1.
Middle-Eastern theatre of World War I
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The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I saw action between 29 October 1914 and 30 October 1918. There were five main campaigns, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, there were also several minor campaigns, the Senussi Campaign, Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign. Both sides used local asymmetrical forces in the region, in addition, the Assyrians joined the Allies following the Assyrian genocide, instigating the Assyrian war of independence. The Turkish Ottomans had the support of Kurds, Turcomans, Circassians, Chechens, the theatre covered the largest territory of all theatres in the war. The Armenians attended the Trabzon Peace Conference which resulted in the Treaty of Batum on 4 June 1918. The Ottomans accepted the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers through the secret Ottoman-German Alliance, which was signed on 2 August 1914. Success in this region would force the Russians to divert troops from the Polish, German advisors with the Ottoman armies supported the campaign for this reason. From an economic perspective, the Ottoman, or rather German, Germany established an Intelligence Bureau for the East on the eve of World War I. The bureau was involved in intelligence-gathering and subversive missions to Persia and Egypt, if these nations were to be removed from Western influence, Enver envisioned a cooperation between these newly established Turkic states. Envers project conflicted with European interests which played out as struggles between several key imperial powers, the Ottomans also threatened Britains communications with India and the East via the Suez Canal. The Germans hoped to seize the Canal for the Central Powers, the British feared that the Ottomans might attack and capture the Middle East oil fields. The British Royal Navy depended upon oil from the deposits in southern Persia. Marriott summarizes the British debates on strategy for the Near East and Balkan theatre, The War in that presents many problems. The Russians viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front and they feared a campaign into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars which had been taken from the Ottoman Empire during the Russo-Turkish War, and the port of Batum. The Russian Imperial government planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia, the Armenian national liberation movement sought to establish an Armenian state within the Armenian Highlands. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation achieved this goal later in the war, none of these entities were long lasting. The Caucasus Campaign extended from the Caucasus to eastern Asia Minor, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush, the warfare on land was accompanied by actions undertaken by the Russian Navy in the Black Sea region of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire and German Empire fought each other at Batumi after the arrival of the German Caucasus Expedition whose prime aim was to secure oil supplies
2.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
3.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
6.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
7.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
8.
John Maxwell (British Army officer)
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General Sir John Grenfell Maxwell, GCB, KCMG, CVO, DSO, PC was a British Army officer and colonial governor. He served in the Mahdist War in the Sudan, the Second Boer War, and in the First World War, Maxwell was born at Aigburth, Liverpool, on 11 July 1859 to a family of Scottish Protestant heritage. He attended school at Cheltenham College, studied at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, from 1878, in 1882 Maxwell was part of Wolseleys expeditionary force to Egypt, he rose to captaincy and served with the famous Black Watch in the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882. For his part in the storming of the fortifications at Tel-El-Kabir, he won his first decoration, medal. He was first mentioned in despatches as an assistant provost-marshal and as commandant during his campaign with the Nile expedition in 1884 and 1885. He served in the Battle of Omdurman leading the 2nd Brigade and he personally led the march on the Khalifas palace. In 1897 he was appointed Governor of Nubia and in 1898 was appointed Governor of Omdurman, Maxwell served during the Second Boer War where he commanded the 14th Brigade on Lord Roberts march to Pretoria. He was appointed Military Governor of Pretoria and the Western Transvaal in 1900, and served as such until March 1902, as governor he filled a difficult post with great tact and ability. Gained the confidence and esteem of the public according to a news report. After leaving Pretoria he held a command in the Western district, before returning to the United Kingdom in July 1902, Maxwell is best known for his controversial handling of the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland. Maxwell arrived in Ireland on Friday 28 April as military governor with plenary powers under Martial law, afterwards he set about dealing with the rebellion under his understanding of Martial law. During the week 2–9 May, Maxwell was in charge of trials and sentences by field general court martial. He had 3,400 people arrested,183 civilians tried,90 of whom were sentenced to death, fifteen were shot between 3 and 12 May. Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and his government became concerned at the speed, in particular, there was concern that DORA regulations for general courts martial were not applied. These regulations called for a court of thirteen members, a professional judge, legal advocate and being held in public. Although Asquith promised to publish the court proceedings, they were not published until the 1990s. In 1916 Maxwell was assigned to be General Officer Commanding-in-Chief for Northern Command at York and he was promoted in June 1919 to full general and he retired in 1922. He died on 21 February 1929 and his memorial is in the crypt of York Minster, during most of the key events in Irish history, Maxwell was abroad at war
9.
Djemal Pasha
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Djemal was the Minister of the Navy. There is discussion about his role in the Armenian genocide, the Greek genocide. Ahmed Djemal was born in Mytilene, Lesbos, to Mehmet Nesip Bey, destined for the army, Djemal passed out from Kuleli Military High School in 1890. He went on to the Military Academy in 1893, the college in Istanbul. He was posted to serve with the 1st Department of the Imperial General Staff, Djemal was assigned to the II Corps in 1896, being appointed two years later, the staff commander of Novice Division, stationed on the frontier Salonica. Meanwhile, he began to sympathize with the reforms of Committee of Union and it was in 1905, when Djemal was promoted to major and designated Inspector of Roumelia Railways. The following year he signalled democratic credentials, joined the Ottoman Liberty Society and he became influential in the department of military issues of the Committee of Union and Progress. He became a member of Board of the III Corps, in 1907, between 1908 and 1918, Djemal was one of the most important leaders of the Ottoman government. His grandson, Hasan Cemal, is a well known columnist, journalist, in 1911 Djemal was appointed Governor of Baghdad. He resigned to rejoin the army in the Balkan Wars on the Salonika front line, in October 1912, he was promoted to colonel. At the end of the First Balkan War, he played an important role in the propaganda traced by the CUP and he tried to resolve the problems that occurred in Constantinople after the Bab-ı Ali Attack. Djemal played a significant role in the Second Balkan War, and with the revolution of CUP on 23 January 1913, in 1914 he was promoted as the Minister of the Navy. When Europe was divided in two blocs before the First World War, he supported an alliance with France and he went to France to negotiate an alliance with the French but failed and sided with Enver and Talaat, that favoured the German side. Djemal, along with Enver and Talaat took control of the Ottoman government in 1913, the Three Pashas effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire for the duration of World War I and were the three main perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide, the Greek genocide, and the Assyrian genocide. Djemal was one of the designers of the internal and foreign policies. For example, his policy to oppose the powers in Eastern Europe caused a dramatic escalation, multiple contradictory allegiances in a redundant balance of powers strategy added immense complexity and immeasurable difficulties to Turkish logistics across thousands of miles of desert. After the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Allies in World War I, Enver Pasha nominated Djemal Pasha to lead the Ottoman army against British forces in Egypt, similar to Enver, he proved unsuccessful as a military leader. Snubbed therefore by the Allies Djemal switched his attentions to an alliance with the Central Powers, Djemal Pasha was appointed with full powers in military and civilian affairs as Governor of Syria in 1915
10.
Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein
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Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was a German General from Nuremberg. Von Kressenstein came from a family in Nuremberg. His father Georg Kress von Kressenstein was a court judge. Von Kressenstein joined the Bavarian army as an ensign in the artillery in 1888 and he joined Djemal Pashas army in Palestine as a military engineer and later chief of staff. Djemal Pasha was given the job by the Turkish leader Enver Pasha of capturing or disabling the Suez Canal and this effort is called the First Suez Offensive and it occurred in January 1915. Kress von Kressenstein was responsible for creating special boats for crossing the canal as well as organizing the crossing of the Sinai desert. While the desert was crossed with little loss of life, the British were aware of their approach, the Turkish forces were repulsed easily and after two days of fighting, they retreated. Kress von Kressensteins special pontoons were never used, more than a year passed when the Turks tried a second attack on the Suez. With Djemal Pasha directing affairs from his base in Damascus, Kress von Kressenstein led a larger Ottoman army across the Sinai desert and this attack ran into a strong British defensive fortification at Romani,40 kilometres east of the canal. The Ottoman army prepared a major assault on Romani, scheduled for 3 August 1916. The attack was beaten off and again the Turks retreated back to their bases in Palestine, the British responded with an attack of their own. They captured some small Turkish forts in the Sinai, built a railroad and water pipe across the desert, Kress von Kressenstein was in charge of the Ottoman defences along with an Ottoman General Tala Bey. In the First Battle of Gaza, the British were defeated, in the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917, the British were defeated again, the credit for this victory largely going to Kress von Kressenstein. The British removed their unsuccessful generals and replaced them with General Allenby, the Ottomans also replaced their top leadership, bringing in the former Chief of the German General Staff, General von Falkenhayn. Kress von Kressenstein was kept on as commander of the Turkish 8th Army defending Gaza and he was also awarded Prussias highest order, in November 1917, the British under General Allenby breached the Ottoman defensive positions at the Battle of Beersheba and the Third Battle of Gaza. Kreß von Kressenstein was able to withdraw his troops in fairly good order to new defensive positions in the north. In the middle of 1918, with the Ottoman-German alliance breaking down, Kress von Kressenstein was sent with a small German force to Georgia and he helped to frustrate the Red Armys invasion of Georgian region Abkhazia. Kress von Kressenstein retired from the German army in 1929 and died in Munich in 1948, the feminine forms are Freifrau and Freiin
11.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
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The Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was fought between the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire, supported by the German Empire. It started with an Ottoman attempt at raiding the Suez Canal in 1915, fighting began in January 1915, when a German-led Ottoman force invaded the Sinai Peninsula, then part of the British Protectorate of Egypt, to unsuccessfully raid the Suez Canal. After the Gallipoli Campaign, veterans from each side formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, after a period of stalemate in Southern Palestine from April to October 1917, General Edmund Allenby captured Beersheba from the III Corps. Serious losses on the Western Front in March 1918, during Erich Ludendorffs German Spring Offensive, Damascus and Aleppo were captured during the subsequent pursuit, before the Ottoman Empire agreed to the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, ending the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. The British Mandate of Palestine and the French Mandate for Syria, the campaign was generally not well known or understood during the war. Australia did not have a war correspondent in the area until Captain Frank Hurley, Henry Gullett, the first Official War Correspondent, arrived in November 1917. The Republic of Turkey came into existence in 1923 after the Turkish War of Independence ended the Ottoman Empire, the Suez Canal was of vital strategic importance to the British, reducing the sailing time from India, New Zealand and Australia to Europe. As a result Egypt became a base during the war. To Germany and the Ottoman Empire the canal was the closest and weakest link in British communications, Defence of the canal posed a number of problems, with its sheer size alone making it hard to control. There was no road from Cairo, while only one railway track crossed the 30 miles of desert from Cairo to Ismaïlia on the Canal before branching north to Port Said and south to Suez. At the beginning of hostilities between Britain and the Ottoman Empire in November 1914 the 30,000 strong British defence force evacuated the Sinai Peninsula, instead they concentrated their defences on the western side of the canal. These were supported by the guns of Allied ships in the canal, opposing them were around 25,000 men, including the 25th Division. The Ottoman Empire demonstrated its interest in being reinstated in Egypt in 1915 when Ottoman forces attacked British forces in Egypt, the Germans also helped to foment unrest among the Senussi in what is now Libya, when they attacked western Egypt and threatened the Sudan during the Senussi Campaign. Egypt was neither an independent ally nor a member of the British Empire, the recently appointed High Commissioner Sir Reginald Wingate and Murray agreed that Egypts contributions would be restricted to the use of the countrys railway and Egyptian personnel. However, Maxwell had proclaimed on 6 November 1914 that Egypt would not be required to aid Britains war effort, martial law allowed the British administration to control foreign European residents, monitor foreign agents and intern dangerous persons who were the subjects of hostile nations. The powers were used to police prostitution and the sale of alcohol. The Capitulations, however provided some protection to the Europeans who controlled both these industries, in the autumn of 1917 GHQ was transferred from Cairo to the front leaving garrison battalions. This move took the commander in chief of the EEF, who was responsible for law, out of touch with the civil authorities
12.
