1.
Ranchos of California
–
The Spanish and later Mexican governments encouraged settlement of Alta California by giving prominent men large land grants called ranchos, usually two or more square leagues. Land-grant titles were government-issued, permanent, unencumbered property-ownership rights to land called ranchos, devoted to raising cattle and sheep, the owners of the ranchos attempted to pattern themselves after the landed gentry of Spain. Their workers included Californian Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish, Spain made about 30 grants between 1784 and 1821, and Mexico granted about 270 more between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established land-use patterns and place names that are still in use in California today, Rancho boundaries became the basis for Californias land survey system, and can still be found on modern maps and land titles. Ranchos were partially based on geography, such as access to river water, Land development in the 20th and 21st century often follow the boundaries of the ranchos, and often retain the original name. For example, Rancho San Diego, an unincorporated rural-burb east of San Diego, or Rancho Bernardo, during Spanish rule, the ranchos were concessions from the Spanish crown, permitting settlement and granting grazing rights on specific tracts of land, while the crown retained the title. The land concessions were usually measured in leagues, a league of land would encompass a square that is one Spanish league on each side – approximately 4,428 acres. The Spanish and Mexican governments made a number of grants from 1785 to 1846. It was not until the Mexican era that the titles to the plots of land were granted to individuals, in 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California, and by 1828, the Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. Secularization was implemented between 1834 and 1836, the Mexican government allowed the padres to keep only the church, priests quarters and priests garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed, a commissioner would oversee the missions crops and herds, while the land was divided up as communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots for each Indian family. The Mission Indians, freed from the missions, often joined other tribes or sought work on the new ranchos along the troops formerly assigned to each mission. The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after the secularization of the missions in 1834, the Mexican rancho grants were provisional. The boundaries, on paper, had to be surveyed and marked. This produced a diseño, a topological map, to define the area. Since there were very few surveyors this requirement was seldom met, the grantee could not initially subdivide or rent out the land. The land had to be used for grazing or cultivated, some kind of residential house had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe walled cabins
Ranchos of California
–
Sketch map or diseño of Rancho Providencia, 1840s.
2.
Santa Cruz County, California
–
Santa Cruz County, California, officially the County of Santa Cruz, is a county on the Pacific coast of the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 262,382, the county seat is Santa Cruz. Santa Cruz County comprises the Santa Cruz-Watsonville, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, the county is on the California Central Coast, south of the San Francisco Bay Area region. The county forms the northern coast of the Monterey Bay, with Monterey County forming the southern coast, Santa Cruz County was one of the original counties of California, created in 1850 at the time of statehood. In the original act, the county was given the name of Branciforte after the Spanish pueblo founded there in 1797, a major watercourse in the county, Branciforte Creek, still bears this name. Less than two months later on April 5,1850, the name was changed to Santa Cruz, mission Santa Cruz, established in 1791 and completed in 1794, was destroyed by the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake, but a smaller-scale replica was erected in 1931. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 607 square miles. It is the second-smallest county in California by land area and third-smallest by total area, of Californias counties, only San Francisco is physically smaller. The county is situated on a coastline with over 29 miles of beaches. It is a strip of about 10 miles wide between the coast and the crest of the Santa Cruz Mountains at the end of the Monterey Bay. Agriculture is concentrated in the lowlands of the countys northern and southern ends. Most of the coastline is flanked by cliffs, like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems. The 2010 United States Census reported Santa Cruz County had a population of 262,382, hispanic or Latino of any race were 84,092 persons. As of the census of 2000, there were 255,602 people,91,139 households, the population density was 574 people per square mile. There were 98,873 housing units at a density of 222 per square mile. 25. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.25. In the county, the population was out with 23. 8% under the age of 18,11. 9% from 18 to 24,30. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 99.7 males
Santa Cruz County, California
Santa Cruz County, California
Santa Cruz County, California
Santa Cruz County, California
3.
Monterey Bay
–
Monterey Bay is a bay of the Pacific Ocean located on the coast of the U. S. state of California. The bay is south of the cities of San Francisco. The county-seat city of Santa Cruz is located at the end of the bay. The city of Monterey is on the Monterey Peninsula at the south end, the Monterey Bay Area is a local colloquialism sometimes used to describe the whole of the Central Coast communities of Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. The first European to discover Monterey Bay was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo on November 16,1542 while sailing northward along the coast on a Spanish naval expedition. He named the bay Bahía de los Pinos, probably because of the forest of pine trees first encountered while rounding the peninsula at the end of the bay. Cabrillos name for the bay was lost, but the westernmost point of the peninsula is known as Point Pinos. On December 10,1595, Sebastián Rodríguez Cermeño crossed the bay, the present name for the bay was documented in 1602 by Sebastián Vizcaíno, who had been tasked by the Spanish government to complete a detailed chart of the coast. He anchored in what is now the Monterey harbor on December 16, Monterrey is an alternate spelling of Monterrei, a municipality in the Galicia region of Spain from which the viceroy and his father originated. All other place names in the vicinity containing Monterey were so named because of their proximity to the bay and this includes the Presidio of Monterey, City of Monterey, County of Monterey and Monterey Canyon. The Monterey Canyon, one of the largest underwater canyons in the world, begins off the coast of Moss Landing, killer whales are also found along the coast, especially when Gray whales migrate, as they hunt the whales during their migration north. Many species of fish, sharks, mollusks such as abalone and squid, birds, several varieties of kelp grow in the bay, some becoming as tall as trees, forming what is known as a kelp forest. Ricketts State Marine Conservation Area and Asilomar State Marine Reserve are marine protected areas in Monterey Bay, like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems. Clockwise around the bay, generally north to south
Monterey Bay
–
The Monterey Bay, as seen from space, stretches from Santa Cruz in the north to the
Monterey Peninsula in the south
Monterey Bay
–
Monterey Bay, California.
Monterey Bay
–
Cormorant "condo" in Monterey Bay
Monterey Bay
–
Panorama of Monterey Bay from
Jacks Peak Park
4.
