gabled and domestically scaled Queen Anne style arrived in New York City with the new housing for the New York House and School of Industry Sidney V. Stratton, architect, 1878). Dentils, classical columns, spindle work, oriel and bay windows, horizontal bands of leaded windows, monumental chimneys, painted balustrades, front gardens often had wooden fences. The Federation period went from 1890 to 1915 and included twelve styles and this became the most popular style for houses built between 1890 and 1910. The style often utilised Tudor-style woodwork and elaborate fretwork that replaced the Victorian taste for wrought iron, verandahs were usually a feature, as were the image of the rising sun and Australian wildlife, plus circular windows, turrets and towers with conical or pyramid-shaped roofs. The first Queen Anne house in Australia was Caerleon in the suburb of Bellevue Hill, Caerleon was designed initially by a Sydney architect, Harry Kent, but was then substantially reworked in London by Maurice Adams. This led to controversy over who deserved the credit. The house was built in 1885 and was the precursor for the Federation Queen Anne house that were to become so popular. Caerleon was followed soon after by West Maling, in the suburb of Penshurst, New South Wales and these houses, although built around the same time, had distinct styles, West Maling displaying a strong Tudor influence that was not present in Annesbury. The style soon became popular, appealing predominantly to reasonably well-off people with an Establishment leaning. The style as it developed in Australia was highly eclectic, blending Queen Anne elements with various Australian influences, Old English characteristics like ribbed chimneys and gabled roofs were combined with Australian elements like encircling verandahs, designed to keep the sun out. One outstanding example of this approach is Urrbrae House, in the Adelaide suburb of Urrbrae, South Australia
31.
Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
32.
Column
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A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member, the term column applies especially to a large round support with a capital and a base or pedestal and made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is called a post. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces, other compression members are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, column refers to such an element that also has certain proportional. A column might also be an element not needed for structural purposes, many columns are engaged. All significant Iron Age civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean made some use of columns, egyptian columns are famously present in the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak, where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of the Persians and they included double-bull structures in their capitals. The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 ×70 metres, was built by the Achaemenid king Darius I, many of the ancient Persian columns are standing, some being more than 30 metres tall. The Minoans used whole tree-trunks, usually turned upside down in order to prevent re-growth, stood on a set in the stylobate. These were then painted as in the most famous Minoan palace of Knossos, the Minoans employed columns to create large open-plan spaces, light-wells and as a focal point for religious rituals. These traditions were continued by the later Mycenaean civilization, particularly in the megaron or hall at the heart of their palaces. Being made of wood these early columns have not survived, but their bases have and through these we may see their use. The Greeks developed the classical orders of architecture, which are most easily distinguished by the form of the column and their Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were expanded by the Romans to include the Tuscan and Composite orders. Columns, or at least large structural exterior ones, became less significant in the architecture of the Middle Ages. Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a piece of stone. Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture, other stone columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together
33.
Arch
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An arch is a curved structure that spans a space and may or may not support weight above it. Arch may be synonymous with vault, but a vault may be distinguished as a continuous arch forming a roof, an arch is a pure compression form. It can span an area by resolving forces into compressive stresses and. This is sometimes referred to as arch action, as the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base, called thrust. As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases, in order to maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties or external bracing, such as abutments. The most common true arch configurations are the arch, the two-hinged arch. The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel construction, because it is subject to additional internal stress caused by thermal expansion and contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate. The two-hinged arch is most often used to long spans. This type of arch has pinned connections at the base, unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate, allowing the structure to move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in outdoor temperature. However, this can result in additional stresses, so the two-hinged arch is also statically indeterminate, the three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged arch, but at the mid-span as well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the arch to move in two opposite directions and compensate for any expansion and contraction. This type of arch is not subject to additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-hinged arch is said to be statically determinate. It is most often used for structures, such as large building roofs. Another advantage of the arch is that the pinned bases are more easily developed than fixed ones, allowing for shallow. Arches have many forms, but all fall into three categories, circular, pointed, and parabolic. Arches can also be configured to produce vaults and arcades, Arches with a circular form, also referred to as rounded arches, were commonly employed by the builders of ancient, heavy masonry arches. Ancient Roman builders relied heavily on the arch to span large
34.