Jifjafa raid
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The Jifjafa Raid was a long range pre-emptive operation by a composite formation of the British Empire against Ottoman Turkish Empire forces at the Jifjafa well in the Sinai Desert. During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War, the Jifkafa well is located in the Sinai Desert fifty-two miles to the east of Ismalia on the Suez Canal. The raid was carried out by men from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, supported by detachments of other corps. Although some of the Australians had seen action in the Gallipoli Campaign, the raid was a complete success for the British. For the cost of one man killed, the first light horse casualty of the campaign, they killed six men, captured another thirty-six, the raiders returned safely to their own lines. In recognition of their achievement, Major William Henry Scott the commander of the raid was invested as a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order, Bir el Jifjafa or the Jifjafa well is located on the central of three traditional routes crossing the Sinai Desert. Its fifty-two miles east of Ismalia on the Suez Canal, about midway between there and Magdhaba, which is near the Egyptian-Palestine border. The central crossing which winds its way across the mountains, to the well which is at an altitude of 1,000 feet, was the most likely used in antiquity to cross the desert. Aerial reconnaissance seemed to confirm the information, reporting Beersheba was an encampment where the Turkish Army was already digging trenches. They were tasked to destroy the two wells, which were believed to be defended by guns, and if possible capture the position. Secondary they were to report on any other wells or water in the region, any defensive works established or being built. Any other information of value and finally capture if possible enemy personnel or inhabitants. The force would be commanded by Major William Henry Scott, the second-in-command of the 9th Light Horse Regiment, with him in the forces headquarters was Captain Macaulay, a General Staff Officer belonging to the 2nd Australian Division. Captain Albert Ernest Wearne, of the 8th Light Horse Regiment, Captain Ayris, the 9th LHR and 8th LHR provided the fighting component, of another eight officers and 122 men. Supporting them the ANZAC Mounted Division provided the engineers, one officer, the Royal Flying Corps, provided a ground signals unit of two officers and two men. Radio communications were provided by a Royal Engineers Wireless Section of one officer, medical support was from the 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance, one officer and eight men. Additional transport capacity came from the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, one officer, thirty-one Light Horseman drivers, the Australian Army Service Corps provided an officer to assist with supply. To protect the ECTC the Bikanir Camel Corps provided one officer, there was also two guides and an Arabic interpreter
13.
Battle of Katia
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On the same day, an associated Ottoman attack on Duidar, very close to the Suez Canal, failed when it met with strong British opposition. The growing Imperial strength made attacks on the Suez Canal difficult, the Ottoman Empires attacks on 23 April demonstrated their intention to continue opposing the British Empire in the region. However, the Imperial reaction to these attacks was to double the strength of their forces, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, were sent to Katia and Romani and established a strong Imperial presence over the contested ground. Soon after, the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade was also sent forward, at the beginning of August, the Battle of Romani was fought over much of the same ground as that at Katia. In 1915, Sir Archibald Murray, the Imperial Commander in Chief of Egypt, the No.3 sector also had an advanced headquarters at Kantara. Murray aimed to extend the railway and water pipeline to Katia, in February 1916, he requested permission from the War Office in London to extend this infrastructure further across the Sinai to El Arish. An advance to Katia was agreed by the War Office, meanwhile, several raids were undertaken by the Australian Light Horse and the Bikaner Camel Corps, accompanied by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps carrying supplies, rations and ammunition. The purpose of raids was to destroy water sources on the central inland route. To provide forward protection for the construction workers and the infrastructure. Regiment and two guns of the 9th F. A. Regiment, two ambulances and an ammunition column. The Ottoman and Arab force travelled across the Sinai Peninsula on the northern route, a series of oases with date palms and reliable water stretch for 15 miles from Bir el Abd in the east to Oghratina, Katia and Romani near the Suez Canal. Whoever could hold the ground in the area of Katia and Romani would be in a position to protect the Canal. The area was patrolled almost daily by Ottoman aircraft, which bombed the recently established Katia camp on 20 April, the 23 April 1916, was St Georges Day and also Easter Sunday, and dawn found the 5th Mounted Brigade, dispersed over a wide area. The brigade was made up of the Warwickshire Yeomanry, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and these regiments were deployed as follows, At Oghrantina was two squadrons of Worcestershire Hussars, with four officers and 60 other ranks of the 2/2nd Lowland Field Company Royal Engineers. At Bir el Hamisah were the Warwickshire Yeomanry, and one squadron, at Romani, near Pelusium, were the Gloucestershire Hussars, and a machine gun subsection in reserve. At the small oasis of Dueidar 13 miles south south west of Katia were 156 men,120 from the 5th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers and thirty-six from the Bikanir Camel Corps, including a few Yeomanry. The 4th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers of the 52nd Division, were holding Hill 70,5 miles behind Dueidar, on 22 April Wiggin and his brigade headquarters, with one squadron and one troop of Worcestershire Hussars, had arrived at Bir el Hamisah from Katia. At dawn on 23 April, Wiggin found and destroyed a large but almost empty camp at Bir el Mageibra and he was back at Bir el Hamisah by 09,00, having covered a distance of 16 miles, when he heard news of Ottoman attacks
14.
Battle of Romani
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The Battle of Romani was the last ground attack of the Central Powers on the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War. The battle was fought between 3 and 5 August 1916 near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula,23 miles east of the Suez Canal. The pursuit by the Anzac Mounted Division which ended at Bir el Abd on 12 August began the Sinai, the construction of the railway and a water pipeline soon enabled an infantry division to join the light horse and mounted rifle brigades at Romani. During the heat of summer, regular mounted patrols and reconnaissance were carried out from their base at Romani, on 19 July, the advance of a large German, Austrian and Ottoman force across the northern Sinai was reported. From 20 July until the battle began, the Australian 1st, during the night of 3/4 August 1916, the advancing force including the German Pasha I formation and the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division launched an attack from Katia on Romani. Forward troops quickly became engaged with the established by the 1st Light Horse Brigade. During fierce fighting before dawn on 4 August, the Australian light horsemen were forced to slowly retire. At daylight, their line was reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, and about mid morning, the 5th Mounted Brigade, together these four brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division, managed to contain and direct the determined attackers into deep sand. Here the attackers came within range of the strongly entrenched 52nd Division defending Romani, coordinated resistance by all these EEF formations, the deep sand, the heat and thirst prevailed, and the German, Austrian and Ottoman advance was checked. Although the attacking force fought strongly to maintain its positions the next morning, the pursuit ended on 12 August, when the German and Ottoman force abandoned their base at Bir el Abd and retreated back to El Arish. At the beginning of the First World War, the Egyptian police controlling the Sinai Peninsula had withdrawn, in February 1915, a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal. Minor Ottoman and Bedouin forces operating across the Sinai continued to threaten the canal from March through the Gallipoli Campaign until June, meanwhile, the German and Ottoman Empires supported an uprising by the Senussi on the western frontier of Egypt which began in November 1915. By the end of March or early in April 1916, the British presence in the Sinai was growing,16 miles of track, including sidings, had been laid. Between 21 March and 11 April, the sources at Wady Um Muksheib, Moya Harab. In 1915, they had used by the central group of about 6,000 or 7,000 Ottoman soldiers who moved across the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal at Ismailia. Without these wells and cisterns, the route could no longer be used by large forces. The mounted Yeomanry brigade had been sent to guard the water pipeline, in response to this attack, the British Empire presence in the region doubled. The infantry moved forward to Romani between 11 May and 4 June 1916, a second standard gauge railway line from Romani to Mahamdiyah on the Mediterranean coast was completed by 9 June
15.
Battle of Bir el Abd
–
The Battle of Bir el Abd or the Abd well was fought between the forces of the British Empire and the Ottoman Turkish Empire, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. The battle took place in the Sinai Desert following the British victory at the battle of Romani, the British Empires ANZAC Mounted Division, with the 5th Mounted Brigade under command, was tasked to follow a retiring Turkish Army force. British patrols discovered them on 8 August and the remainder of the ANZAC Division got into a position to attack the next day, the assault was launched on early 9 August and became a day of attack and counter-attack. Finally in the early evening Chauvel, commanding the ANZAC Division, victory in the battle of Romani had exhausted the ANZAC Mounted Division, and the two units most heavily involved, the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, were sent to rest at Romani and Etmaler. While the rest of the division, with the 5th Mounted Brigade under command, were ordered to follow the withdrawing Turkish force, when they had advanced across the Sinai Desert, the Turkish force had constructed strong defensive positions. That they now made use of as they withdrew back east towards the Egyptian-Palestinian border, on 7 August the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade leading the divisions pursuit of the Turkish force, located their rearguard at Oghratina. Attempting to turn their flank, they found the opposition too strong for them. Early the next day reconnaissance patrols found the rearguard had pulled out during the night, the patrols continued their reconnaissance and located the Turkish force again, establish on the high ground to the east of Bir ed Abd. Around twenty-two miles east of Romani on the road to El Arish and that night the division headquarters, the 5th Mounted and New Zealand Brigades, camped at Oghratina. Waiting for the 1st and 2nd Brigades to rejoin them, but both brigades were short on manpower and had to form a composite brigade out of the two units. On 9 August the division advanced again, with the New Zealand Brigade in the centre. The Composite Brigade to their left and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the right, the Turkish rearguard was encountered again holding a front of ten miles across falling back on Bir el Abd. The Composite Brigade were to make for a two miles to the north-east of the Turkish defences. The New Zealand Brigade were to advance directly at the position, while the 5th Mounted Brigade would form the reserve. The Turkish position at Bir el Abd, consisted of well constructed trenches and that looked down on the approach routes, that any British force would use. They had used the time since arriving well, recovering from their defeat in the previous days, so that the Turkish force now numbered around 6,000 men, twice the number available to Chauvel. They were also supported by mountain artillery and howitzers. The machine-guns were manned by German soldiers and the artillery by Austrians, the New Zealand advance began at 04,00, at the same time the 3rd Brigade made towards a redoubt over two miles to the south
16.
Battle of Magdhaba
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The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 during the Defence of Egypt section of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War. This Egyptian Expeditionary Force victory against the Ottoman Empire garrison also secured the town of El Arish after the Ottoman garrison withdrew. In August 1916, a combined Ottoman and German Empire army had forced to retreat to Bir el Abd. During the following three months the defeated force retired further eastwards to El Arish, while the territory stretching from the Suez Canal was consolidated and garrisoned by the EEF. By December, construction of the infrastructure and supply lines had sufficiently progressed to enable the British advance to recommence, by the following morning a mounted force had reached El Arish to find it abandoned. An Ottoman Army garrison in a defensive position was located at Magdhaba, some 18–30 miles inland to the south east. All of the redoubts were eventually located and captured and the Ottoman defenders surrendered in the late afternoon. At the beginning of the First World War, the Egyptian police who had controlled the Sinai Desert were withdrawn, in February 1915, a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal. After the Gallipoli Campaign, a second joint German and Ottoman force again advanced across the desert to threaten the canal and this force was defeated in August at the Battle of Romani, after which the Anzac Mounted Division, also known as the A. & N. Z. The Maghara Hills,50 miles south west of Romani, in the interior of the Sinai Desert, were attacked in mid-October by a British force based on the Suez Canal. Although not captured at the time, all positions were eventually abandoned by their Ottoman garrisons in the face of growing British Empire strength. The British then established garrisons along their lines, which stretched across the Sinai from the Suez Canal. Patrols and reconnaissances were carried out to protect the advance of the railway and water pipeline. These supply lines were marked by stations and sidings, airfields, signal installations. At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force had a strength of 156,000 soldiers. Hafir el Auja was linked to Beersheba, Gaza, and northern Palestine by road, if left intact, the Ottoman forces at Magdhaba and Hafir el Auja could seriously threaten the advance of the EEF along the north route towards Southern Palestine. The area of oases which extended from Dueidar,15 miles from Kantara along the Darb es Sultani, along the old caravan route, and on to Salmana 52 miles from Kantara could sustain life. But from Salmana to Bir el Mazar, there was little water, before the British advance to El Arish could begin, the 20 miles stretch without a water supply between El Mazar and El Arish had to be thoroughly explored
17.
Raid on Nekhl
–
The Raid on Nekhl was the second of three battles by British forces to recapture the Sinai Peninsula during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Egyptian Expeditionary Force mounted forces travelled into the centre of the Sinai Peninsula to attack, Nekhl had been a regional centre for British administration until the beginning of the war when Ottoman Empire forces invaded the area. During the Raid on the Suez Canal in February 1915 part of the force had moved through Nekhl. By February 1917 the Ottoman garrisons in the region were well behind the EEF front line, as the occupation of Southern Palestine began these isolated forces were attacked and pushed back into Ottoman Palestine. Both the coast road via El Arish, and the road from Maan via Nekhl to the Suez Canal were guarded by British ships on the Mediterranean coast and the Gulf of Aqaba respectively. Kress von Kressenstins force which attacked the canal in February 1915 had moved along the way across the Sinai desert making use of the water available at Kossaima. By 1917 it was still an important outpost from which Ottoman authority over the Arabs, the final actions of the Sinai Campaign were ordered by General Murray against Nekhl and Bir el Hassana. El Auja was linked to northern Palestine via Beersheba, a second column was to march from Magdhaba to attack Bir el Hassana 40 miles north of Nekhl between the Gebel Helal and the Gebel Yelleg. Two mounted columns set out from the Suez Canal on 13 February 1917,26, one Royal Flying Corps officer and two other ranks and two wireless pack stations, rode out from Serapeum near Ismailia in the centre of the Canal. By 14 February the column concentrated at Zogna where a dump had been established. While a yeomanry force marched from Suez via the Mitla Pass, Northern Column advanced to Bir el Giddi on 15 February where a detachment of 60 rifles from No.9 Company, Imperial Camel Corps joined the column from Shallufa. Here an officers patrol commanded by Lieutenant Farlow reported the Themada wells silted up, instead of the proposed three nights, this information meant only two nights could be spent at an advanced base to be established near Nekhl. On arrival at Themada four wells had been dug to an average of 8 feet, during the attack a severely wounded soldier was flown back to El Arish by aircraft. After the surrender of Bir el Hassana, Bassetts force remained in position to capture any Ottoman force withdrawing back from Nekhl towards Bir el Hassana, on 17 February Northern Column sent an officers patrol commanded by Lieutenant F. C. Farlow to select a site for a base and to reconnoitre the Thilwetl el Thamamat Pass,4 miles north of Nekhl. The patrol reported at 15,30 that three shots had been fired from high ground on the Bir el Hassana road shortly after 13,00 by a Bedouin who subsequently withdrew on his camel towards Nekhl. By 16,00 Northern Column reached 7 miles north of Nekhl where a base was established. The Farlows patrol sent back a report which was received at 16,45 that the pass was unoccupied, Farlow requested support as he was pushing on in pursuit and B Squadron 11th Light Horse Regiment rode out at 17,10
18.