Soquel, California
–
Soquel /soʊˈkɛl/ is a census-designated place in Santa Cruz County, California, United States approximately 75 miles south of San Francisco, and forms part of the north coast of Monterey Bay. The population was 9,644 at the 2010 census, Soquel is located at 36°59′13″N 121°56′44″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 4.6 square miles. The 2010 United States Census reported that Soquel had a population of 9,644, the population density was 2,097.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Soquel was 7,898 White,85 African American,71 Native American,356 Asian,21 Pacific Islander,693 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,606 persons. The Census reported that 9,595 people lived in households,49 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 266 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 39 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,128 households were made up of individuals and 411 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.45. There were 2,399 families, the family size was 3.00. The median age was 43.2 years, for every 100 females there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males, there were 4,107 housing units at an average density of 893.2 per square mile, of which 2,750 were owner-occupied, and 1,162 were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1. 4%, the vacancy rate was 2. 4%. 6,654 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 2,941 people lived in housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,081 people,2,043 households, the population density was 4,710.3 people per square mile. There were 2,103 housing units at a density of 1,949.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 82. 94% White,1. 57% African American,0. 63% Native American,4. 00% Asian,0. 18% Pacific Islander,6. 18% from other races, and 4. 51% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13. 99% of the population,27. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 3.02. In the CDP, the population was out with 24. 6% under the age of 18,8. 5% from 18 to 24,32. 3% from 25 to 44,24. 6% from 45 to 64
Soquel, California
–
Soquel as seen from a hilltop in
Anna Jean Cummings Park
Soquel, California
–
A residential neighborhood in Soquel
Soquel, California
–
Downtown Soquel
Soquel, California
–
Counties
5.
Capitola, California
–
Capitola is a city in Santa Cruz County, California, United States, on the coast of Monterey Bay. The population was 9,918 at the 2010 census, the original settlement now known as Capitola grew out of what was then called Soquel Landing. Soquel Landing got its name from a wharf located at the mouth of Soquel Creek and this wharf, which dates back to the 1850s, served as an outlet for the produce and lumber grown in the interior. In 1865, Captain John Pope Davenport, a whaleman at Monterey, unable to capture any whales, he moved his operations the following year to Point Año Nuevo. In 1869, Frederick A. Hihn, who owned the property in the vicinity of the wharf, at first he leased the area to Samuel A. Hall and the area became known as Camp Capitola. Most authorities believe that it was Hihn who chose the name of Capitola, several possibilities have been asserted, one being that it was named for the heroine of The Hidden Hand, a novel by the popular author E. D. E. N. Southworth, favored by Halls daughter Lulu, Capitola is known as the oldest beach resort on the West Coast. Capitola is a popular tourist town because of its shops and restaurants on the shore directly connecting to a fishing wharf and its large. Capitola lies west of the area of Aptos and east of the census-designated place of Live Oak. Capitola is located at 36°58′35″N 121°57′17″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.7 square miles, of which 1.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles is water. Capitola sits on the northeast shore of Monterey Bay, steep cliffs mark access to several popular beaches, including New Brighton Beach, or drop directly to the rocky shoreline of the bay. Downtown Capitola sits in a depression among the cliffs so that the popular tourist, colorful houses and hotels line the slopes of the town leading back up to the clifftops. The historic Venetian Court that sits on the beach just east of the pier is on the Register of National Historic Places as The first Condominium Beach Community in the United States, built in 1924. Capitola has mild weather throughout the year, enjoying a Mediterranean climate characterized by cool, wet winters and warm, due to its proximity to Monterey Bay, fog and low overcast are common during the night and morning hours, especially in the summer. The 2010 United States Census reported that Capitola had a population of 9,918, the population density was 5,919.0 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Capitola was 7,963 White,123 African American,59 Native American,424 Asian,10 Pacific Islander,869 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,957 persons. The Census reported that 9,770 people lived in households,25 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 339 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 55 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,735 households were made up of individuals and 608 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.11
Capitola, California
–
Beach at Capitola
Capitola, California
–
Beach scene at Capitola, 1905
Capitola, California
–
Capitola
Venetian hotel
Capitola, California
–
Beach in Capitola, 2014
6.
Branciforte
–
Branciforte, originally named Villa de Branciforte, was the last of only three secular pueblos founded by the Spanish colonial government of Alta California. The pueblo was established in 1797 on the bluff of the San Lorenzo River. The pueblo never prospered, and the area was annexed into the city of Santa Cruz, the present day Branciforte Small Schools Campus building is located at what was the center of the Villa de Branciforte. A California State historical marker, number 469, is located outside of the building, too, at the corner of Water Street and its original civilian population was not bound to the church or the military. Unlike the Spanish missions, the villa was secular, from its very inception in 1797 the Villa met with great obstacles. The funds were not adequate, and the failed to attract any retired soldiers. The first eight came from Guadalajara, Jalisco, New Spain. They found nothing of what they had been promised, expecting to find the town already built to accommodate them, they found they had to build their own rough dwellings with little tools or provisions. In the end the Villa de Branciforte never resembled the neatly laid out plans for streets, furthermore, it never lived up to its expectations, and in 1802, the town itself lost the support of the Crown, and supplies ceased to arrive. In 1803, about five years after the villa was established the settlers attempted to establish a government by electing an alcalde or municipal magistrate and this election was one of the first elections ever held in Alta California. After this, the citizens of the Villa de Branciforte began to spread over the country, there were also constant problems with the missionaries at the adjacent Mission Santa Cruz over grazing rights, and the corrupting influence of the settlers on the neophytes at the Mission. For the first few years the population actually declined, when Bouchard arrived, he did not sack Santa Cruz but instead it was the residents of Branciforte who looted and stole from the mission even the clothes from the saints adorning the church. The missionaries and neophytes came back to find the place ransacked. This event deepened the mistrust both the communities held for each other, by 1831 however, Branciforte had a population of about two hundred people which was mostly made up of merchants, explorers, and retired soldiers. The Branciforte Adobe is the remaining building in Santa Cruz from this period
Branciforte
–
Villa de Branciforte
7.
Monterey, California
–
The City of Monterey in Monterey County is located on the southern edge of Monterey Bay, in the Northern Portion of Californias Central Coast. It stands at an elevation of 26 feet above sea level, the 2010 census recorded a population of 27,810. Monterey was the capital of Alta California under both Spain and Mexico and it was the only port of entry for taxable goods in California. In 1846 the U. S. flag was raised over the Customs House, the city had Californias first theater, public building, public library, publicly funded school, printing press, and newspaper. The city and surrounding area have attracted artists since the late 19th century, until the 1950s, there was an abundant fishery. Among Montereys notable present-day attractions are the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Cannery Row, Fishermans Wharf, long before the arrival of Spanish explorers, the Rumsen Ohlone tribe, one of seven linguistically distinct Ohlone groups in California, inhabited the area now known as Monterey. They subsisted by hunting, fishing and gathering food on and around the biologically rich Monterey Peninsula, researchers have found a number of shell middens in the area and, based on the archaeological evidence, concluded the Ohlones primary marine food consisted at various times of mussels and abalone. A number of sites have been located along about 12 miles of rocky coast on the Monterey Peninsula from the current site of Fishermans Wharf in Monterey to Carmel. In 1602, Spanish maritime explorer Sebastian Vizcaino recorded the name Bahía de Monterrey, Vizcaino landed at the southern end of the bay and described a great port, suitable for use as an anchorage by southbound Manila galleons. Vizcaino also noted and named the Point of Pines, all other uses of the name Monterey derive from Vizcainos name for the bay. Variants of the name are recorded as Monte Rey and Montery. In 1769, the first European land exploration of Alta California, for some reason, the explorers failed to recognize the place when they came to it on October 1,1769. The party continued north as far as San Francisco Bay before turning back, on the return journey, they camped near one of Montereys lagoons on November 27, still not convinced they had found the place Vizcaino had described. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí noted in his diary, We halted in sight of the Point of Pines and camped near a lagoon which has rather muddy water. Portolá returned by land to Monterey the next year, having concluded that he must have been at Vizcainos Port of Monterey after all, the land party was met at Monterey by Junípero Serra who traveled by sea. Portolá erected the Presidio of Monterey to defend the port and, on June 3,1770, Portolá returned to Mexico, replaced in Monterey by Captain Pedro Fages, who had been third in command on the exploratory expeditions. Fages became the governor of Alta California, serving from 1770 to 1774. Serras missionary aims soon came into conflict with Fages and the soldiers, the existing wood and adobe building became the chapel for the Presidio
Monterey, California
–
Fisherman's Wharf and downtown rooftops, seen from
Monterey Bay
Monterey, California
–
Construction on the
Custom House began in 1814 under Spanish rule. This photo dates from 1936.