Richardsonian Romanesque
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Richardson first used elements of the style in his Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, New York, designed in 1870. This very free revival style incorporates 11th and 12th century southern French, Spanish, the style includes work by the generation of architects practicing in the 1880s before the influence of the Beaux-Arts styles. It is epitomised by the American Museum of Natural Historys original 77th Street building by J. Cleaveland Cady of Cady, Berg and See in New York City. It was seen in communities in this time period such as in St. Thomas, Ontarios city hall and Menomonie. Some of the practitioners who most faithfully followed Richardsons proportion, massing and detailing had worked in his office and these include, Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow and Frank Alden, George Shepley and Charles Coolidge, Herbert Burdett. Bate designed the Grays Armory in this style in Cleveland, Ohio, the style also influenced the Chicago school of architecture and architects Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. In Finland, Eliel Saarinen was influenced by Richardson, research is underway to try to document the westward movement of the artisans and craftsmen, many of whom were immigrant Italians and Irish, who built in the Richardsonian Romanesque tradition. The style began in the East, in and around Boston, as the style was losing favor in the East, it was gaining popularity further west. Stone carvers and masons trained in the Richardsonian manner appear to have taken the style west, as an example, four small bank buildings were built in Richardsonian Romanesque style in Osage County, Oklahoma, during 1904–1911. For pictures of H. H. Richardson’s own designs and some of the details, with the exception of the Richardson Olmsted Complex, none of the following structures were designed by Richardson. They illustrate the strength of his personality on progressive North American architecture from 1885 to 1905. They are divided into categories denoting the various different uses of the buildings, civic Buildings Educational Institutions and Libraries Service-related buildings Churches and chapels Residences Henry Hobson Richardson H
35.
Dome
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A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The precise definition has been a matter of controversy, there are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives, a lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome. Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental traditions that have developed over time. Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia, which may explain the forms spread and they are found in Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the Ancient world, as well as among a number of contemporary indigenous building traditions. They were popular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture, and there are examples from Western Europe in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance style spread from Italy in the Early modern period, advancements in mathematics, materials, and production techniques since that time resulted in new dome types. The domes of the world can be found over religious buildings, legislative chambers, sports stadiums. The English word dome ultimately derives from the Latin domus —which, up through the Renaissance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or House of God, the French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution, sometimes called false domes, corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet at the top. A false dome may also refer to a wooden dome, true domes are said to be those whose structure is in a state of compression, with constituent elements of wedge-shaped voussoirs, the joints of which align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear, as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers are also in compression from the surrounding earth, as with arches, the springing of a dome is the level from which the dome rises. The top of a dome is the crown, the inner side of a dome is called the intrados and the outer side is called the extrados. The haunch is the part of an arch that lies halfway between the base and the top. The word cupola is another word for dome, and is used for a small dome upon a roof or turret. Cupola has also used to describe the inner side of a dome. Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without windows that support a dome, a tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a domes oculus, supporting a cupola
36.
Cupola
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In architecture, a cupola /ˈkjuːpələ/ is a small, most often dome-like, structure on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to light and air. The word derives, via Italian, from the lower Latin cupula small cup indicating a vault resembling an upside down cup. The cupola is a development during the Renaissance of the oculus, an ancient device found in Roman architecture, the chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure. Cupolas often appear as small buildings in their own right and they often serve as a belfry, belvedere, or roof lantern above a main roof. In other cases they may crown a spire, tower, or turret, barns often have cupolas for ventilation. The square, dome-like segment of a North American railroad train caboose that contains the second-level or angel seats is called a cupola. Some armored fighting vehicles have cupolas, called commanders cupola, which is a dome or cylinder with armored glass to provide 360-degree vision around the vehicle
37.