Raid on Bir el Hassana
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The Raid on Bir el Hassana occurred in the Sinai Peninsula in February 1917, during World War I. It was an action between an augmented battalion of the Imperial Camel Corps on the one side and a score of Turkish troops plus some armed Bedouin on the other. The raid is notable because it occasioned the first aeromedical evacuation in the British Army. The raid was the third of three battles, if one may call it a battle, by British forces seeking to recapture the Sinai Peninsula during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Egyptian Expeditionary Force cavalry and camelry traveled into the centre of the Sinai Peninsula to attack, British ships on the Mediterranean coast and the Gulf of Aqaba guarded the coast road via El Arish, and the road from Maan via Nekhl to the Suez Canal. Ottoman forces continued to occupy the area on the way across the Sinai south from el Kossaima towards the Suez Canal, including Bir el Hassana. Three columns of cavalry and camelry set out with the goal of all attacking on 18 February, one column set out from Serapeaum, and another from Suez on 13 February 1917 to converge on Nekhl. Major J. R. Bassett, commanding 2nd Battalion, Imperial Camel Corps, together with the Hong Kong and Singapore Battery, marched from El Arish and this column reached Lahfan on the 16th, and on the 17th advanced from Magdhaba. At dawn the next morning they surrounded the Ottoman Army garrison at Bir el Hassana, the Ottoman troops surrendered, but the Bedouin fired on the British, shattering a lance corporals ankle. One of the Turks who surrendered was Nur Effendi, who had commanded the garrison at the unsuccessful British attack on Maghara on 15 October 1916, the troops searched Bir el Hassana and found 21 rifles, a few camels, and 2100 rounds of ammunition. After the surrender of Bir el Hassana, Bassetts force remained in position to capture any Ottoman force withdrawing back from Nekhl towards Bir el Hassana, during the British attack, a Bedouin fired a bullet that shattered Lance corporal McGregors ankle. On 19 February the Royal Flying Corps flew McGregor out with his leg in a box splint, with him sitting in the seat of a Royal Aircraft Factory B. E. 2c. The flight to El Arish took 45 minutes, travel by cacolet would have taken days. First Battle of Gaza Battle of Rafa Citations References Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, the Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne, Oxford University Press, Australia & New Zealand, dolev, Eran The First Recorded Aeromedical Evacuation in the British Army – The True Story. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 34–36, the Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence, the Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine, 1914–1918
19.
Battle of Rafa
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The attack marked the beginning of fighting in the Ottoman territory of Palestine. This advance depended on the construction of a railway and water pipeline, with the railway reaching El Arish on 4 January 1917, an attack on Rafa by the newly formed Desert Column became possible. During the day-long assault, the Ottoman garrison defended El Magrunteins series of fortified redoubts and they were eventually encircled by Australian Light Horsemen, New Zealand mounted riflemen, mounted Yeomanry, cameliers and armoured cars. In the late afternoon, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade captured the central redoubt, following their victory at the Battle of Romani on 4 August 1916, the ANZAC Mounted Division with the 5th Mounted Brigade attached and infantry in support, went onto the offensive. Their advance depended on the construction of a railway and water pipeline, meanwhile, the 52nd Division, having marched from Romani, established a garrison at El Arish and began to fortify the town on the Mediterranean Sea,30 miles from the railhead. El Arish was 90 miles by road from the nearest British base at Kantara on the Suez Canal, supplies of all kinds were unloaded by the Egyptian Labour Corps and distributed by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps. Vitally important, the activities at El Arish were protected by the infantry garrison and ground based artillery. General Sir Archibald Murray, the commander of the EEF, was keen to complete the advance across the north of the Sinai, a small advance guard moved ten miles further, to within sight of the main Ottoman defences at El Magruntein, reporting great activity in the area. While the British air patrols were absent on 7 January, German airmen took advantage of the concentration of EEF formations and supply dumps. The next day the patrols from No.1 Squadron AFC were in the air all day, Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode, commanding the Desert Column, rode out of El Arish at 16,00 on 8 January towards Rafa where a 2, 000-strong Ottoman garrison was based. Risking an aerial attack during daylight hours, the force began the 30-mile journey before sunset to ensure there was time for the force to reach El Magruntein. For the first few miles they trekked over heavy sand dunes, the vanguard of the column reached Sheikh Zowaiid at about 22,00, the Desert Column bivouacked near the crossroads to the west of the village. Here the first grass the horses had seen since leaving Australia was found on the edge of the maritime plain,16 miles north of El Arish. The plan for the attack at Rafa the next morning,9 January, was a repetition of Chauvels successful encirclement attack at Magdhaba. No.1 Squadron AFC, which had based at Mustabig during the El Arish and Magdhaba operations. Rafa was defended by the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment supported by one mountain gun battery and it had been reported by British aerial reconnaissance that this force was between 2,000 and 3,000 strong. They were strongly entrenched in four positions on the high ground about Hill 255. The central redoubt, which rose about 200 feet to dominate the surrounding grassland, was supported by three systems of redoubts identified by the British Empire forces as A, B and C
20.
First Battle of Gaza
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Fighting took place in and around the town of Gaza on the Mediterranean coast when infantry and mounted infantry from the Desert Column, a component of the Eastern Force, attacked the town. Late in the afternoon, on the verge of capturing Gaza and this British defeat was followed a few weeks later by the even more emphatic defeat of the Eastern Force at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. In August 1916 the EEF victory at Romani ended the possibility of land-based attacks on the Suez Canal, in January 1917 the victory of the Desert Column at the Battle of Rafa completed the capture of the Sinai Peninsula and brought the EEF within striking distance of Gaza. In March 1917, two later, Gaza was attacked by Eastern Force infantry from the 52nd Division reinforced by an infantry brigade. This attack was protected from the threat of Ottoman reinforcements by the Anzac Mounted Division, the infantry attack from the south and southeast on the Ottoman garrison in and around Gaza was strongly resisted. While the Imperial Mounted Division continued to hold off threatening Ottoman reinforcements and they succeeded in entering the town from the north, while a joint infantry and mounted infantry attack on Ali Muntar captured the position. It has been suggested this move snatched defeat from the jaws of victory, one week later, Murray received a request for the first infantry division and dispatched the 42nd Division. He was assured that none of his mounted units would be transferred from the EEF, Murray repeated his estimate that five infantry divisions, in addition to the mounted units, were needed for offensive operations. After 26 February 1917, when an Anglo-French Congress at Calais decided on a spring offensive, the decision by the Supreme War Council was given increased impetus for Allied activity on 8 March when the Russian Revolution began. By 11 March Baghdad in Mesopotamia had been occupied by British Empire forces, in April the Battle of Arras was launched by the British, and the French launched the Nivelle offensive. The latter could be secured by an advance into Palestine and the capture of Jerusalem, a further advance would ultimately cut off the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia from those on the Arabian Peninsula and secure the region. By 5 February the water pipeline from the Egyptian Sweet Water Canal, the creation of this infrastructure enabled a strong defensive position and a forward base to be established at El Arish. There were now two possible directions for an advance towards Jerusalem by Eastern Force to take, through Rafa on the coast, or inland through Hafir El Auja, on the Ottoman railway. He proposed keeping two divisions at El Arish, moving his headquarters there, while his mounted division would advance to reoccupy Rafa. With the 11 January War Cabinet decision reversed by the 26 February Congress, the town was one of the most ancient cities in the world, being one of five cities of the Palestine Alliance, which had been fought over many times during its 4, 000-year history. By 1917 Gaza had an important depot for cereals with a German steam mill, in the area barley, wheat, olives, vineyards, orange groves, and wood for fuel were grown, as well as the grazing of many goats. Barley was exported to England for brewing into beer, maize, millet, beans, and watermelon were cultivated in most of the surrounding localities, and harvested in early autumn. A pause in the EEFs advance was necessary to enable the lines of communication to be lengthened and strengthened, while this work was being carried out, the mounted brigades were reorganised into two mounted divisions
21.
Second Battle of Gaza
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Gaza was defended by the strongly entrenched Ottoman Army garrison, which had been reinforced after the first battle by substantial forces. They manned the defences and a line of strong redoubts which extended eastwards along the road from Gaza to Beersheba. The EEF reoccupied the Egyptian territory of the Sinai Peninsula, however, the result of the First Battle of Gaza had been as close to a British Empire victory as a defeat could get. In the three weeks between the two battles, the Gaza defences were strongly reinforced against a frontal attack, the strong entrenchments and fortifications proved unassailable during the disastrous frontal attacks, when EEF casualties approached, and in some cases exceeded 50 per cent for slight gains. The Egyptians and the Assyrians had attacked Gaza, followed in 731 BC by the Greeks, the town was completely destroyed in 96 BC and rebuilt slightly to the south of the original site. This Gaza was captured by Caliph Omar in 635 AD, by Saladin in 1187 AD, and by Napoleon in 1799. At Gaza there was an important depot for cereals with a German steam mill, barley, wheat, olives, vineyards, orange groves, and wood for fuel were grown as well as many goats grazed. Barley was exported to England for brewing into English beer and in 1912 the 40,000 inhabitants of Gaza imported £10,000 of yarn from Manchester. Maize, millet, beans, and water melon, all harvested in autumn, were cultivated in most of these localities. All of the Desert Column mounted and infantry divisions had fought during the first battle of Gaza, in the afternoon, after being reinforced by the Anzac Mounted Division, the all arms attack quickly began to succeed. With most objectives captured, night stopped the attack and a withdrawal was ordered before the commanders were aware of the victory. The first battle ended in debacle, according to Pugsley when the Anzac Mounted Division knew they were winning and this defeat coincided with low public morale in the British Empire reflecting the continuing Allied failures on the Western Front. The commander of Eastern Force, Lieutenant General Charles Dobell, also indicated a victory and Murray was ordered to move on. The British were in no position to attack Jerusalem as they had yet to break through the Ottoman defences at Gaza, however, the Australian official historian described the First Battle of Gaza quite differently. There was not a private in the British infantry, or a trooper in the mounted brigades. Preparations for the attack included the extension of the railway to Deir el Belah. Water reservoirs for 76,000 gallons were built in the Wadi Ghuzzee and dumps of ammunition, the weather was reasonably cool and the health of the troops was good. Morale had recovered from the disappointment of the First Battle, in which victory had so narrowly eluded them, up until 4 April, Eastern Force had been responsible for the southern sector of the Suez Canal Defence troops,150 miles away
22.
Stalemate in Southern Palestine
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The Stalemate in Southern Palestine was a six month standoff between the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force and the Ottoman Army in World War I. The two hostile forces faced each other along the Gaza to Beersheba line during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, with neither side able to force its opponent to withdraw. The stalemate began in April 1917 with the defeat of the EEF by the Ottoman Army at the Second Battle of Gaza and lasted until the EEF offensive began with the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The EEF followed up those victories by making two attempts to capture Gaza, the First Battle of Gaza in March, and the Second Battle of Gaza in April. These two Ottoman victories halted the attempted EEF invasion of southern Palestine, leading to the stalemate, both sides took the opportunity to reorganise their forces, change commanders, conduct training and prepare for future major battles, which resulted in the EEF capture of Jerusalem in December 1917. However, after a defeat on 21 April, General Archibald Murray had in turn sacked Dobell, promoting the commander of the Desert Column, Lieutenant-General Philip Chetwode. Chetwode was replaced by Harry Chauvel, promoted from command of the Anzac Mounted Division, while Edward Chaytor, yet General Murray would also be relieved of command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in June and was sent back to England. Regardless, the EEF faced the urgent problems of securing the positions it held at the end of the battle, the British suffered nearly 4,000 casualties during the first battle for Gaza, and more than 6,000 casualties during the second. These casualties had to be managed, with the buried and their personal effects stored or sent home. Meanwhile, the EEFs railway, which had reached Deir el Belah before the battle of Gaza, was extended by a branch line to Shellal. Both sides constructed extensive entrenchments, which were strong where they almost converged. These trenches resembled those on the Western Front, except they were not so extensive and had an open flank. Between 400–2,500 yards apart, the lines stretched 30 miles from Sheikh Ailin on the Mediterranean Sea to Sheikh Abbas and on to Tel el Jemmi. The Ottoman Fourth Army after the Second Battle of Gaza consisted of 174,908 men,36,225 animals,5,351 camels, armed with 145,840 rifles,187 machine guns, and 282 artillery pieces. At this time the Fourth Armys five corps were responsible for garrisoning Palestine, the northern coast of Syria, in 1917, the Turkish 54th and 59th Infantry Divisions in Palestine and Syria became inoperative. Despite these deficiencies, following the two victories at Gaza, the Ottoman Army was greatly strengthened in both force and morale and this force was reorganised into two corps to hold the Gaza to Beersheba line, the XX Corps, and the XXII Corps. From Gaza to Beersheba, this front line stretch continuously for almost fifty kilometres, between Gaza and Aba Hareira, at the Wadi el Sheria and halfway to Beersheba, the Ottoman defences were especially strong. Although those strengthened defences did not extend to Beersheba, strong fortifications, some being blasted from solid rock, New troop reinforcements for the buildup were incorporated into the organisational restructuring that saw formation of the Yildirim Army Group and the Seventh and Eighth Armies
23.