Monterey, California
–
Birds along a rock sea wall near the Coast Guard Station, which borders the
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary
Monterey, California
–
Monterey Wharf and Harbor area
8.
Manuel Micheltorena
–
José Manuel Micheltorena was a brigadier general of the Mexican Army, adjutant-general of the same, governor, commandant-general and inspector of the department of Alta California, then within Mexico. Micheltorena was the last non-Californian Mexican governor before Californian native son Pío Pico took office, Micheltorena received this appointment by the President of Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna and served from 30 December 1842, until his ouster in 1845. Micheltorena was instrumental in the privatisation of California land by rancho land grants, with his loyalties firmly seated in Mexico City, he faced criticism, opposition, and eventually war from the Californios in Alta California. Micheltorena lost to Juan Bautista Alvarado and the Californios in the 1845 Battle of Providencia, a History Of The New California - Its Resources And People. New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
Manuel Micheltorena
–
Manuel Micheltorena
9.
John Hames
–
Soquel /soʊˈkɛl/ is a census-designated place in Santa Cruz County, California, United States approximately 75 miles south of San Francisco, and forms part of the north coast of Monterey Bay. The population was 9,644 at the 2010 census, Soquel is located at 36°59′13″N 121°56′44″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 4.6 square miles. The 2010 United States Census reported that Soquel had a population of 9,644, the population density was 2,097.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Soquel was 7,898 White,85 African American,71 Native American,356 Asian,21 Pacific Islander,693 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,606 persons. The Census reported that 9,595 people lived in households,49 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 266 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 39 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,128 households were made up of individuals and 411 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.45. There were 2,399 families, the family size was 3.00. The median age was 43.2 years, for every 100 females there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males, there were 4,107 housing units at an average density of 893.2 per square mile, of which 2,750 were owner-occupied, and 1,162 were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1. 4%, the vacancy rate was 2. 4%. 6,654 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 2,941 people lived in housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,081 people,2,043 households, the population density was 4,710.3 people per square mile. There were 2,103 housing units at a density of 1,949.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 82. 94% White,1. 57% African American,0. 63% Native American,4. 00% Asian,0. 18% Pacific Islander,6. 18% from other races, and 4. 51% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13. 99% of the population,27. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 3.02. In the CDP, the population was out with 24. 6% under the age of 18,8. 5% from 18 to 24,32. 3% from 25 to 44,24. 6% from 45 to 64
John Hames
–
Soquel as seen from a hilltop in
Anna Jean Cummings Park
John Hames
–
A residential neighborhood in Soquel
John Hames
–
Downtown Soquel
John Hames
–
Counties
10.
The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park
–
The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park is a state park of California, USA, protecting a tract of secondary forest in the Santa Cruz Mountains. It is located outside Aptos, California and contains over 40 miles of hiking trails, the park was named for Nisene Marks, a passionate nature lover and the mother of a Salinas farming family that purchased the land from lumber companies in the hopes of finding oil. After drilling efforts failed to any oil, Marks children donated the original 9,700 acres of land in her memory to the state of California in 1963. The California State Parks department, with help from the Save the Redwoods League. The park is on land that was clearcut during a period of logging by the Loma Prieta Lumber Company. Visitors can still find evidence of logging operations, mill sites and trestles in the park, the park offers rugged semi-wilderness, rising from sea level to steep coastal mountains of more than 2,600 feet. Today the park is a spot for running, hiking. Mountain biking is restricted to the road as of 2004 because of deed restrictions regarding the state park. Picnic tables and barbecue pits are available, a trail camp is located 6 miles from the nearest parking lot. Dogs are allowed only along the road and in the picnic areas. The epicenter of the Loma Prieta earthquake on October 17,1989 was in park at coordinates 37. 03° N121. 88° W. The quakes epicenter and Five Finger Falls are the two most popular attractions in the park, in early 2007, there was landslide on Aptos Creek Trail which leads to Five Finger Falls and the trail was closed. As of 2013, the trail has been cleared, and with the addition of a new bridge, is more accessible via the Aptos Creek Trail. Before the trail restoration, the waterfall was only reachable by a longer route, wholly 4/5ths of the park is covered in dense redwood forest. Chaparral is found on a few of the hotter, steeper ridges, douglas-Firs grow among redwoods in a number of areas, they are not a major component of forest south of the park. Other trees species include, Alders, Maples, and Cottonwoods near creeks, Tanoaks in the understory of redwoods, and Pacific Madrone, California Bay, and several Oak species. List of California state parks The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park state site The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park Friends of Santa Cruz State Parks site
The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park
–
Redwood trees in the Forest of Nisene Marks
The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park
–
Peaks
11.
California Gold Rush
–
The California Gold Rush began on January 24,1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States, the Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide, with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory to the state of the first nominee for the Republican Party. The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial, whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold-seekers, called forty-niners. The first to hear confirmed information of the rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands, and Latin America. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California, in 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by vote, and the future states interim first governor. In September,1850, California became a state, at the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of staking claims was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service, by 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, Gold worth tens of billions of todays dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few. However, many returned home with more than they had started with. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3,1848, although California was firmly in American hands before that, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutters Mill, near Coloma, on January 24,1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two tested the metal. However, rumors started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher
California Gold Rush
–
Sailing to California at the beginning of the Gold Rush
California Gold Rush
–
Merchant ships fill
San Francisco harbor, 1850–51
California Gold Rush
–
Panning for gold on the
Mokelumne River
California Gold Rush
–
"Independent Gold Hunter on His Way to California", circa 1850. The gold hunter is loaded down with every conceivable appliance, much of which would be useless in California. The prospector says: "I am sorry I did not follow the advice of Granny and go around the Horn, through the Straights, or by Chagres [Panama]."