Stained-glass
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The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches, mosques, although traditionally made in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include three-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has extended the term stained glass to include domestic leadlight. As a material stained glass is glass that has been coloured by adding metallic salts during its manufacture. The coloured glass is crafted into stained glass windows in which pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures, held together by strips of lead. Painted details and yellow stain are used to enhance the design. The term stained glass is applied to windows in which the colours have been painted onto the glass. Stained glass, as an art and a craft, requires the artistic skill to conceive an appropriate and workable design, and the engineering skills to assemble the piece. A window must fit snugly into the space for which it is made, must resist wind and rain, Many large windows have withstood the test of time and remained substantially intact since the late Middle Ages. In Western Europe they constitute the form of pictorial art to have survived. In this context, the purpose of a glass window is not to allow those within a building to see the world outside or even primarily to admit light. For this reason stained glass windows have been described as illuminated wall decorations, Stained glass is still popular today, but often referred to as art glass. It is prevalent in luxury homes, commercial buildings, and places of worship, artists and companies are contracted to create beautiful art glass ranging from domes, windows, backsplashes, etc. During the late Medieval period, glass factories were set up there was a ready supply of silica. Silica requires very high heat to become molten, something not all glass factories were able to achieve, such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network, Glass is coloured by adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state. Copper oxides produce green or bluish green, cobalt makes deep blue, much modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than gold and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of red. Glass coloured while in the pot in the furnace is known as pot metal glass
38.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
39.
Skylight
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Skylights are light transmitting fenestration forming all, or a portion of, the roof of a buildings space for daylighting purposes. Open skylights were used in Ancient Roman architecture, such as the oculus of the Pantheon, glazed closed skylights have been in use since the Industrial Revolution made advances in glass production manufacturing. Mass production units since the century have brought skylights to many uses. Uses include, daylighting elements used to allow direct and/or indirect sunlight, providing a visual connection to the outdoor environment to interior occupants. Sustainable building — passive solar heating, and with units, ventilation for passive cooling. Fixed unit skylight A fixed skylight consists of a perimeter frame supporting glazing infill. A fixed skylight is non-operable, meaning there is no ventilation, operable skylight An operable unit skylight uses a hinged sash attached to and supported by the frame. When within reach of the occupants, this type is called a roof window. Retractable skylight A retractable skylight rolls - on a set of tracks - off the frame, so that the interior of the facility is open to the outdoors. The terms retractable skylight and retractable roof are used interchangeably. Tubular daylight device Active daylighting uses a tubular daylight device—TDD and it is a roof-mounted fixed unit skylight element, condensing sunlight, distributed by a light conveying optic conduit to a light diffusing element. Being small in diameter, they can be used for daylighting smaller spaces such as hallways, TDDs harvest daylight through a roof-mounted dome with diameters ranging from about 10 inches for residential applications to 22 inches for commercial buildings. Made from acrylic or polycarbonate formulated to block ultraviolet rays, the dome captures, image, Skylight on the roof terrace of Liverpool Central Library. Skylights are widely used in designing daylighting for residential, public, increased daylighting can result in less electrical lighting use and smaller sized window glazing, saving energy, lowering costs, and reducing environmental impacts. Daylighting can cut lighting energy use in buildings by up to 80%. Modern transparent and/or translucent glazing can be utilized to avoid glare, aid in capturing sunlight at low angles, even on overcast days, toplighting from skylights is three to ten times more efficient than sidelighting. Many recent advances in glass and plastic infill systems have greatly benefited all skylight types. Contemporary skylights using glass infill typically use sealed insulating glass units made with two panes of glass and these types of products are NFRC-ratable for visible transmittance
40.