Battle of Buqqar Ridge
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The commander of the Yildirim Army Group ordered the reconnaissance in force, which greatly outnumbered the Yeomanry in the mounted brigade, holding the outpost line. Despite a large number of casualties, one made a slight withdrawal to subsequently hold their ground, until reinforcements arrived. However another group of Yeomanry was overwhelmed and killed, four days later, two infantry and two mounted divisions launched the EEFs Southern Palestine Offensive, with the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The 1st Light Horse Brigade attacked the force capturing 11 prisoners before the Ottoman force withdrew behind entrenchments, one of the prisoner described the attacking force as part of the Ottoman 16th Division which had been protecting a new corps commander while he made a personal reconnaissance. By the next morning the area was clear of Ottoman troops, Ottoman patrols were dispersed from el Buqqar ridge on 21 and 29 September, and on 12–14 October. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade took over from the 5th Mounted Brigade, duties of Outpost Brigade on 16 October when it was noted dawn occurred at 05,00 and dusk at 17,30. On 18 October the day posts of 3rd Light Horse Brigade were relieved by the 5th Mounted Brigade at 09,00, the Australian Mounted Division with the 7th Mounted Brigade attached was to cover a reconnaissance by officers of the XXI Corps. There was no opposition during the establishment of this line, at 14,10 Ottoman infantry and cavalry were sighted at Abu Irgeig and Notts battery went into action against them, when two bell tents at Irgeig railway station and station buildings were hit. The outpost line was withdrawn at 17,30 without incident, while the XXI Corps continued to hold the front line south of Gaza, extending eastwards from the Mediterranean Sea, the XX Corps and Desert Mounted Corps held the Wadi Ghazzeh and eastwards. During the evening of 21 October, the 179th Brigade and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved down the Wadi Ghazzeh to Esani, to develop the water supply in preparation for the advance to Beersheba. Between 05,30 and 06,00 six motor cars, one with eight occupants were seen at Point 720. The leading troop of RGH was charged from the flank, by three Ottoman troops as they approached Point 720, during the attack one man was captured when his horse fell. The Ottoman soldiers withdrew from el Buqqar at 06,00, when threatened by a flanking movement. The leading yeomanry troop reached Point 630, just before a squadron of Ottoman soldiers attacked, the Ottoman attackers were driven back from close quarters by yeomanry rifle and Hotchkiss machine gun fire. At the same time as these Ottoman attackers were retiring, one yeomanry troop captured Imleih ridge and this Ottoman attack was also stopped, at short range by yeomanry rifle and Hotchkiss fire. Both these attacks had been covered by Ottoman high explosive and shrapnel fire, from the direction of Abu Irgeig, the Ottoman units suffered at least 17 killed and wounded, while the yeomanry suffered six wounded and one missing. During these operations Ottoman soldiers continued holding a line from Point 820 to Bir Ifteis, by late October 1917 the EEF outpost line had been pushed forward to an outpost line of low hills/ridge overlooking the Wadi Hanafish. This forward line, established to prevent Ottoman field artillery firing on the construction crews
24.
Southern Palestine Offensive
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The Southern Palestine Offensive employing manoeuvre warfare, began on 31 October 1917, with the Battle of Beersheba, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, of World War I. During the following seven days of pursuit, the Turkish forces were pushed back to Jaffa, there followed three weeks of hard fighting in the Judean Hills before Jerusalem was captured on 9 December 1917. During five and a weeks of almost continuous offensive operations. After a joint attack by the XX and the Desert Mounted Corps, the next day, on 1 November the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe began, with an advance north of Beersheba into the Judean foorhills, by the 53rd and the ANZAC Mounted Divisions. This move up the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem, also threatened Hebron, then during the night of 1/2 November, the Third Battle of Gaza took place on the Mediterranean coast, when limited attacks by the XXI Corps, were made against strongly held, formidable defences. Fighting for the Beersheba to Jerusalem road, also encouraged the Turkish commanders to deploy their reserves, the Seventh and the Eighth Armies were by now in full retreat from the remains of the old Gaza to Beersheba line. After the first two battles for Gaza, it was obvious to British commanders that large reinforcements were needed to set General Murrays army in motion again. Indeed, Murray made it clear to the War Cabinet and the Imperial General Staff early in May, that he could not invade Palestine without reinforcements. The War Office assured him in the month, that he should prepare to receive reinforcements. However by July, when General Edmund Allenby took command of the EEF,5,150 infantry and 400 yeomanry reinforcements were still needed after the casualties suffered during the battles for Gaza. By the end of the 1917 summer in the hemisphere, the political and the strategic interests of the British government. This was due in part to the failure on the Western Front of the French Republics Nivelle offensive and the success of the German submarine campaign against British Empire shipping. The destruction of British shipping caused severe shortages in Britain, and although the United States of America had entered the war, their military support would not be apparent for some time. Britain was about to enter a year of extremely costly war. He believed a military success could bolster the morale of the civil population. Lloyd Gorge made clear that this victory was needed in order to strengthen the staying power, by the end of October, the EEF was ready to attack. The decision to launch an offensive in Palestine, in the autumn of 1917, was also based on very sound strategical reasons. These Ottoman units became available to reinforce the Palestine front and were in the process of assembling near Aleppo, along with German soldiers and they were to launch operations to recapture Baghdad, which had been captured by the British in March
25.
Battle of Beersheba (1917)
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After successful limited attacks in the morning, by infantry from the 60th and the 74th Divisions of the XX Corps from the south-west, the Anzac Mounted Division launched a series of attacks. These attacks, against the defences which dominated the eastern side of Beersheba. In June the Ottoman Fourth Army was reorganised when the new Yildirim Army Group was established, commanded by German General Erich von Falkenhayn, at about the same time, the British General Edmund Allenby replaced General Archibald Murray as commander of the EEF. Allenby reorganised the EEF to give him command of three corps, in the process deactivating Chetwodes Eastern Force and placing him in command of one of the two infantry corps. At the same time Chauvels Desert Column was renamed the Desert Mounted Corps, as the stalemate continued through the summer in difficult conditions on the northern edge of the Negev Desert, EEF reinforcements began to strengthen the divisions. While the primary functions of the EEF and the Ottoman Army during this time were to man the front lines and patrol the eastern flank. By mid-October, while the battle of Passchendaele continued on the Western Front, Beersheba was defended by lines of trenches, supported by isolated redoubts on earthworks and hills, which covered all approaches to the town. The Ottoman garrison was eventually encircled by the two infantry and two mounted divisions, as launched their attacks. The 60th Divisions preliminary attack and capture of the redoubt on Hill 1070, then a joint attack by the 60th and 74th Divisions captured all their objectives. Meanwhile, to the north-east of Beersheba the Anzac Mounted Division cut the road from Beersheba to Hebron, continuous fighting against the main redoubt and defences on Tel el Saba, resulted eventually in its capture in the afternoon. During this fighting the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been sent to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division, with all brigades of both mounted divisions already committed to the battle, the only brigade available, was ordered to capture Beersheba. These sword-less mounted infantrymen galloped over the plain, riding towards the town and these squadrons rode on across the railway line and into Beersheba, to complete the first step of an offensive which would see the EEF capture Jerusalem, six weeks later. After their second defeat at Gaza in April, General Archibald Murray sacked the commander of Eastern Force, Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode was promoted to command Eastern Force, while Harry Chauvel was promoted to Lieutenant General with command of the Desert Column. Major General Edward Chaytor was promoted from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, with the arrival of General Edmund Allenby in June, Murray was also relieved of command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and sent back to England. Such an attack against rudimentary EEF defences on the edge of the Negev could have been disastrous for the EEF. Instead, both sides constructed permanent defences stretching from the sea west of Gaza to Shellal on the Wadi Ghazzeh, from Shellal, the lightly-entrenched EEF line extended to El Gamli before continuing south 7 miles to Tel el Fara. The western sector was strongly entrenched, wired and defended by EEF, the eastern sector, stretching east and south across the open plain, was patrolled by Desert Columns mounted infantry and yeomanry. At every opportunity patrols and outposts harassed opposing forces, while wells, the town of Gaza was strongly defended, having been developed into a strong modern fortress, well entrenched and wired, with good observation and a glacis on its southern and south–eastern face
26.
Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe
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During fighting for the town, the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron, was cut just north of the town in the southern spur of the Judean Hills. Here Ottoman units strongly defended the road and the Seventh Army headquarters at Hebron, over the next week, attacks by the 53rd Division, the Anzac Mounted Division, and the 5th Mounted Brigade attempted to capture the Khuweilfe position. Attacks were launched by the British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry, and Australian, both sides constructed extensive entrenchments, which were particularly strong where the trenches almost converged, near Gaza. These trenches resembled those on the Western Front, except they were not as extensive, however, the conditions on the northern edge of the Negev desert were extremely difficult, with both sides camped in the open during the summer. Just prior to the arrival of General Edmund Allenby in July, although these were significant organisational changes, they did not change the tactical deployments of the Ottoman III, XX and XXII Corps, defending the Gaza to Beersheba line. The loss of Beersheba on 31 October stunned the Yildirim Army Group commander, all available reserve units would soon be deployed in the Kuweilfeh area. Here, the Ottoman defenders were able to establish new defences, and they were to protect the only metalled road heading north in the region, which ran direct to Hebron and Jerusalem only about 50 miles to the north, from the threat of an EEF mounted advance. Scarce water was found in little gullies, while the road to Jerusalem via Edh Dhahariye, Hebron and Bethlehem. The strategically important height of Tel el Khuweifle not only dominated all the surrounding country, however, the EEF had discovered important but scarce water supplies during the day of battle on 31 October. The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment also found water for a whole brigade in the Bir Salim Abu Irgeig wadi. Four Ottoman divisions fought in the area, the 19th, 24th and 27th Divisions, and they were followed by the 143rd Regiment and 1,500 rifles of the Beersheba Group, which had been reorganised at Tel es Sheria. This latter group moved to defend Tel el Khuweilfe, on 1 November, the 125th Regiment also moved west into the hills coming under the command of the 27th Division, while the 6th Cavalry Regiment covered the Ottoman left flank to Yutta. Kress von Kressenstein also sent the 19th Division to reinforce the Seventh Army in the area and these light horsemen continued to hold the section of the road just north of Beersheba during 31 October, when they were targeted by Ottoman machine guns from the high ground north of Sakaty. During the battle on 31 October, this raiding force cut the road, however, they were unable to attract reinforcements from local Arab soldiers, although the locals did provide guides. Therefore, when 100 Ottoman soldiers attacked Newcombes detachment, they were scattered, by the time they were attacked a second time on the morning of 2 November, the detachment had blocked all Ottoman communications between Hebron and Edh Dhahriye for 40 hours. An Ottoman communiqué described the capture on the left of their line of 100 cavalry, none of these units left the area to reinforce the defences in front of Sheria. His force also experienced supply difficulties, the horses deployed in the area had only a small ration of pure grain, as no grazing was available, and water was barely sufficient in Beersheba for the troops actually in the town. Despite these difficulties, hard fighting failed to push Chauvels force back to Beersheba, by 15,00, they had established a line stretching from Khurbet el Muweileh in the west to the 1,558 feet -high Tuweiyil Abu Jerwal overlooking Beersheba, unopposed
27.