12.
Thomas Fallon
–
Thomas Fallon was an Irish-born, Canadian-raised American capitalist and politician, the tenth Mayor of San Jose, California. Fallons family moved to Canada when he was a child, when he was 18, he moved to Texas, where he joined the third expedition of John C. Early in 1846, Fallon stayed in Santa Cruz after Frémont visited the area, in June 1846 he joined the Bear Flag Revolt, raised a group of 22 volunteers in Santa Cruz, and appointed himself captain. The force crossed the Santa Cruz Mountains to capture the Pueblo of San José without bloodshed, on July 14,1846 he received an American Flag from Commodore John D. Sloat, which he raised over the juzgado of San Jose, the pueblos administrative building. Fallons force then joined Fremonts California Battalion for the remainder of the Mexican-American War, after the war, Fallon returned briefly to San Jose, then back to Santa Cruz where he established a business as a saddler. At the beginning of the California Gold Rush in 1848, Fallon took a cargo of iron made in Santa Cruz to sell to the gold miners. With his share of the profits, he built a combination residence/workshop/hotel on the Mission plaza in Santa Cruz, in 1849, he married Carmel Castro Lodge, daughter of local landowner Martina Cota Castro and her husband Michael Lodge, owners of Rancho Soquel. After a short time, Thomas and Carmel moved their family to Texas, following the death of several of their children, they returned to San Jose. In San Jose, Fallon began buying land in the area, the house is preserved as a museum, across from the Peralta Adobe. In 1856, Fallon was elected to the San Jose Common Council, in 1857, he was elected to the citys Board of Trustees for one year. He was elected Mayor of San Jose in 1859, and served a single one-year term, according to one account, in 1876 Carmel found Thomas and the family maid in a compromising position, and filed for divorce. Thomas Fallon died in San Francisco in 1885, in the 1980s, San Jose Mayor Tom McEnery had the city commission a statue of Fallon raising the U. S. flag in San Jose at a cost of over $800,000. The statue was completed in 1988, and was scheduled to be located in the City Park Plaza near the site of the flag raising, however local groups, including Hispanic Americans, protested that Fallon represented American imperialism and repression of the Mexican population. The statue was stored until 2002, when it was displayed in Pellier Park northwest of the original proposed location, near Julian. Peralta Adobe and Fallon House Historic Site in San Jose Carmel Fallon Building in San Francisco
Thomas Fallon
–
Thomas Fallon House (1855) in San Jose, California
13.
Mexican Cession
–
The Mexican Cession was the third largest acquisition of territory in US history. The northern boundary of the 42nd parallel north was set by the Adams–Onís Treaty signed by the U. S. and Spain in 1821 and ratified by Mexico in 1831. The eastern boundary of the Mexican Cession was the Texas claim at the Rio Grande and extending north from the headwaters of the Jojo Rivera, not corresponding to Mexican territorial boundaries. The southern boundary was set by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and it was uncertain whether any treaty could be reached. Although Mexico did not overtly cede any land under the treaty, the United States also paid $15,000,000 for the land, and agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts to US citizens. While technically the territory was purchased by the United States, the $15 million payment was simply credited against Mexicos debt to the U. S. at that time. The Mexican Cession as ordinarily understood amounted to 525,000 square miles, if the disputed western Texas claims are also included, that amounts to a total of 750,000 square miles. If all of Texas had been seized, since Mexico had not previously acknowledged the loss of any part of Texas, eventually the Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade. Passed by the United States House of Representatives in August 1846 and February 1847, later an effort to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also failed. Failed amendments to the Wilmot Proviso by William W, the line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850. Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the eventual Democratic Party position, none of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories. Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850, Texass western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west, Texas dropped its claim to the disputed northwestern areas in return for debt relief, and the areas were divided between the two new territories and unorganized territory. El Paso where Texas had successfully established county government was left in Texas, no southern territory dominated by Southerners was created. Also, the trade was abolished in Washington, D. C. It quickly became apparent that the Mexican Cession did not include a route for a transcontinental railroad connecting to a southern port. The topography of the New Mexico Territory included mountains that naturally directed any railroad extending from the southern Pacific coast northward, to Kansas City, St. Louis, or Chicago. Southerners, anxious for the business such a railroad would bring, agitated for the acquisition of land at the expense of Mexico. A Continent Divided, The U. S. -Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Mexican Cession
Mexican Cession
–
Area Mexico ceded to the United States in 1848, minus
Texan claims. The Mexican Cession consist of present day
U.S. states of
California,
Nevada,
Utah, most of
Arizona, about half of
New Mexico, about a quarter of
Colorado, and a small section of
Wyoming.
14.
Mexican-American War
–
It followed in the wake of the 1845 U. S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory in spite of its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution. After its independence in 1821 and brief experiment with monarchy, Mexico became a republic in 1824 and it was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill-prepared for conflict when war broke out in 1846. In 1845, Texas agreed to an offer of annexation by the U. S. Congress, and became the 28th state on December 29 that year. In 1845, James K. Polk, the newly-elected U. S. president, when that offer was rejected, American forces commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor were moved into the disputed territory. They were then attacked by Mexican forces, who killed 12 U. S. soldiers and these same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. This led to the war and the loss of much of Mexicos northern territory. The U. S. army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, captured the capital, Mexico City, marching from the port of Veracruz. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and specified its major consequence, the U. S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt owed by the Mexican government to U. S. citizens, Mexico acknowledged the loss of Texas and thereafter cited the Rio Grande as its national border with the United States. The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of US President James K. Polk, at first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Critics in the United States pointed to the casualties suffered by U. S. forces. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, in Mexico, the war came in the middle of political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. Border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government, for the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City, after independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios, there were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche–Mexico Wars, the Apache–Mexico Wars also made Mexicos north a violent place, with no effective political control. The Apache raids left thousands of people dead through out northern Mexico, when the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population, hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult
Mexican-American War
–
Clockwise from top left U.S. soldiers engaging the retreating Mexican force during the
Battle of Resaca de la Palma, American victory
at Churubusco outside Mexico City, U.S. marines
storming Chapultepec castle under a large American flag,
Winfield Scott entering
Plaza de la Constitución after the
Fall of Mexico City.
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
15.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U. S. to pay $15 million to Mexico, Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexicos new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. Over 90% chose to become U. S. citizens, the U. S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico. Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U. S. –Mexico border. Comparing the boundary in the Adams–Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims, articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were not honored by the U. S. in accordance with modifications to. The U. S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens, the residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship, Over 90% chose American citizenship, which included full voting rights. The others returned to Mexico, or in cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens. Article XII engaged the United States to pay, In consideration of the acquired,15 million dollars. Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. S, would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war and this article promised relief to them Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U. S. presence near the Mexican border, Mexico filed 366 claims with the U. S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, the remainder of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million, however, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
Cover of the exchange copy of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
"Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Méjico. The Distrunell map used during the negotiations.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847.