Colonnade
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In classical architecture, a colonnade denotes a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curved, the space enclosed may be covered or open. In St. Peters Square in Rome, Berninis great colonnade encloses a vast open elliptical space, when in front of a building, screening the door, it is called a portico, when enclosing an open court, a peristyle. A portico may be more than one rank of columns deep, colonnades have been built since ancient times and interpretations of the classical model have continued through to modern times, and Neoclassical styles remained popular for centuries. At the British Museum, for example, porticos are continued along the front as a colonnade, the porch of columns that surrounds the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. can be termed a colonnade. The longest colonnade in the United States, with 36 Corinthian columns, is the New York State Education Building in Albany, New York
41.
Baluster
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Multiplied in this way, they form a balustrade. Individually, a baluster shaft may describe the form taken by a brass or silver candlestick. According to OED, baluster is derived through the French, balustre, from Italian, balaustro, from balaustra, pomegranate flower, from Latin balaustium, from Greek βαλαύστιον. The earliest examples are shown in the bas-reliefs representing the Assyrian palaces. The application to architecture was a feature of the early Renaissance, late fifteenth-century examples are found in the balconies of palaces at Venice and these quattrocento balustrades are likely to be following yet-unidentified Gothic precedents. They form balustrades of colonnettes as an alternative to miniature arcading, sangallo passed the motif to Bramante and Michelangelo, through whom balustrades gained wide currency in the 16th century. Because of its low center of gravity, this vase-baluster may be given the modern term dropped baluster. The baluster, being a structure, tends to follow design precedents that were set in woodworking and ceramic practices, where the turners lathe. The profile a baluster takes is often diagnostic of a style of architecture or furniture. Some complicated Mannerist baluster forms can be read as a vase set upon another vase, modern baluster design is also in use for example in designs influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement in a 1905 row of houses in Etchingham Park Road Finchley London England. The modern term baluster shaft is applied to the shaft dividing a window in Saxon architecture, in the south transept of the Abbey in St Albans, England, are some of these shafts, supposed to have been taken from the old Saxon church. Norman bases and capitals have been added, together with plain cylindrical Norman shafts, balusters are normally separated by at least the same measurement as the size of the square bottom section. Placing balusters too far apart diminishes their aesthetic appeal, balustrades normally terminate in columns, building walls or more properly in heavy newel posts because otherwise they will not be structurally strong enough. Balusters may be formed in several ways, wood and stone can be shaped on the lathe, wood can be cut from square or rectangular section boards, while concrete, plaster, iron, and plastics are usually formed by molding and casting. Turned patterns or old examples are used for the molds, Cast iron Cast stone Hardwoods and softwoods Plaster Polymer stone Polyurethane/polystyrene Wrought iron The word banister refers to the balusters of a stairway. According to many dictionaries - a, a handrail, especially on a staircase. Such a handrail together with its supporting structures, the Renaissance baluster and Palladio in Palladio and English Palladianism
42.
Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
43.
Allegory
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As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
44.