Third Battle of Gaza
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Despite having held this line since March 1917, the Ottoman Army was forced to evacuate Gaza and Tel el Khuweilfe during the night of 6/7 November. Only Sheria held out for most of the 7 November before it too was captured, entrenched defences approximately on the lines held at the end of the second battle were strengthened, and both sides undertook regular mounted reconnaissances into the open eastern flank. In late June, Allenby replaced General Archibald Murray as commander of the EEF, at about the same time, the Ottoman Fourth Army was also restructured. The Ottoman defenders were reinforced at this time, and both sides carried out training while manning the front lines and monitoring the open eastern flank. Prior to the Second Battle of Gaza, the town had developed into a strong modern fortress, with entrenchments, wire entanglements. A series of works, mutually supported by artillery, machine guns and rifles. Beginning on 27 October, the EEF began a heavy and almost continuous bombardment of Gaza, yet these attacks were only partially successful due to the strength of the garrison. The bombardment of Gaza intensified on 6 November and during the night of 6/7 November successful attacks were launched on several trench systems, on the morning of 7 November, Gaza was found to have been evacuated during the night. The Gaza to Beersheba line subsequently collapsed and the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were forced into retreat, following several battles during the pursuit, the EEF captured Jerusalem on 9 December 1917. Gaza was a modern fortress, well entrenched and wired, with good observation. These defences which were too strong for an attack were extended eastwards by a series of field works to four miles from Beersheba. These fortifications were between 1,500 to 2,000 yards apart, each supported by fire from artillery, machine guns. As the troops of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force began to concentrate in preparation for their attacks, the EEF assumed their opponents thought there were still six infantry divisions in the Gaza area and one in the eastern sector towards Beersheba. However, according to Falls, here is evidence that the were fairly accurately informed of the British dispositions. On 28 October, they knew the camps at Khan Yunis and Rafa were empty and they estimated more cavalry at Asluj and Khalasa than was actually there. The loss of Beersheba on 31 October stunned the Yildirim Army Group commander, the Beersheba garrison withdrew either to the Ottoman defences around Tel es Sheria or northwards to Tel el Khuweilfe to defend the Hebron road. Here a considerable force, including all available units, was deployed in the Kuweilfeh area to stop a threatened advance up the Hebron road to Jerusalem about fifty miles to the north. The Turkish line had been back on its left
28.
Battle of Hareira and Sheria
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This was made possible by the capture of Beersheba on 31 October after which Ottoman defenders had been pushed back north from the town into the Judean Hills, during the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe. The 74th Division attacked the eastern end of the defences from the flank, while the 60th Division attacked the Kauwukah. The eastern end of the Ottoman defences was captured in an attack by the Yeomanry. The right flank of this force was covered by the Yeomanry Mounted Division. The attacks by the three divisions, supported by effective artillery barrages, resulted in the capture of the Kauwukah and Rushdi defences. Towards dusk the Londoners reformed in preparation for an attack on Sheria Station, the attack was progressing after sundown, when the Ottoman garrison destroyed a large ammunition dump near the station, lighting up the night sky. The Londoners attack across the wadi, having lost the benefit of darkness, was halted for the night, although the Londoners captured a wadi and Tel esh Sheria, fierce fighting during a series of Ottoman counter-attacks on 7 November prevented the Londoners advancing. The Australian Mounted Division was ordered to clear the way for the infantry, after being held through the day, late in the afternoon another attack by the 60th and the Australian Mounted Divisions captured the Ottoman rearguard. This attack, along with the occupation of Gaza during the morning, the Ottoman Armys main Desert Base at Hafir el Aujah was being reduced as a result of the victory at the Battle of Rafa in January 1917 which ended the Sinai campaign. By February Sheria, midway between Gaza and Beersheba on the line from Beersheba to Jerusalem and Jaffa, had become the main Ottoman base. Here, a proportion of the Ottoman defenders, where held in reserve. Sheria was till June headquarters of the force in the Gaza–Beersheba line. In consequence of the British air bombing it was moved in July to Huj and they routinely conducted courses on a regular basis in current tactics and weapons in use on the western front. In addition commanders received a 15-day course and divisional officers a six-week course focused on the use of machine guns, Artillery training also included up to date methods and tactics. He passed through Damascus on 4 November, to arrive at Jerusalem to begin establishing his headquarters in the German Hospice on the Mount of Olives, meanwhile, the main attack on Hareira and Sheria by the EEF was delayed for two days, by water and transport difficulties. The capture of the Ottoman defensive line, which had held and strengthened since before the Second Battle of Gaza, required multiple attacks. Gaza on the coast remained in Ottoman hands, along with the Ottoman front line stretching from there to Hareira and Sheria in the centre. The line continued to the road to Hebron and Jerusalem, manned by the Ottoman Beersheba garrison which had withdrawn north into the Judean Hills, to defend Tel el Khuweilfe, the defensive line had been bent back not broken
29.
Capture of Wadi el Hesi
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After the EEF victory at the Battle of Beersheba, the Beersheba to Gaza line was broken in consequence of a series of attacks, at Tel el Khuweilfe, Hareira and Sheria and Gaza. The Ottoman 7th Division, one of the retreating Ottoman Army units, by then the rearguard had successfully withdrawn along with the withdrawing Ottoman columns. Towards the end of the week the Ottoman Army was able to withdraw mainly at night in order, under cover of effective rearguards. The Ottoman XXII Corps had not been defeated at Gaza, but conducted a skillful, tactical retreat from the town and this wadi was the second of the major watercourse on the Palestine coast, flowing parallel with, and 12 miles north of the Wadi Ghuzzee. On 7 and 8 November rearguards of the Ottoman Eighth Army, delayed the EEFs advance by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfins XXI Corps, the corps had been supported by 116 guns, six large naval guns, and several batteries of 150mm howitzers. The rifle figures were as at 30 September 1917, not mentioned are the machine guns, which progressively replaced 25% of the rifles in each infantry battalion, from 10 August 1917. These divisions would have included in a general activation of Stoßtruppen style assault troops. On 1 September 1917, Enver Pasha ordered assault battalions and detachments to be established in the Yildirim Army Group. At 01,00 on 7 November during the EEF occupation of Gaza the 233rd Brigade of the 75th Division took control of Outpost Hill on the outskirts of Gaza without meeting any opposition. Only individual Ottoman riflemen opposed their occupation of Green Hill and the Labyrinth at 05,00, however, on their right, the 234th Brigade was delayed by Ottoman units in strength armed with machine guns, defending Beer trench and Road Redoubt on the Gaza to Beersheba road. These rearguards targeted the EEF rear during the day, delaying the hand over of the transport, Tank and Atawineh Redoubts were defended by strong Ottoman rearguards, which targeted the increasing numbers of EEF infantry, with their artillery. The EEF units advanced behind Atawineh, Road and Tank Redoubts flanks, Allenby had decided by noon on 7 November, to leave them as their garrison must surrender, and I am not wasting men by assaulting them. However under cover of this attack, the Ottoman 16th and 26th Divisions were able to withdraw, in the sand dunes and in the cultivated area nearby, they constructed a series of short trenches. Behind these defences they resisted the EEF advance all day, making a stand on the Wadi el Hesi. It was towards this line held by the 7th Division, that the 53rd Division had withdrawn, rising in the Judean Hills, the Wadi el Hesi stretched west to enter the sea seven miles north of Gaza. When not flowing, water was available all year round, either in large pools, however, this second line was not nearly as strong as the Gaza to Beersheba line, and was vulnerable to attack from the south over the sand dunes. The aim of this rearguard was to delay the EEF advance until the arrival of the winter rains, German battalions might also become available following Russias withdrawal from the war. On 7 November, the 54th Division had taken over duties in Gaza, while their 162nd Brigade advanced through the gardens and fields to the main road
30.
Charge at Huj
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It took place during the Pursuit phase of the Southern Palestine Offensive which eventually captured Jerusalem a month later. The charge was carried out by units of the 5th Mounted Brigade, against a position of German, Austrian. The charge was successful and the British captured the position, seventy prisoners, eleven pieces of artillery, however British casualties were heavy, of the 170 men taking part, twenty-six were killed and forty wounded. They also had 100 horses killed, the charge is claimed to be one of the last British cavalry charges and was immortalised in a watercolour painting by the noted British artist Lady Butler. Huj is a Palestinian Arab village located 9.3 miles north east of Gaza, during the Third Battle of Gaza, under pressure from the British attack, the majority of the Turkish forces from XXI Corps, had withdrawn from the area on 5 November. Aware that his division alone would have problems taking the position. The squadrons manoeuvred under cover to a forming up point 1,000 yd on the British right, advancing under cover of the terrain they got to within 300 yd of the position, drew their swords and charged. The Warwickshire Yeomanry squadron attacked the force of Turkish infantry. The German and Austrian artillerymen carried on firing until the horsemen were around 20 yd away then some took cover underneath their guns. Those who remained standing were mostly stabbed by the swords of the attacking British, the squadron broke into a few scattered horsemen at the guns and seemed to melt away completely. For a time I, at any rate, had the impression that I was the man left alive. I was amazed to discover we were the victors, all three charges were successful and the main force of infantry withdrew leaving the guns undefended apart from their crews. The yeomanry captured seventy prisoners, eleven artillery guns and four machine guns, British casualties amounted to twenty-six men dead, including three squadron commanding officers, and forty wounded,100 horses were also killed in the charge. The charge opened the way for the British forces to continue the advance, no large groups of Turkish soldiers were cut off. However both British yeomanry regiments contingents were in no position to continue the pursuit of the withdrawing Turkish forces, the pursuit was further hampered by problems with watering horses and lack of supplies, both of which were hindered by the weather. The British forces, from the Australian Mounted Division, did not follow up until the 9/10 November, the charge at Huj has been called the last great charge of the British cavalry. It has since been immortalised in a painting by the noted British artist Lady Butler which hangs in the Warwickshire Yeomanry Museum. In the Great War when gallant deeds were being enacted on all fronts almost daily it was merely an episode, but as the Official Historian remarks, for sheer bravery, footnotes Citations Bibliography Diary of Yeomanry M. O
31.
Battle of Mughar Ridge
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Fighting between the advancing Egyptian Expeditionary Force and the retreating Yildirim Army Group, occurred after the Battle of Beersheba and the Third Battle of Gaza. Operations occurred over an area north of the Gaza to Beersheba line. Strong Ottoman Army positions from Gaza to the foothills of the Judean Hills had successfully held out against British Empire forces for a week after the Ottoman army was defeated at Beersheba. The XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps attacked the Ottoman Eighth Army on a front from the Judean foothills across the Mediterranean coastal plain from 10 to 14 November. Junction Station was captured and the Ottoman railway link with Jerusalem was cut, as a result of this victory the Ottoman Eighth Army withdrew behind the Nahr el Auja and their Seventh Army withdrew toward Jerusalem. During this time the Ottoman Army was able to withdraw in good order, the delay caused by these rearguards may have seriously compromised the British Empire advance as there was not much time to conclude military engagements in southern Palestine. With the rains the temperatures which were currently hot during the day, in 1917 the rains began on 19 November just as the infantry began their advance into the Judean Hills. The strength of the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies, before the attack at Beersheba on 31 October, was estimated to have been 45,000 rifles,1,500 sabres and 300 guns and this force had been made up of the Seventh Armys incomplete III Corps. The III Corps 24th Infantry Division was at Kauwukah and its 27th Infantry Division was at Beersheba and its 3rd Cavalry Division, as well as the 16th, 19th, and 24th Infantry Divisions were also in the area to the east of the Gaza–Beersheba line. The Seventh Army was commanded by Fevzi Çakmak, the Eighth Armys XXII Corps was based at Gaza while its XX Corps was based at Sheria in the centre of the Gaza–Beersheba line. Supporting these two corps had two reserve divisions, the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions. The Eighth Army was commanded by Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, the Desert Mounted Corps consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division, the Australian Mounted Division and the Yeomanry Mounted Division. The 52nd Division and 75th Division formed part of Lieutenant General Edward Bulfins XXI Corps, on the coast the 52nd Division was fought a fierce action after crossing the Wadi el Hesi on the coast north of Gaza. By the morning of 8 November, two brigades had crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth and, despite some opposition established themselves on the sand dunes to the north towards Askelon. Sausage Ridge, on their right stretched from Burberah to Deir Sineid, was held in strength, as the ridge covered the road. During the afternoon the 155th Brigade moved to attack Sausage Ridge, but it was threatened by a counterattack on the left forcing, when the 156th Brigade arrived from Sh. Ajlin on the Wadi el Hesi, the 157th Brigade attacked the southern portion of the ridge and they lost this precarious position four times to fierce Ottoman counterattacks, before strongly attacking and throwing the defenders off the ridge by 21,00. The two attacking brigades lost 700 men in this action, the divisions other brigades were regrouping after the fierce fighting at the Wadi Hesi
32.
Battle of Ayun Kara
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The Battle of Ayun Kara, was an engagement in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War. Following their success in the battles of Beersheba, Gaza, and Mughar Ridge, the Turkish forces consisted of around 1,500 infantry, supported by machine-guns and artillery. The battle started in the afternoon with the New Zealanders caught in the open, despite Turkish artillery, machine-gun fire, and infantry assaults, the New Zealanders gradually fought their way forward. The New Zealanders won the battle for the cost of 44 dead and 81 wounded, the Turkish casualties were 182 dead and an unknown number of wounded, but it was their last attempt to secure their lines of communications. By that night the Turks were in retreat and soon after the Egyptian Expeditionary Force occupied Jerusalem. At the end of October 1917, the Egyptian Expeditionary Force began their assault to capture the port of Gaza on the Palestinian Mediterranean coast. Their first objective was to capture Beersheba on the British right flank, at the same time leaving some of their mounted forces, positioned on the right to pursue, northwards, the withdrawing Turkish forces. The brigade was an infantry unit and had an establishment of 1,940 men, but more importantly. The New Zealanders remained on the right until the 10 November and this entailed a move of sixty miles across country. The journey took two days and it was not until,22,00 on 12 November that they arrived at the divisions night time bivouac. They were then ordered to pursue the Turkish forces north and their objectives were to capture Ramla and Ludd, and interdict the road between Jaffa and Jerusalem. Starting out the afternoon, the brigade moved north and crossed the River Sukerior unopposed. They resumed their advance the next morning, now heading towards Ayun Kara, aware they would be pursued, the Turks attempted to stop the EEF following them too closely. The position was located on the edge of an area of dunes to the north of El Kubeibeh and west of the villages of Surafend el Harab. The Turkish rearguard made a stand in well chosen terrain. The engagement took place on the edge of sand dunes to the north of El Kubeibeh and west of the villages of Surafend el Harab, attacking the Ottoman infantry division was the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade. In the centre were the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the Wellington Mounted Rifles, on the right of this engagement the Canterbury Mounted Rifles was held up and heavily engaged in the orange groves of the Wadi Hanein near Nes Ziyona until late in the afternoon. They successfully covered the right of the Auckland and Wellington regiments pushing large bodies of Ottoman soldiers back through the orchards of the Wadi Hanein and eventually won the village
33.