Alta California shown including Nevada, Utah, Arizona.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
–
A section of the original treaty.
16.
Land patent
–
A land patent is an exclusive land grant made by a sovereign entity with respect to a particular tract of land. To make such a grant “patent”, a sovereign must document the land grant, securely sign and seal the document, an official land patent is the highest evidence of right, title, and interest to a defined area. It is usually granted by a central, federal, or state government to an individual or to a private company, besides patent, other terms for the certificate that grants such rights include first-title deed and final certificate. A land patent is known in law as letters patent, and usually issues to the grantee and to their heirs. Land in the United States of America was acquired by purchase, war, or treaty from the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Mexico, Russia, the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Native American peoples. As Great Britain began to colonize colonial America, the Crown made large grants of territory to individuals, in turn, those companies and colonial governors later made smaller grants of land based on actual surveys of the land. Thus, in colonial America on the Atlantic seaboard, a connection was made between the surveying of a tract and its patenting as private property. Many original colonies land patents came from the country of control. Most such patents were permanently granted and those patents are still in force, the United States government honors those patents by treaty law, and, as with all such land patents, they cannot be changed. After the American Revolution and the ratification of the Constitution of the United States, in 1812, the General Land Office was created to assume that duty. Some of the land so granted had survey or other associated with it. Whatever the method, the General Land Office followed a two-step procedure in granting a patent, first, the private claimant went to the land office in the land district where the public land was located. The claimant filled out entry papers to select the land. The receiver took the payment, because even homesteaders had to pay administrative fees. Next, the land office register and receiver sent the paperwork to the General Land Office in Washington. That office double-checked the accuracy of the claim, its availability, finally, the General Land Office issued a land patent for the claimed public land and sent it on to the President for his signature. The first United States land patent was issued on March 4,1788 and that patent reserves to the United States one third of all gold, silver, lead and copper within the claimed land. Usage restrictions placed on the land are spelled out in the patent, such private property rights can also be thereafter negotiated in accord with the terms of private contracts
Land patent
–
A land patent for a 39.44-acre (15.96 ha) land parcel in present-day
Monroe County, Ohio and within the
Seven Ranges land tract. The parcel was sold by the Marietta Land Office in
Marietta, Ohio in 1834.
17.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
18.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
19.
History of California
–
California was settled from the North by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years. It was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America, after contact with Spanish explorers, most of the Native Americans died out from European diseases. After the Portolà expedition of 1769–70, Spanish missionaries began setting up 21 California Missions on or near the coast of Alta California, during the same period, Spanish military forces built several forts and three small towns. Two of the pueblos would eventually grow into the cities of Los Angeles, after Mexican Independence was won in 1821, California fell under the jurisdiction of the First Mexican Empire. Fearing the influence of the Roman Catholic church over their newly independent nation and they left behind a small Californio population of several thousand families, with a few small military garrisons. After the Mexican–American War of 1846-48, Mexico was forced to relinquish any claim to California to the United States, the unexpected discovery of gold in 1849 produced a spectacular gold rush in Northern California, attracting hundreds of thousand of ambitious young men from around the world. Only a few struck it rich, and many returned home disappointed, most appreciated the other economic opportunities in California, especially in agriculture, and brought their families to join them. California became the 31st US state in 1850 and played a role in the American Civil War. Chinese immigrants increasingly came under attack from nativists, they were forced out of industry and agriculture, as gold petered out, California increasingly became a highly productive agricultural society. The coming of the railroads in 1869 linked its rich economy with the rest of the nation, in the late 19th century, Southern California, especially Los Angeles, started to grow rapidly. Different tribes of Native Americans lived in the area that is now California for an estimated 13,000 to 15,000 years, over 100 tribes and bands inhabited the area. Various estimates of the Native American population in California during the period range from 100,000 to 300,000. Californias population held about one-third of all Native Americans in what is now the United States and this popular Spanish fantasy was printed in several editions with the earliest surviving edition published about 1510. In exploring Baja California the earliest explorers thought the Baja California peninsula was an island, mapmakers started using the name California to label the unexplored territory on the North American west coast. European explorers flying the flags of Spain and of England explored the Pacific Coast of California beginning in the mid-16th century, the first European to explore the California coast was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, working for Spain. He died in California, and his expedition found no wealth, no advanced Indian civilization, no apparent agriculture, California was of little further interest. They depicted the Indians as living at a subsistence level. They had no apparent agriculture, no domesticated animals except dogs, no pottery, and their only tools were made out of wood, leather, woven baskets and netting, stones and horns
History of California
–
A 1562 map of the Americas, which applied the name California for the first time.
History of California
–
The journey of
Francis Drake up the Pacific Coast in 1579.
History of California
–
The
Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó,
Loreto, Baja California Sur, was founded in 1697.
20.
History of California before 1900
–
Human history in California begins with indigenous Americans first arriving in California some 13, 000–15,000 years ago. Exploration and settlement by Europeans along the coasts and in the valleys began in the 16th century. California was acquired by the United States under the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the defeat of Mexico in the Mexican–American War, American westward expansion intensified with the California Gold Rush, beginning in 1849. California joined the Union as a state in 1850, due to the Compromise of 1850. By the end of the 19th century, California was still rural and agricultural. The most commonly accepted model of migration to the New World is that peoples from Asia crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas some 16,500 years ago. The remains of Arlington Springs Man on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of an early habitation. In all, some 30 tribes or culture groups lived in what is now California and these groups included the early-arriving Hokan family and the recently arrived Uto-Aztecan of the desert southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America, and was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10, 000–15,000 years. At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes included the Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tataviam, Tongva, Wintu, tribes adapted to Californias many climates. Coastal tribes were a source of trading beads, produced from mussel shells using stone tools. Tribes in Californias broad Central Valley and the surrounding foothills developed an early agriculture, burning the grasslands to encourage growth of wild plants. The acorns from these trees were pounded into a powder, tribes living in the mountains of the north and east relied heavily on salmon and game hunting, and used Californias volcanic legacy by collecting and shaping obsidian for themselves and for trade. The deserts of the southeast were home to tribes who learned to thrive in harsh environment by making careful use of local plants and living in oases. The indigenous people practiced various forms of forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, by burning underbrush and grass, the Native Americans revitalized patches of land whose regrowth provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle. The relative strength of the tribes was dynamic, as the more successful expanded their territories, slave-trading and war among tribes alternated with periods of relative peace. The total population of Native California is estimated, by the time of extensive European contact in the 18th century, before Europeans landed in North America, about one-third of all natives in what is now the United States were living in the area that is now California
History of California before 1900
–
California's
Yosemite Valley
History of California before 1900
–
California was misrepresented in early maps as an
island. This example c. 1650. Restored.