Walter Liberty Vernon
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Walter Liberty Vernon was an English architect who migrated to Australia and pursued his career as an architect in Sydney, New South Wales. He is noted for designing multiple government buildings which are still standing, Vernon was born 11 August 1846 in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England, the son of a bankers clerk, Robert Vernon and Margaret Liberty. He was articled in 1862 to a London architect, W. G. Habershon, after completing his studies, he pursued a practice as an architect in London and married Margaret Anne Jones in 1870 at Newport, Wales. His London practice was successful, but he suffered from asthma and received medical advice to leave England. Thus, he migrated to Australia. Vernon established a practice in Sydney but later joined the Government Architects Branch in 1890 as Government Architect. The activities of this office were boosted in 1894 when extra funding was committed as a way of creating relief work during the Depression, as an architect practising in Australia, Vernon favoured what were later known as Federation styles such as Federation Arts and Crafts and Federation Free Style. Examples of the former were his fire station in St Johns Road, Glebe, Jenolan Caves House in the Blue Mountains, examples of the latter were his fire stations in The Avenue, Randwick, Darlinghurst Road, Darlinghurst, and Pyrmont Street, Pyrmont. The last two are on the Register of the National Estate, another example of Federation Free Style is the former police station, Taylor Square, Darlinghurst, also on the National Estate. In a stylistic departure, he designed the station in Bourke Street, Surry Hills, in the Romanesque style. For more substantial buildings, Vernon continued the tradition whereby such buildings were designed in a Classical style. Notable examples were the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the Mitchell Library, Central railway station and Newcastle Court House, the Art Gallery has been described as masterly symmetry featuring Ionic colonnades. Central Station has been described as the grandest railway station in Australia and his office was also responsible for the public decorations during the Federation celebrations of 1901. He retired as New South Wales Government Architect in 1911 and returned to private practice, the latter, also born in England, was a practitioner of the Federation Arts and Crafts and Federation Bungalow styles. One of the buildings designed by Vernon and Joseland was the Paterson Reid and Bruce building, York Street, Sydney, in 1911, Vernon judged the competition entries for Parliament House in Wellington, New Zealand, after the original buildings were destroyed in a 1907 fire. Vernon had a career as an architect, with approximately fifty of his buildings being on the Register of the National Estate. He is known as a key practitioner of various Federation styles, Vernon Circle in Canberra is named after him, as is the Vernon Pavilion in Sydneys Centennial Park. Vernon died on 17 January 1914 and his funeral at St James Church, Sydney on 19 January was attended by a large. The following Vernon buildings are on the Register of the National Estate
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Theodora Cowan
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Theodora Esther Cowan was an Australian artist, regarded as the first Australian-born woman sculptor. She was one of a number of sculptors who were working at the end of the 19th century. Apart from being the first to be born in Australia, Cowan was among the first to achieve success and she studied in Florence at the Academy of Fine Arts under Longworth Powers and Augusto Rivalta, where she acquired the technique of her art. Cowan was one of a number of young Australian sculptors, including Bertram Mackennal, in Italy Cowan met prominent people such as Pietro Mascagni, Ouida and the American sculptor Harriet Hosmer. In 1895, Cowan returned to Sydney and established a studio in the Strand Arcade and she found there was some prejudice against women sculptors and explained that she was in the position of a pioneer. Cowan travelled to London in 1901, set up a studio in Grosvenor Street, and met important artists such as Holman Hunt and she again returned to Sydney in 1913 and worked from Darlinghurst. In Australia, two of her best friends were Lord Hampden, the Governor, and George Reid, the Prime Minister, when Cowan died in a private hospital in Vaucluse on 27 August 1949, her address was Osiris 84 Berry Street, North Sydney. The probate value on her estate was £5047, cowans first commission was completed in Italy. It was a monument to Miss Pearson, the Red Cross nurse who founded the first private hospital in London and was erected in the cemetery of San Miniato al Monte, in 1897 Cowan was a finalist in the inaugural year of the Wynne Prize and again in 1925. In Sydney, she was an exhibitor at the Society of Artists for which organisation she was a Council member from 1897–98. She became interested in painting and in later life turned increasingly towards painting. The Bishop reportedly sat for it at Fulham Palace, other well-known, notable subjects included Sir Gilbert Parker, Sir Edmund Barton, Sir Henry Parkes, and a full length statuette of Mrs. Brown-Potter. Her work is represented in the collections of the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the bust of Eccleston du Faur was the Gallerys first commission to a Sydney artist. After the completion of the Eccleston du Faur marble bust, there were questions in Parliament as to why the bust had been commissioned and her portrait bust of Eliezer Levi Montefiore has been assessed as clearly showing her skill as a portraitist. In 1902 in London she was given a commission for a bust in marble of Egyptologist Flinders Petrie, the Development of Australian Sculpture 1788–1975. Theodora Esther Cowan in the Dictionary of Australian Artists Online
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Content in this Wikipedia article was based on the Queen Victoria Building, listed on the "New South Wales State Heritage Register" published by the Government of New South Wales under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 29 September 2017).