Battle of Jerusalem
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Before Jerusalem could be secured, two battles were recognised by the British as being fought in the Judean Hills to the north and east of the Hebron–Junction Station line. These were the Battle of Nebi Samwill from 17 to 24 November, as a result of these victories, British Empire forces captured Jerusalem and established a new strategically strong fortified line. This line ran from well to the north of Jaffa on the plain, across the Judean Hills to Bireh north of Jerusalem. With the capture of the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron and Bethlehem, together with substantial Ottoman territory south of Jerusalem, the city was secured. On 11 December, General Edmund Allenby entered the Old City on foot through the Jaffa Gate instead of horse or vehicles to show respect for the holy city and he was the first Christian in many centuries to control Jerusalem, a city held holy by three great religions. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Lloyd George described the capture as a Christmas present for the British people, the battle was a great morale boost for the British Empire. The British Empire victory forced von Falkenhayn to withdraw his Seventh and Eighth Armies, as the Ottoman III Corps reached Jerusalem via the Hebron road after its defeat at Beersheba, it was ordered to develop defences around Jerusalem. This corps held the city while the XX Corps retreated from Junction Station into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem, as they retired the XX Corps left strong rearguards to stop or slow the British advance. Time was needed to construct defences and for reorganisation of the depleted and disorganised Seventh Army, when they arrived in the city XX Corps took over responsibility for Jerusalems defences, while III Corps continued to move northwards from Jerusalem along the Nablus road. The British War Cabinet had cautioned Allenby not to commit to any operations that might not be sustainable in the term if the strength of British forces in the area could not be maintained. Their concerns were possibly linked to a proposal published on 8 November by the new Russian Bolshevik government between Russia and Germany. The document, scheduled to be signed on 3 March 1918, would constitute a separate peace treaty, all German forces on the eastern front could then turn their attention to fighting British and French forces elsewhere. His front-line forces had been fighting and advancing for a period fighting many miles from their bases and were tired and depleted. Now 35 miles from the railhead at Deir el Belah, Allenbys troops did not have a line of defensive entrenchments behind which they could stop a concerted push by these two Ottoman armies, such a counterattack could well see them driven back to Gaza and Beersheba. He decided to quickly attack Fevzi Pashas Ottoman 7th Army in the Judean Hills with the hope of capturing Jerusalem and this would keep pressure on this army in the hope of denying them time to complete their reorganisation, dig deep trenches or worst of all, counterattack. The planned advance into the Judean Hills would rely heavily on the ability of the lines of communications to keep the front line supplied with food, water. Between Gaza and Beit Hanun the road was unsealed and deep in making it difficult for lorries to proceed. Supplies were also shipped by sea and landed at Wadi Sukereir, lack of infrastructure at Jaffa meant all supplies brought via ship had to be cross-loaded onto surf boats, which then had to be unloaded on the beaches
34.
Battle of Nebi Samwil
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The battle of Nebi Samwil, was the first attempt by the forces of the British Empire to capture Jerusalem. The village of Nebi Samwil also known as the Tomb of Samuel was part of the Ottoman defences in front of Jerusalem and its capture was considered vital, the British attacking force consisted of three divisions, two infantry and one mounted. The village was captured by the 234th Brigade, part of the 75th Division, on 21 November 1917, unsupported by their heavy weapons the British infantry could not break through the main Ottoman defensive line and the attack failed to reach its objective Jerusalem. Pursuing the withdrawing Ottoman army the 75th Division captured Junction Station on 14 November, the capture of the station cut the railway line from Jerusalem and the rest of the country and provided the British forces with a fresh water source. It also split the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Army, in the ten days since the Battle of Gaza the British had advanced some 60 miles, but at the cost of 6,000 casualties. The numbers of the Ottoman forces killed is not known but 10,000 men had captured by the British along with eighty pieces of artillery and 100 machine guns. Further the Ottoman Seventh Army on the British right was cut off from the Palestinian rail network, instead of a direct assault on Jerusalem, Allenby planned to first cut off the city from their supply routes in the north. The two outer divisions would circle around Jerusalem meeting at Bireh 10 miles to the north of the city, in the way of the 75th Division was the village of Nebi Samwil also known as the Tomb of Samuel, the traditional burial site for the biblical prophet Samuel. Nebi Samwil rests at the top of a hill 2,979 feet above sea level,3.1 miles to the north of Jerusalem. From the village observers can see into Jerusalem and it controls the road from the coast to the west, the village was part of the Ottoman defences in front of Jerusalem and its capture was considered vital, to the eventual capture of the city. The attack began on 18 November, with the Australian Mounted Division clearing Latron, the next day the Yeomanry Mounted Division with the furthest to go moved off first. Followed by the 52nd Division which departed from Ludd and the 75th Division from Latron, the two other divisions travelling astride nothing more than tracks, found it more difficult and their vehicles and heavy weapons had to turn back. However, the 52nd Division did reach Beit Likia and the Yeomanry Division Beit Ur el Tahta by the end of the first day. The 75th, advancing along the real road in the area, made good progress, fighting through the Ottoman hilltop defences, secured the villages of Saris. The first village in the afternoon, the second before nightfall, in an assault under cover of a thick belt of fog. They had however only come up against rearguard positions and still had to face the main Ottoman force, elsewhere the 52nd Division were making some progress but the yeomanry were confronted by a strong position of 3,000 infantry supported by artillery on the Zeitun ridge west of Bireh. During a back and forwards battle the yeomanry did at one stage capture the position, on the same day, the 75th Division changed the direction of the attack north-east towards Biteh, to meet up with the mounted division. The division was stopped at Biddu, and the heights of Nebi Samwil, fighting through the day, the village was eventually taken by the 234th Brigade that evening
35.
Battle of Jaffa (1917)
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The closeness of the Ottoman army made the port and town unusable to shipping, still being within range of Ottoman artillery. Over the night of the 20–21 December 1917, the 52nd Division carried out a river crossing. With the far side of the river taken, the divisions of the XXI Corps with their supporting artillery crossed and forced the Ottoman defenders to withdraw 5 miles. With the Ottoman forces pushed back, Jaffa and communications between it and Jerusalem were made secure, the night crossing of the river has been regarded as one of the most remarkable feats of the Palestine campaign. On 16 November 1917 the British forces occupied the port of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast, the river was defended on the northern bank, by a trench system, from Mulebbis and Fejja to Bald Hill. From Mulebbis to the sea the river is between 40 to 50 feet wide and 10 feet deep except for the ford. The first attack across the Nahr el Auja, was more than a raid. The outnumbered battalions, were back by the Ottoman defenders, as they recaptured the bridgeheads. Three infantry divisions of the British XXI Corps, under the command of Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin, the 75th Division was on the right with the 54th Division in the centre and the 52nd Division on the left at the coast. On 14 December Major General John Hill, the officer of the Lowland Division. Artillery was concentrated behind the lines, while the divisions Royal Engineers, formed pontoons and canvas coracle boats and it had initially been planned for a heavy artillery bombardment to proceed the attack, however Hill suggested they instead try a surprise attack without the artillery bombardment. To cover the gap in the left by the redeployment of the 161st Brigade the 75th Division extended its front westwards to include Ludd. Over the night of 20/21 December in heavy rain the division carried out a river crossing, using pontoon bridges. The 155th Brigade crossed the river east of Jerisheh, and then turned right attacking the Turkish position, the 156th Brigade and the 157th Brigade both crossed the river west of Jerisheh. The first unit to cross about a 1 mile from the mouth was a company of the 7th Battalion, Cameronians. Several of the flimsy boats collapsed, and the men were forced to wade across the chest deep river, once across they established a bridgehead on the Ottoman bank of the river. When they were secure the engineers started building a pontoon bridge, by 23,00 almost three of the divisions battalions had crossed the river. The 8th Battalion, Cameronians and the 4th Battalion, Royal Scots, from the 156th Brigade, by midnight all the 156th Brigade had crossed over attacked the Ottoman position on a hill at Sheikh Muannis, which overlooked the river and all the other positions in the area
36.
Battle of Tell 'Asur
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Fighting took place over an area which extended from the Mediterranean to Abu Tellul and Mussalabeh on the edge of the Jordan Valley. After the Capture of Jericho by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in February 1918 the occupation of the Jordan Valley began, however, the captured territory was not sufficiently broad to provide a strong enough base for the planned Transjordan operations. The EEFs front line was successfully pushed northwards following attacks by the XX and XXI Corps against the Ottoman Seventh Army and Eighth Army. At the end of March the First Transjordan attack on Amman was launched to be followed the next month by the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt. General Edmund Allenbys right flank was secure but was not sufficiently broad to support the planned operations across the Jordan to the Hedjaz railway, the XXI Corps right was to advance to Deir Ballut and Majdal Yaba 4.5 miles north of its present position at Et Tire. On the night of 6 March 53rd Division occupied the village of Taiyibe, the main advance by infantry from the XX Corps, began during the night of 8 March, by the 53rd Division with the 1st Light Horse Brigade, the 74th Division and the 10th Division. The 60th Division pushed Ottoman units back from high ground on the bank of the Wadi Auja. The XX Corps began its advance during the night of 8 March at the time as the Ottoman XX Corps began to arrive on the Auja. The wadi was 20 yards across but only 3 feet deep, the 2/24th and 2/23rd Battalions, London Regiment in the hills had difficulties and a gap of 5 miles developed where an Ottoman division had given the defences an unexpected strength. The 53rd Divisions objective, the capture of Tell Asur, was assigned to the 158th Briagde, four unsuccessful attempts by Ottoman forces were made to regain this hill. Infantry from the 74th Divisions attack was made astride the Jerusalem to Nablus road, operating in two groups, the 10th Divisions right attacked Atara and Ajul and the left attacked from Deir es Sudan to Nabi Salih. After a late start due to fog rapid advances were made, the bridge over the Wadi el Jib was found to be intact and the top of the cliff was won just before dawn. Daylight found them on the slopes of the hills while Ottoman machine gun defenders made determined stands. During these operations the infantry advanced up and down precipitous cliffs and these had to be located by careful reconnaissance on foot as the country was very rough and due to the low cloud and mist aerial reconnaissance could not be used. Artillery was also hampered by the rough terrain making it virtually impossible to produce effective artillery fire support. On the plain the operations of the XXI Corps were carried out any of the difficulties suffered by the XX Corps. Their final objective was a north of the Wadi Deir Ballut. After the passage of the Nahr el Auja an advance had reached El Haram near ancient Arsuf making it possible to take the Ottoman positions in enfilade
37.
Capture of Jericho
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The Capture of Jericho occurred between 19 and 21 February 1918 to the east of Jerusalem beginning the Occupation of the Jordan Valley during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the Bethlehem–Nablus road in the west, the Jordan River in the east, here a British Empire force attacked Ottoman positions, forcing them back to Jericho and eventually across the Jordan River. Winter rains put an end to campaigning after the advance from the Gaza–Beersheba line to the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917 and this lull in the fighting offered the opportunity for the captured territories to be consolidated. General Edmund Allenbys initial strategic plans focused on his right flank. If attacked with large forces, he could be outflanked by an attack from the east—unlike his left flank which rested securely on the Mediterranean Sea to the west. His aim was to capture the territory east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea, the area was garrisoned by Ottoman troops entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades attacked. The advance from Beersheba came to a halt in December, on 14 December Allenby reported to the War Cabinet that the rainy season would prevent any further operations, after Jerusalem was secured, for at least two months. He wrote, I cant feed them, with certainty, and even now, Allenby wrote on 25 January, I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N of the Dead Sea. This advance would remove the more serious threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and it would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a narrow starting point for operations against the Hedjaz Railway. General Jan Christiaan Smuts, a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, was sent to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of a French qualification to the War Offices Joint Note No, 12—that no troops from France could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. The country on the side of the Judean Hills falls into the Jordan Valley in a confused mass of rocky ridges. All the main wadis run from west to east, often with high banks, while the tributaries joined from all directions, breaking up the ridges making the hills. Most tracks ran along the beds of ravines where progress had to be made in single file. Further north at Jebel Kuruntul the mountains end abruptly in a 1, sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top. Yet, in early Spring, the area was covered by wild flowers including cyclamen, anemones, poppies, between 3,000 and 5,000 Ottoman troops from the 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions XX Corps defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea, here the XX Corps was entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road. There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja, by February, logistics had sufficiently developed to support the advance towards Jericho, and Allenby ordered Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared. They were to move towards the Wadi el Auja, which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River, the plan was for the 60th Division to advance to Mukhmas eight miles north-north-east of Jerusalem, then advance forward six miles east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil
38.