History of California before 1900
–
A portrait of
Junípero Serra
21.
Indigenous peoples of California
–
With over forty groups seeking to be federally recognized tribes, California has the second largest Native American population. The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of Californias boundaries, many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes, and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes. Tribes in Baja California who do not cross into California are classified as Indigenous peoples of Mexico, before European contact, native Californians spoke over 300 dialects of approximately 100 distinct languages. The majority of California Indian language belong either to highly localized language families with two or three members or are language isolates, of the remainder, most are Uto-Aztecan or Athapaskan languages. The Hokan superstock has the greatest time depth and has been most difficult to demonstrate, wiyot and Yurok are distantly related to Algonquian languages in a larger grouping called Algic. The several Athapaskan languages are relatively recent arrivals, no more recent than about 2000 years ago, evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago. Prior to European contact, California Indians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, the size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of the United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico. Because of the climate and easy access to food sources. Early Native Californians were hunter-gatherers, with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE, due to the local abundance of food, tribes never developed agriculture or tilled the soil. Two early southern California cultural traditions include the La Jolla Complex, from 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE, the indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They controlled fire on a scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology. By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land, a form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle, a primitive permaculture. Different tribes encountered non-native European explorers and settlers at widely different times, the southern and central coastal tribes encountered Spanish and British explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the Quechan or Yuman Indians in present-day southeast California, tribes on the coast of northwest California, like the Miwok, Yurok, and Yokut, had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century. In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century, the Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of Mission San Diego de Alcalá in San Diego. The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California and their introduction of European invasive plant species and non-native diseases resulted in unintended havoc and high fatalities for the Native populations
Indigenous peoples of California
–
A map of California tribal groups and languages at the time of European contact.
22.
California Trail
–
The California Trail was an emigrant trail of about 3,000 miles across the western half of the North American continent from Missouri River towns to what is now the state of California. In the present states of Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah, by 1847, two former fur trading frontier forts marked trailheads for major alternative routes through Utah and Wyoming to Northern California. The first was Jim Bridgers Fort Bridger in present-day Wyoming on the Green River, from Salt Lake the Salt Lake Cutoff went north and west of the Great Salt Lake and rejoined the California Trail in the City of Rocks in present-day Idaho. From Fort Hall the Oregon and California trails went about 50 miles southwest along the Snake River Valley to another parting of the trail junction at the junction of the Raft. The California Trail from the junction followed the Raft River to the City of Rocks in Idaho near the present Nevada-Idaho-Utah tripoint, the Salt Lake and Fort Hall routes were about the same length, about 190 miles. From the City of Rocks the trail went into the present state of Utah following the South Fork of the Junction Creek. By following the crooked, meandering Humboldt River Valley west across the arid Great Basin, emigrants were able to get the water, grass, the water turned increasingly alkaline as they progressed down the Humboldt, and there were almost no trees. Firewood usually consisted of broken brush, and the grass was sparse, few travelers liked the Humboldt River Valley passage. Humboldt is not good for man nor beast, an alternative route across the present states of Utah and Nevada that bypassed both Fort Hall and the Humboldt River trails was developed in 1859. In addition to immigrants and migrants from the East, after 1859 the Pony Express, Overland stages, the main routes initially were the Truckee Trail to the Sacramento Valley and after about 1849 the Carson Trail route to the American River and the Placerville, California gold digging region. Starting about 1859 the Johnson Cutoff and the Henness Pass Route across the Sierras were greatly improved and developed and these main roads across the Sierras were both toll roads so there were funds to pay for maintenance and upkeep on the roads. The Johnson Cutoff, from Placerville to Carson City along todays U. S. Route 50 in California, was used by the Pony Express year-round and in the summer by the stage lines. It was the overland route from the East to California that could be kept partially open for at least horse traffic in the winter. After about 1848 the most popular route was the Carson Route which, while rugged, was easier than most others. The trail was used in the summers until the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 by the Union Pacific. Trail traffic rapidly fell off as the trip was much quicker and easier by train—about seven days. The economy class fare across the western United States of about $69 was affordable by most California-bound travelers, the trail was used by about 2,700 settlers from 1846 up to 1849. These settlers were instrumental in helping convert California to a U. S. possession, fremonts California Battalion assisted the Pacific Squadrons sailors and marines in 1846 and 1847 in conquering California in the Mexican–American War
California Trail
–
California Trail Auto Tour Route Marker
California Trail
–
A night snowshoe hike on the California Trail near
Elko, Nevada.
California Trail
–
South Pass sign
California Trail
–
Chimney Rock, Nebraska
23.
California Republic
–
In June 1846, a number of American immigrants in Alta California rebelled against the Mexican departments government. The immigrants had not been allowed to buy or rent land and had threatened with expulsion from California because they had entered without official permission. Mexican officials were concerned about a war with the United States coupled with the growing influx of Americans into California. The rebellion was soon overtaken by the beginning of the Mexican–American War, the name California Republic appeared only on the flag the insurgents raised in Sonoma. It indicated their aspiration of forming a government for California. The insurgents elected military officers but no structure was ever established. The flag featured an image of a California grizzly bear and became known as the Bear Flag and the revolt as the Bear Flag Revolt. Three weeks later, on July 5,1846, the Republics military of 100 to 200 men was subsumed into the California Battalion commanded by U. S. Army Brevet Captain John C. By 1845–46, Alta California had been neglected by Mexico for the twenty-five years since Mexican independence. The 1845 removal of Manuel Micheltorena, the latest governor to be sent by Mexico and forcefully ejected by the Californians, resulted in a divided government. The region south of San Luis Obispo was ruled by Governor Pio Pico with his capital in The Town of Our Lady the Queen of Angels of the Porciúncula River, Pico and Castro disliked each other personally and soon began escalating disputes over control of the Customhouse income. Decrees issued by the government in Mexico City were often acknowledged and supported with proclamations. By the end of 1845, when rumors of a force being sent from Mexico proved to be false. The relationship between the United States and Mexico had been deteriorating for some time, texas, which Mexico still considered to be its territory, had been admitted to statehood in 1845. Mexico had earlier threatened war if this happened, james K. Polk was elected President of the United States in 1844, and considered his election a mandate for his expansionist policies. Mexican law had long allowed grants of land to naturalized Mexican citizens, obtaining Mexican citizenship was not difficult and many earlier American immigrants had gone through the process and obtained free grants of land. The orders also required Californias officials not to land grants. All non-citizen immigrants, who had arrived without permission, were threatened with being forced out of California, Alta Californias Sub-Prefect Francisco Guerrero had written to U. S
California Republic
–
Pío Pico
California Republic
–
The Bear Flag
California Republic
–
US President James K Polk
California Republic
–
José Castro
24.
California in the American Civil War
–
The State of California did not send its units east, but many citizens traveled east and joined the Union Army there, some of whom became famous. Californias Volunteers also conducted operations against the native peoples within the state and in the other Western territories of the Departments of the Pacific. Following the Gold Rush, California was settled primarily by Midwestern and Southern farmers, miners, Democrats dominated the state from its foundation. In the beginning of 1861, as the crisis began, the secessionists in San Francisco made an attempt to separate the state and Oregon from the union. Patriotic fervor swept California after the attack on Fort Sumter, providing the manpower for Volunteer Regiments recruited mainly from the counties in the north of the State. When the Democratic party split over the war, Republican supporters of Lincoln took control of the state in the September elections, Volunteer Regiments were sent to occupy pro-secessionist Southern California and Tulare County, leaving them generally powerless during the war itself. However some Southerners traveled east to join the Confederate Army, evading Union patrols, others remaining in the state attempted to outfit a privateer to prey on coastal shipping, and late in the war two groups of partisan rangers were formed but none was successful. When California was admitted as a state under the Compromise of 1850, as a result, Southerners in Congress voted against admission in 1850 while Northerners pushed it through, pointing to its population of 93,000 and its vast wealth in gold. Northern California, which was dominated by mining, shipping, and commercial elites of San Francisco, in the 1856 presidential election, California gave its electoral votes to the winner, James Buchanan. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, weller, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado and sent to Washington, D. C. with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However the secession crisis following the election of Lincoln in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote. In 1860 California gave a plurality of 38,733 votes to Abraham Lincoln, whose 32% of the total vote was enough to win all its electoral votes. During the secession crisis following Lincolns election, Federal troops were under the command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, in Benicia, General Johnston strongly believed in the Southern right to secede but regretted that it was occurring. A group of Southern sympathizers in the state plans to secede with Oregon to form a Pacific Republic. The success of their plans rested on the cooperation of General Johnston and he told them to tell this to their Southern friends. Deprived of his aid the plans for California and Oregon to secede from the United States never came to fruition, meanwhile, Union men feared Johnston would aid such a plot and communicated their fears to Washington asking for his replacement. Brig. Gen. Edwin Vose Sumner was soon sent west via Panama to replace Johnston in March 1861, Johnston resigned his commission on April 9, and after Sumner arrived on April 25 turned over his command and moved with his family to Los Angeles. He would soon travel with other Southerners across New Mexico Territory to Texas and he died at the Battle of Shiloh
California in the American Civil War
–
Union states in the
American Civil War
California in the American Civil War
–
Company Guidon, Company A ('California' 100), raised in Massachusetts
25.
California Water Wars
–
The California Water Wars were a series of conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California. As Los Angeles grew in the late 19th century, it started to outgrow its water supply, fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, realized that water could flow from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aqueduct. The aqueduct construction was overseen by William Mulholland and was finished in 1913, the water rights were acquired through political fighting and, as described by one author, chicanery, subterfuge. and a strategy of lies. Since 1913, the Owens River had been diverted to Los Angeles, by the 1920s, so much water was diverted from the Owens Valley that agriculture became difficult. This led to the farmers trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924, Los Angeles prevailed and kept the water flowing. By 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was completely dry due to water diversion, the water needs of Los Angeles kept growing. In 1941, Los Angeles diverted water that previously fed Mono Lake, north of Owens Valley, Mono Lakes ecosystem for migrating birds was threatened by dropping water levels. Between 1979 and 1994, David Gaines and the Mono Lake Committee engaged in litigation with Los Angeles, the litigation forced Los Angeles to stop diverting water from around Mono Lake, which has started to rise back to a level that can support its ecosystem. The Paiute natives were the inhabitants living in the valley. In 1833, Joseph Reddeford Walker led the first known expedition into the central California area that would later be called the Owens Valley. Walker saw that the soil conditions were inferior to those on the other side of the Sierra Nevada range. Von Schmidt reported that the soil was not good for agriculture except for the land near streams. In 1861, Samuel Bishop and other ranchers started to raise cattle on the luxuriant grasses that grew in the Owens Valley. They came into conflict with the Paiutes over land and water use, many settlers came to the area for the promise of riches from mining. The availability of water from the Owens River made farming and raising livestock attractive, the Homestead Act of 1862 gave pioneers five years to claim and take title of their land for a small filing fee and a charge of $1.25 per acre. The Homestead Act limited the land an individual could own to 160 acres in order to create small farms. The amount of land settled by the late 1870s and early 1880s was still relatively small. ”By 1866, rapid acquisition of land had begun. The large number of made by land speculators hindered the region’s development because speculators would not participate in developing canals
California Water Wars
–
The
Los Angeles Aqueduct in the Owens Valley
California Water Wars
–
Joseph Reddeford Walker explored the Owens Valley
California Water Wars
–
Frederick Eaton
California Water Wars
–
William Mulholland with a surveyor's scope, ca.1908-1913
26.
Maritime history of California
–
In the northwest coast of California near the redwood forests several Indian tribes developed large dugout canoes they used for fishing, trade and warfare. These canoes were constructed by taking a tree and shaping it with hand tools. A redwood log 4 metres long and 240 centimetres diameter weighs about 2,000 kilograms and this large weight meant that the logs were selected that required a minimum of movement—usually driftwood or dead fall trees that had been blown over by the wind. Sometimes logs were cut to length and rolled into water where they could be floated to a work area. The logs were cut to length by fire and stone age hand tools. The basic procedure was to start a fire on the tree where it needed shaping. This would leave one or more centimeters of charred wood where the fire was built that would be easier to remove. By successively using small fires to char the areas that needed to be worked the logs could be shaped by the crude scrapers and rock, shellfish, a finished 4 metres long dugout canoe with a nominal 5 centimetres thickness still weighed over 100 kilograms. Most larger dugouts weighed too much to move easily and were usually just pulled up on a far enough to get them above high tide. Constructing these types of dugout canoes took considerable time and skill with stone age tools, dugout canoes typically lasted several years. Tule have a diameter, rounded green stems that grows to 1 to 3 metres tall. They grow well in marshes, wetlands or at the edges of bodies of water, the tule stem has a pithy interior filled with spongy tissue packed with air cells—this makes it float well on water as well as a good insulator. Native Americans used tule for making and thatching huts, baskets, mats, boats, decoys, hats, clothing, Tule was typically cut using deer scapula saws that had rough saw like edges cut into them. Tule has to be handled with care when green to avoid breaking the stem, to make a tule boat, green tule was cut and then spread out in the sun to dry for several days. Tule canoes were constructed of cut stalks of tule plants bundled together around a core for extra strength. The bundle of tules could be pre-bent as they were being bundled to form a raised prow, the length of each bundle depends on the size of the boat that were then typically about 10 feet to 15 feet. The bundle that formed the bottom of the canoe on which the boatman or boatmen sat, Tule canoes typically accommodated one to four people. Tule boats can be built from dried tule, by experienced canoe builders
Maritime history of California
–
Monterey Bay
Maritime history of California
–
Dugout canoe
Maritime history of California
–
Tule reeds growing wild near water
27.