British occupation of the Jordan Valley
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The occupation of the Jordan Valley by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force began in February 1918 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. After the Capture of Jericho in February the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment began patrolling an area of the Jordan Valley near Jericho at the base of the road from Jerusalem, during this time the occupation of the Jordan was fully established and continued through the summer of 1918. The occupation ended in September with the Battle of Megiddo which consisted of the Battle of Sharon, the Third Transjordan attack and Second Battle of Amman were fought as part of the Battle of Nablus. This line was held until September, providing a position from which to launch the attacks on Amman to the east. During the period from March to September the Ottoman Army held the hills of Moab on the side of the valley. Their well placed artillery periodically shelled the occupying force and, particularly in May, German aircraft bombed and strafed bivouacs, as a consequence of the major victory at Megiddo the occupied area was consolidated with other former Ottoman Empire territories won during the battle. The defeat of the second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt, the focus shifted to the German Spring Offensive launched by Ludendorff on the Western Front, which began the same day as the First Transjordan attack on Amman, completely eclipsing its failure. The British front in Picardy held by 300,000 soldiers collapsed when powerful assaults were launched on both sides of the Somme by a force of 750,000, forcing Goughs Fifth Army back almost to Amiens. On one day,23 March German forces advanced 12 miles and captured 600 guns, the British War Cabinet recognised at once that the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire must be at least postponed. Overnight Palestine went from being the British governments first priority to a side show, the plan for the advance in September required holding the Jordan bridgeheads and maintaining a continuous threat of another offensive across the Transjordan. Despite the huge numbers of sick projected to be suffered during the occupation of the Jordan Valley, a retreat out of the valley would enhance the already increased morale of the German and Ottoman forces and their standing in the region, following their Transjordan victories. So important was the support of Prince Feisals Sherifial Hedjaz Arab force to the defence of the EEFs right flank, that they were substantially subsidised by the War Office. At the time £400,000 was on its way from Australia, while Wingate was asking the War Office for an additional £500,000, the Ottoman defenders maintained an observation post on El Haud hill which dominates the whole Jordan Valley. At this time the strength was estimated at 68,000 rifles and sabres and morale of the Ottoman defenders very strong, while the EEF was defending its line with every available unit. As Allenby wrote in a letter to the War Office on 15 June 1918, the 60 miles EEF line stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River was strong, supported by roads and communications behind. However the line was wide in comparison with the size of the EEF it, Allenby saying, It is the best line I can hold. My right flank is covered by the Jordan, my left by the Mediterranean Sea, the Jordan Valley must be held by me, it is vital. If the Turks regained control of the Jordan, I should lose control of the Dead Sea and this would cut me off from the Arabs on the Hedjaz railway, with the result that, shortly, the Turks would regain their power in the Hedjaz
39.
First Transjordan attack on Amman
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During the First Transjordan attack large incursions into Ottoman territory occurred. Firstly the Passage of the Jordan River, was successfully captured between 21 and 23 March, followed by the first occupation of Es Salt in the hills of Moab between 24 and 25 March. The Jordan Valley would continue to be occupied by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force through the summer until the middle of September 1918 when the Battle of Megiddo began. The Capture of Jericho was also a precursor, along with the Action of Tell Asur. In March, after unsuccessful attempts by a British Empire force of Australian, British and New Zealand swimmers. Meanwhile, the columns continued marching to the north and south of the infantry column on to Amman 30 miles east of Jericho on the high plateau. Amman was strongly defended by the Ottoman Army and the blown up sections of the railway were quickly replaced to allow reinforcements to continue to arrive and strengthen the defenders. British Empire infantry and artillery reinforcements were sent forward from Es Salt. The only territorial gains following the offensive were the establishment of bridgeheads on the side of the river. The War Office promised General Edmund Allenby, Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, on 7 March 1918, the promised reinforcements were reduced to just one Indian division and four batteries of 6-inch howitzers from Mesopotamia due to arrive by the end of May. Also promised were enough railway track to complete the doubling of the railway to Rafa and a single line beyond Haifa. By July it was hoped that 152 locomotives and 3,245 wagons would be available, with a promise of more if required, railway personnel and labour to run this railway were to come from Mesopotamia. General Jan Christiaan Smuts, a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, had sent to Palestine in early February to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of Joint Note No.12. Without reliable supplies and reinforcements Bedouin and Arab forces in the region could be encouraged to attack and rebel against these weakened Ottoman Empire forces and lengthen Allenbys right. Allenby continues, If I could destroy 10 or 15 miles of rail and some bridges, a necessary prerequisite to the first Transjordan attack was a broadening of the EEF base to better support the proposed attack on the Hejaz Railway at Amman. During the Battle of Tell Asur between 8 and 12 March 1918, the front line in the Judean Hills was pushed further north giving a stronger base for attacks eastwards. Although it was not published in the Middle East at the time, the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine depended on a compliant Palestinian population and the British were eager to conciliate wherever possible. Orders were issued to be friendly to the Arab tribes from east of the Jordan River
40.
First Battle of Amman
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The First Battle of Amman was fought from 27 to 31 March 1918 during the First Transjordan attack on Amman of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. The Egyptian Expeditionary Force was successfully counterattacked by Ottoman Empire forces forcing them to back to the bridgeheads captured on the Jordan River. During the winter of 1917/1918 these considerable territorial gains were consolidated, in early March the front line from the Mediterranean to Abu Tellul in the Judean Hills, was pushed north during the Action of Tell Asur. These two adjustments to the front line were necessary precursors, to advances by Allenbys EEF across the Jordan River and into the hills of Moab to Es Salt and Amman. The Passage of the Jordan was effected by a British Empire force of Australian and British swimmers and they were to cut the railway line to the north and south of Amman by destroying long sections of the Hejaz Railway, including bridges and a viaduct. Amman was strongly defended by the Fourth Army garrison which was strengthened by the arrival of reinforcements. British Empire infantry and artillery reinforcements from Es Salt strengthened the 181st Brigade, the only territorial gains following the offensive were the establishment of bridgeheads on the eastern side of the river at Ghoraniyeh and Makhadet Hajlah. After capturing Aqaba Prince Feisals Sherifial Forces pushed north after establishing a new base at Aqaba, raiding parties attacked the Hejaz Railway from Tebuk, and a small trained force based in the Wadi Araba in the Ghor south of the Dead Sea, threatened Maan and Hishe Forest. An Ottoman attack north west of Maan in the Petra region in October 1917 was partly successful, at the end of 1917 Sherifial Forces captured Shobek and Tafilah 72 km north of Maan and in January 1918 wiped out the Ottoman force sent to retake Tafila. Such an attack would draw von Falkenhayns force northwards back towards Amman and it may also be possible for the EEF and the Sherifial Force to make contact. Before the first transjordan attack could begin, it was necessary to broaden the EEFs base to support the proposed attack on the Hejaz Railway at Amman. Between 8 and 12 March 1918, the front line in the Judean Hills was pushed north during the Battle of Tell Asur resulting in a substantially stronger base for attacks to the east. A citadel on a hill covered the northern and western approaches to the city while east was the Hejaz railway, turntable, to the south of the station was a ten-arched viaduct and a 141 m railway tunnel. The diversionary attacks were to be coordinated with an Arab raid led to T. E. Lawrence on the Hejaz railway station at Deraa and this railway line ran from Constantinople to Damascus, continuing southwards through eastern Syria 100 km east of Jerusalem all the way to Medina. The headquarters of the Ottoman Fourth, Seventh and Eighth Armies were located at Amman east of the Jordan River, the headquarters of the Yildirim Army Group commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders, was located at Nazareth. The Tulkarm garrison was commanded by Yasin al-Hashimi, who also commanded Ottoman troops during the battle, the assault detachment. was composed of one infantry company, one engineer platoon and seven light machine-gun teams. The officers assigned to the assault detachments were hand-picked from within the division by divisional staff, the assault detachment was given four weeks training in German-style stormtrooper tactics, to which the division sent an additional officer and five NCOs. Eventually the assault detachment was expanded into an assault battalion and these assault battalions which consisted of between 300 and 350 officers and men were well equipped
41.
Battle of Abu Tellul
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The valley had been occupied by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from February 1918 when Jericho was captured. Following two raids east of the River Jordan by the EEF the first in March and second in April the defence of the valley became the responsibility of the Desert Mounted Corps. However, the Ottoman formation was overwhelmed by a force of British. These were the last attacks against the British forces in this campaign, the British artillery batteries were concealed close behind the front line just south of the ridge. El Mussallabeh had been attacked on 11 April, between the first and second Transjordan raids, the attack had been launched by a composite force of four Ottoman infantry battalions and several batteries. Subsequently, defensive work was carried out, if the attack succeeded, the front line stretching from the Mediterranean Sea would have been considerably shortened and potentially destabilised. Bad feelings between the two arose when it was believed by sections of the Ottoman Army in Palestine that some German units had been withdrawn. Indeed, considerable reinforcements arrived in Palestine from Caucasia in 1918 including the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division, included in this force was a group of 100 Germans who were armed with 42 automatic rifles. Hard close quarter fighting earned battle distinctions for Captain Boyd, Lieutenant Macansh, riding out to attack the massing Ottoman cavalry were the Jodhpur and Mysore Lancers, from the 15th Cavalry Brigade, the Poona Horse and the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry from the 14th Cavalry Brigade. Early in July the 1st Light Horse Regiment was in reserve while the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiment held Vyse, on 13 July the section of the front line which passed through the Jordan Valley to the Dead Sea was commanded by Chauvels Desert Mounted Corps. The Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and the area of the valley stretching south towards the Dead Sea was held by the 2nd Mounted Division with two Indian infantry battalions, while the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division held the Auja and Mellaha areas including the Abu Tellul salient. This salient was difficult to defend, as the posts and sangars were isolated owing to the hilly terrain interspersed by rocky crevasses, under orders, a series of posts and sangars were constructed at Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh which were designed for all-round defence. Work to strengthen these defences included heavily wiring all the posts which were supplied with water, ammunition. On 14 July the maximum temperature was recorded at 115 °F. Movements were heard between Vale and View posts defended by the 3rd Light Horse Regiment just after 01,00 when the commander ordered an artillery barrage in front of Vale post. Ottoman artillery also started shelling Mussallabeh and Abu Tellul and this bombardment ceased about 02,30 when the movement of many Ottoman units was again heard by the defenders. These were the German 702nd and 703rd Battalions, one company of the 11 Regiment Jäger Battalion and one company of the 146th Regiment. This force was supported on the left by the 32nd Regiment attacking Mussallabeh, at 03,30 the Mussallabeh salient protecting the Wadi el Auja was attacked by 1,250 Germans in two and a half battalions
42.
Third Transjordan attack
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These operations took place during the Battle of Nablus, part of the Battle of Megiddo which began on 19 September in the final months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Fought on the flank and subsidiary to the Battle of Nablus. The following day a section of Chaytors Force, attacked and captured the Ottoman Empires 53rd Division on the main line of retreat out of the Judean Hills across the Jordan River. Retreating columns of the Yildirim Army Group were attacked during the battle for the Jisr ed Damieh bridge, with the Fourth Armys VIII Corps in retreat, Chaytors Force continued their advance to attack and capture Amman on 25 September during the Second Battle of Amman. The British Empire victories during the Third Transjordan attack resulted in the occupation of many miles of Ottoman territory, fighting extended from the Mediterranean Sea during these seven days of battle, resulting in the capture of many thousands of prisoners, and extensive territory. After several days pursuing remnant columns, Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus on 1 October, soon after, on 30 October, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, ending the Sinai and Palestine campaign. These bridgeheads remained after the Second Transjordan attacks on Shunet Nimrin and this marked the end of major operations in the area until September 1918. General Edmund Allenby, the commander of the EEF, decided to occupy the Jordan Valley during the summer of 1918 for a number of reasons. A retreat out of the valley would enhance the morale of the German and Ottoman forces. As Allenby explains, I am not strong enough to make holding attacks on both flanks, and the Turks can transfer their reserves from flank to flank as required, the Turks have more of these, the VII Army have 2400, and the VIII Army 5800 in Reserve. I must maintain my hold on the bridges of the Jordan and this will cause the Turks to keep a considerable force watching me, and ease pressure on Feisal and his forces. It is absolutely essential to me that he should continue to be active and he is a sensible, well–informed man, and he is fully alive to the limitations imposed on me. I keep in touch with him, through Lawrence. I have now in the valley two Mounted Divisions and an Indian Infantry Brigade, I cannot lessen this number yet. By July, Allenby was very anxious to make a move in September, when he aimed to capture Tulkarm, Nablus and the Jisr ed Damieh bridge across the Jordan River. He stated, The possession by the Turks of the road Nablus–Jisr ed Damie–Es Salt is of advantage to them. From the departure of the Australian Mounted Division in August steps were taken to make it appear the valley was fully garrisoned. On 11 September the 10th Cavalry Brigade, which included the Scinde Horse and they marched via Jericho,19 miles to Talaat de Dumm, then a further 20 miles to Enab, reaching Ramleh on 17 September in preparation for the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo
43.