Spanish missions in California
–
The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and this divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives, to convert, educate, today, the surviving mission buildings are the states oldest structures, and its most-visited historic monuments. Prior to 1754, grants of lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. The missions were to be interconnected by a route which later became known as the Camino Real. The detailed planning and direction of the missions was to be carried out by Friar Junípero Serra, work on the coastal mission chain was concluded in 1823, completed after Serras death in 1784. Plans to build a mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a mother mission, in addition to the presidio and pueblo, the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, to sustain a mission, the padres required converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials, although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of priestly whim. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes and it was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church, once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and it was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish states right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos, the civilized and disciplined culture of the natives, developed over 8,000 year, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, mostly Spaniards by birth, were ordained as priests, sixty-seven missionaries died at their posts, while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment
Spanish missions in California
–
A view of
Mission San Juan Capistrano in. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added espadaña; behind the campanario, or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins."
Spanish missions in California
Spanish missions in California
–
The Missionaries as They Came and Went. Franciscans of the California missions donned gray
habits, in contrast to the brown that is typically worn today.
Spanish missions in California
–
The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians."
28.
History of rail transportation in California
–
In recent years, passenger rail transportation has undergone something of a renaissance, with the introduction of services such as Metrolink, Coaster, Caltrain, Amtrak California, and others. On November 4,2008, the People of California passed Proposition 1a, the early Forty-Niners of the California Gold Rush wishing to come to California were faced with limited options. From the East Coast, for example, a voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months. Eventually, most gold-seekers took the route across the continental United States. Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards, from shipwreck to typhoid fever to cholera or Indian attack, the very first inter-oceanic railroad which affected California was built in 1855 across the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Railway. The Panama Railway reduced the time needed to cross the Isthmus from a week of difficult, the 1,600 mile trip from Omaha, Nebraska would now take mere days. The Wild West was quickly transformed from a lawless, agrarian frontier to what would become an urbanized, industrialized economic, of perhaps greater significance is the unbridled economic growth that was spurred on by the sheer diversity of opportunities available in the region. The four years following the Golden Spike ceremony saw the length of track in the U. S. double to over 70,000 miles, virtually the entire country was accessible by rail, making a national economy possible for the first time. As rail lines pushed further and further into the wilderness, they opened up huge areas which would have lain fallow. The railroads helped establish countless towns and settlements, paved the way to abundant mineral deposits and fertile tracts of pastures and farmland, and created new markets for eastern goods. It is estimated that by the end of World War II, rail companies nationwide remunerated to the government over $1 billion dollars, the railroads would, in time, provide equally important linkages to move the inhabitants throughout the state, interconnecting its blossoming communities. Transportation determines the flow of population, declared J. D. Spreckels, one of Californias early railroad entrepreneurs, just after the dawn of the twentieth century. Before you can hope to get people to live anywhere. you must first of all them that they can get there quickly, comfortably and, above all. Among Spreckels many accomplishments was the formation of the San Diego Electric Railway in 1892, which radiated out from downtown to north, south. Henry Huntington, the nephew of Central Pacific founder Collis P. Huntington, would develop his Pacific Electric Railway in Los Angeles, the Southern Pacific soon followed suit and the level of real estate speculation reached a new high, with boom towns springing up literally overnight. Free, daily railroad-sponsored excursions enticed overeager potential buyers to visit the many undeveloped properties firsthand, despite all of the shortcomings, in the end the State reaped innumerable and unprecedented benefits from its associations with the railroad companies, which helped put California on the map. Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of berries or grew on small bushes
History of rail transportation in California
–
The Golden Spike ceremony held at Promontory Summit, Utah on May 10, 1869. Photograph by
Andrew J. Russell.
History of rail transportation in California
–
J. D. Spreckels drives the "golden spike" to ceremonially complete the San Diego & Arizona Railway on November 15, 1919.
History of rail transportation in California
–
A
streetcar of the Pacific Electric Railway makes a stop at
Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, circa 1905.
29.
Etymology of California
–
California is a place name used by three North American states, in the United States by the state of California, and in Mexico by the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. Collectively, these three constitute the region formerly referred to as The Californias. The name California is shared by other places in other parts of the world whose names derive from the original. Several other origins have suggested for the word California, including Spanish, Latin, South Asian. After Mexicos independence from Spain, the territory became the Alta California province. In even earlier times, the boundaries of the Sea of Cortez, the Sea of Cortez is also known as the Gulf of California. This popular Spanish novel was printed in editions with the earliest surviving edition published about 1510. The Island was ruled by Queen Calafia, when the Spanish started exploring the Pacific coast they applied this name on their maps to what is now called the Baja California Peninsula, which they originally thought was an island. Once the name was on the maps it stuck, eran de bellos y robustos cuerpos, fogoso valor y gran fuerza. Su isla era la más fuerte de todo el mundo, con sus escarpados farallones y sus pétreas costas. Sus armas eran todas de oro y del mismo metal eran los arneses de las bestias salvajes que ellas acostumbraban domar para montarlas and they had beautiful and robust bodies, and were brave and very strong. Their island was the strongest of the World, with its cliffs and their weapons were golden and so were the harnesses of the wild beasts that they were accustomed to taming so that they could be ridden, because there was no other metal in the island than gold. –Las Sergas de Esplandián, by García Ordóñez de Montalvo, for many years, the de Montalvo novel languished in obscurity, with no connection known between it and the name of California. In 1864, a portion of the original was translated by Edward Everett Hale for The Antiquarian Society, Hale supposed that in inventing the names, de Montalvo held in his mind the Spanish word calif, the term for a leader of an Islamic community. Hales joint derivation of Calafia and California was accepted by many, then questioned by a few scholars who sought further proof, george Davidson wrote in 1910 that Hales theory was the best yet presented, but offered his own addition. In 1917, Ruth Putnam printed an account of the work performed up to that time. She wrote that both Calafia and California most likely came from the Arabic word khalifa which means steward or leader, the same word in Spanish was califa, easily made into California to stand for land of the caliph خلیف, or Calafia to stand for female caliph خلیفه. Putnam discussed Davidsons 1910 theory based on the Greek word kalli but discounted it as exceedingly unlikely, Putnam also wrote that The Song of Roland held a passing mention of a place called Califerne, perhaps named thus because it was the caliphs domain, a place of infidel rebellion
Etymology of California
–
This 1562 map
Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio by
Diego Gutiérrez was the first map to print the
toponym California.
Etymology of California
–
The
Island of California, from a map circa 1650 (restored)