Capture of Jisr ed Damieh
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Units of Chaytors Force under the commanded by Brigadier-General William Meldrum, and known as Meldrums Force, attacked and captured the bridge. This victory by Meldrums Force opened the way for Chaytors Force to advance along the main Nablus to Es Salt road to capture Es Salt, also Chaytors Force began their attacks northwards in the Jordan Valley, then crossed the Jordan River to capture Es Salt and Amman. This advance resulted in the capture of half of the Fourth Army at Amman and Ziza. The remnants of the Fourth Army retreated in disarray towards Damascus where most were captured. From the Mediterranean coast, the front line rose from sea level to a height of 1, 500–2,000 feet in the Judean Hills before falling to 1,000 feet below sea-level in the Jordan Valley. A wired line of redoubts and trenches facing south ran from 8,000 yards north of Shunet Nimrin, across the Jordan Valley to the river,1,000 yards south of the Umm esh Shert ford. The line continued as a series of individual wired redoubts that dominated open ground, then as a series of trenches and redoubts along the northern or left bank of the Wadi Mellaha. These were followed by strongly wired sangars and posts which extended into the Judean Hills to Bakr Ridge to the west of the salient at El Musallabe held by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. The Ottoman front line was supported by entrenched positions on Red Hill beside the Jordan River and this area garrisoned by Chaytors Force was overlooked by well sighted Ottoman long range guns. The Yildirim Army Group had consisted of 40,598 front line armed with 19,819 rifles,273 light machine guns and 696 heavy machine guns in August 1918. The Seventh Army was in retreat down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River after being forced to abandon its guns and transports. This large column of Ottoman soldiers was seen about 8 miles north of Nablus moving down the road towards Beisan and was bombed and machine gunned by British. When the defile became blocked, the Ottoman forces were subjected to four hours of sustained attack, Meldrums Force left Kh Fusail at midnight on 22 September with the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment as vanguard. They were followed at 01,30 by the 1st Battalion British West Indies Regiment, the battalion was ordered to dump their kits and blankets and march to Jisr ed Damieh. They arrived south of Ain Jozele, at 05,00, the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment, with a section from the New Zealand Machine Gun Squadron attached, reached the Nablus to Jisr ed Damieh road early on the morning of 22 September. They had captured Abd el Kadyr and El Makhruk, located further up the Wadi el Fara road by 07,00, also captured were 600 prisoners, the commander of the Ottoman 53rd Division and his staff, and a great deal of war material in the divisions dump. The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments, supported by the 1st Battalion, British West Indies Regiment, during determined fighting by both sides a hot fight occurred. The attackers eventually forced the defenders to retreat in disorder, the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment attacked the strongly defended bridge under cover of darkness in the pre-dawn, while a large Ottoman column of retreating soldiers was in close proximity
44.
Second Battle of Amman
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Having cut this line of retreat, Chaytors Force proceeded eastwards to attack and capture Es Salt, before riding on to attack and capture the Ottoman rearguard of the Fourth Army defending Amman. These British Empire victories of the Third Transjordan attack over Yildirim Army Group forces, with the Fourth Army in retreat, they continued to Amman, where they attacked and captured a strong Ottoman rearguard of the Fourth Armys VIII Corps, which fought a determined action. From the Mediterranean coast, the front line rose from sea level to a height of 1 and this area garrisoned by Chaytors Force was overlooked by well sighted Ottoman long range guns. A citadel on a hill covered the northern and western approaches to the city while east was the Hejaz railway, turntable, to the south of the station was a ten arched viaduct and 462 feet long railway tunnel. All of the supplies and reinforcements for the Ottoman Fourth Army force which had faced the EEF garrison occupying the Jordan Valley came through Amman. Now the Hejaz railway was the line of retreat for the Fourth Army, for the Amman and Maan garrisons. The Fourth Army consisting of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry supported by artillery pieces was commanded by General Mohammed Jemal Pasha. The army headquarters was at Amman, and held the line across the Jordan Valley, the 3rd Cavalry Division, German 146th Regiment 63rd Regiment made up the Army Troops. There were 6,000 Ottoman soldiers with 30 guns in the II Corps, known as the Seria Group or Jordan Group and this composite force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor was nearly equivalent to two divisions, being a reinforced mounted infantry division of 11,000 men. The ration strength of Chaytors Force at the end of operations on 30 September was 8,000 British,3,000 Indian,500 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps troops, Chaytor took command of the Jordan Valley garrison on 5 September 1918. The 39th Royal Fusiliers formed the reserve, while the 1st Light Horse Brigade was in Force reserve. The destruction of the Fourth Army, which had begun to withdraw to conform with the two other Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills, became Allenbys next priority. Chaytors Force was to advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman, the Nablus to Damieh road was captured early in the morning of 22 September by Meldrums Force which included the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the British West Indies Regiment. Mafid Jozele was captured by 05,50 on 23 September, the EEF became aware of the withdrawal of the Fourth Army at 23,35 on 22/23 September, when orders were issued for an attack on Shunet Nimrin, Kabr Mujahid and Tel er Ramr. This was to be carried out by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and mobile sections of the 20th Indian Brigade, the CRA was to support this advance by targeting Shunet Nimrin. Before Haifa was captured by the 14th Cavalry Brigade on 23 September, Chaytors Force had crossed the Jordan River to climb to the Plateau of Moab and Gilead on their way to capture Es Salt. All defenders were captured, and at 16,20 on 23 September, the main road had been blown up in places by the retreating Ottoman Army, forcing Chaytor to pause on 24 September to wait for supplies as well. Orders were then issued for the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and the 2nd Light Horse Brigades to advance to Amman beginning at 06,00 on 25 September
45.
Action of Arsuf
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The Action of Arsuf, was fought between the forces of the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire, German Empire and Austria-Hungary during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. The British Empire forces involved was the 21st Brigade comprising the 2nd Battalion, Black Watch, the 1st Guides Infantry, the 29th Punjabis, the hills were being used as observation posts and the intention was to deprive the Turkish forces of their use. The successful assault was carried out by the Black Watch and the Guides Infantry, the Turkish forces responded with two counter-attacks of their own. The first succeeded in recapturing a section of their previous position before being driven back, the second counter-attack was defeated before they managed to reach the British position. The Turkish forces suffered losses, and four officers and 101 other ranks were taken prisoner. Equipment captured included two heavy and five machine guns. The capture of the two Turkish positions greatly improved the British position and their loss deprived the Turkish forces an observation post that overlooked a large portion of the British lines and rear areas. They also now gave the British their own observation post that could see the Turkish rear areas, there capture was significant enough to be mentioned in army despatches. Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War, Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. The Black Watch, A Concise History, no page numbers British National Army Museum image of the battle
46.
Battle of Megiddo (1918)
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The Battle of Megiddo was the final Allied offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. The series of battles took place in what was then the central and northern parts of Ottoman Palestine and parts of present-day Israel, Syria, the Desert Mounted Corps rode through the breach and almost encircled the Ottoman Eighth and Seventh Armies still fighting in the Judean Hills. The subsidiary Battle of Nablus was fought virtually simultaneously in the Judean Hills in front of Nablus, the Ottoman Fourth Army was subsequently attacked in the Hills of Moab at Es Salt and Amman. These battles resulted in tens of thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory being captured by the Allies. The irregular forces of the Arab Revolt also played a part in this victory, across this plain several armies, from the ancient Egyptians to the French under Napoleon, had fought on their way towards Nazareth in the Galilean Hills. The Entente Powers had declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, in early 1915 and in August 1916 the Ottomans, with German commanders, aid and encouragement, had attacked the Suez Canal, a vital link between Britain and India, Australia and New Zealand. Having constructed a railway and water pipeline across the desert, Murray then attacked southern Palestine, in the First Battle of Gaza and the Second Battle of Gaza in March and April 1917, the British attacks were defeated. In 1916, the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule had broken out in the Hejaz, led by Hussein bin Ali, finally, Lawrence and bedouin tribesmen won the Battle of Aqaba in July 1917. The capture of the port of Aqaba allowed the Allies to supply Feisals forces, General Edmund Allenby had been appointed to succeed Murray in command of the EEF, and was encouraged to renew the offensive. After receiving reinforcements, he broke through the Ottoman defences in the Third Battle of Gaza, despite Ottoman counter-attacks, the EEF captured Jerusalem in the second week in December 1917. After a pause of several weeks caused by bad weather and the need to repair his lines of communication, however, in March, the Germans launched their Spring Offensive on the Western Front, intending to defeat the Allied armies in France and Belgium. Allenby was ordered to send reinforcements to the Western Front, Allenbys tank force was also returned to France. In total approximately 60,000 officers and men were transferred to the Western Front in 1918, however, Allenby maintained pressure on the Ottoman armies by twice sending mounted and infantry divisions across the Jordan. The first attack cut the Hejaz Railway near Amman before the attackers retreated. In the second attack, Allenbys troops captured Es Salt on the road to Amman, despite these failures, Allenby had established two bridgeheads across the Jordan north of the Dead Sea which were retained during the ensuing occupation of the southern Jordan Valley. At the same time, the Ottoman command changed, the highest level Ottoman headquarters in Palestine was the Yıldırım Army Group. The Army Group had originally formed to recapture Baghdad which had been captured by the British in March 1917. Instead, it had diverted to Palestine where the British were close to capturing Jerusalem
47.
Battle of Sharon
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The fighting took place over a wide area from the Mediterranean Sea east to the Rafat salient in the Judean Hills. The Battle of Sharon extended well behind the Ottoman front lines when the Desert Mounted Corps rode through a gap in the front line across the Plain of Sharon to occupy the Esdraelon Plain. Subsequently Chaytors Force advanced against the Fourth Army to capture Es Salt, during this Battle of Tulkarm the 60th Division breached the front and second line trenches to eventually capture Tulkarm, the site of the Eighth Army headquarters. On their right, the main Tabsor system of trenches held by the Ottoman XXII Corps was attacked and eventually captured during the Battle of Tabsor, by the 3rd, 7th, and the 75th Divisions. These three divisions subsequently advanced, despite the Ottoman XXII Corps being reinforced, to capture Et Tire, in the process of the battles for Tulkarm and Tabsor the 7th and 60th Divisions created a gap in the front line, for the Desert Mounted Corps to ride through. They rode north and eastwards to the rear to capture the defending Ottoman armies lines of communication, the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon began as soon as the gap was made during the infantry attacks. The 5th Cavalry Division led the way north up along the Plain of Sharon followed by the 4th Cavalry Division with the Australian Mounted Division in reserve and these divisions subsequently rode across the Mount Carmel Range through two passes, to occupy the Esdraelon Plain, on 20 September. Here they cut the main Ottoman lines of communication, units of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions converged to capture Afulah with the 4th Cavalry Division capturing Beisan in the afternoon. The Australian Mounted Division captured Jenin along with thousands of prisoners when they captured the main line of retreat from Nablus to Damascus, on 20 September Nazareth, the site of the Ottoman Armys Yildirim Army Group headquarters, was unsuccessfully attacked by the 5th Cavalry Division. During the Battle of Nazareth the Ottoman Commander in Chief, Otto Liman von Sanders, was forced to escape, the 5th Cavalry Division captured the town the following day and several days later this division also captured Haifa and Acre following the Battle of Haifa. The Australian Light Horse victory at the Battle of Samakh and the subsequent Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Sharon, as a result of the battles of Sharon and Nablus, known collectively as the Battle of Megiddo, much territory and many prisoners were captured. The Final Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign began the day after the Battle of Megiddo ended, with the pursuit to Damascus, Cemal Pasha appointed Cemal Kucjuk Pasha to command the Fourth Army. The commander of the Seventh Army, Mustafa Kemal who had resigned his command, was reinstated early in September 1918. The focus of the Ottoman Armys war effort in 1918 turned from Palestine to Anatolia and this change of direction was heavily influenced by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March 1918 which ended the war on the Eastern Front between Imperial Russia and the Central Powers. As a result, the Ottoman Army embarked on a series of conquests in the Caucasus. Erzerum, which had captured by the Russians during the Erzerum Offensive in 1916, was retaken on 24 March 1918, followed by Van on 5 April and later Batum, Kars. The reoccupation of these former Ottoman possessions, however, brought little strategic advantage, by July, it had become clear that this German offensive on the Western Front, had failed. In August, a return to the battle of attrition in the trenches ensued until the Hundred Days Offensive, coinciding with preparations for a renewal of the campaign in Palestine
