1.
Rationing
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Rationing is the controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services, or an artificial restriction of demand. Rationing controls the size of the ration, which is ones allowed portion of the resources being distributed on a day or at a particular time. Rationing is often done to keep price below the price determined by the process of supply. Thus, rationing can be complementary to price controls, an example of rationing in the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis. A reason for setting the lower than would clear the market may be that there is a shortage. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them, traditionalist economists argue, however, that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource while also providing incentive to produce more. Rationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing, for example, scarce products can be rationed using queues. This is seen, for example, at amusement parks, where one pays a price to get in, similarly, in the absence of road pricing, access to roads is rationed in a first come, first served queueing process, leading to congestion. Authorities which introduce rationing often have to deal with the goods being sold illegally on the black market. Rationing has been instituted during wartime for civilians, for example, each person may be given ration coupons allowing him or her to purchase a certain amount of a product each month. Rationing often includes food and other necessities for which there is a shortage, including materials needed for the war such as rubber tires, leather shoes, clothing. Rationing of food and water may become necessary during an emergency. In the U. S. the Federal Emergency Management Agency has established guidelines for civilians on rationing food, according to FEMA standards, every person should have a minimum of 1 US quart per day of water, and more for children, nursing mothers and the ill. Military sieges have often resulted in shortages of food and other essential consumables, in such circumstances, the rations allocated to an individual are often determined based on age, sex, race or social standing. During the Siege of Lucknow a woman received three quarters the food ration a man received and children received only half, during the Siege of Ladysmith in the early stages of the Boer War in 1900 white adults received the same food rations as soldiers while children received half that. Food rations for Indian people and black people were significantly smaller, the first modern rationing systems were brought in during the First World War. In Germany, suffering from the effects of the British blockade, although Britain did not suffer from food shortages, as the sea lanes were kept open for food imports, panic buying towards the end of the war prompted the rationing of first sugar and then meat. It is said to have in the most part benefited the health of the country, to assist with rationing, ration books were introduced on 15 July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat and sugar
2.
Battle of the Atlantic
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The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. At its core was the Allied naval blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of war and it was at its height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and these forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from September 13,1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on June 10,1940, as an island nation, the United Kingdom was highly dependent on imported goods. Britain required more than a million tons of imported material per week in order to be able to survive and fight. In essence, the Battle of the Atlantic was a war, the Allied struggle to supply Britain. From 1942 onwards, the Axis also sought to prevent the build-up of Allied supplies, the defeat of the U-boat threat was a pre-requisite for pushing back the Axis. The outcome of the battle was a victory for the Allies—the German blockade failed—but at great cost,3,500 merchant ships and 175 warships were sunk for the loss of 783 U-boats. The name Battle of the Atlantic was coined by Winston Churchill in February 1941 and it has been called the longest, largest, and most complex naval battle in history. The campaign started immediately after the European war began, during the so-called Phoney War and it involved thousands of ships in more than 100 convoy battles and perhaps 1,000 single-ship encounters, in a theatre covering millions of square miles of ocean. The Allies gradually gained the hand, overcoming German surface raiders by the end of 1942 and defeating the U-boats by mid-1943. The first meeting of the Cabinets Battle of the Atlantic Committee was on March 19, Churchill claimed to have coined the phrase Battle of the Atlantic shortly before Alexanders speech, but there are several examples of earlier usage. Following the use of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany in the First World War, countries tried to limit, even abolish, the effort failed. or active resistance to visit or search. This made restrictions on submarines effectively moot, in 1939, the Kriegsmarine lacked the strength to challenge the combined British Royal Navy and French Navy for command of the sea. Instead, German naval strategy relied on commerce raiding using capital ships, armed merchant cruisers, submarines and these ships immediately attacked British and French shipping. U-30 sank the ocean liner SS Athenia within hours of the declaration of war—in breach of her orders not to sink passenger ships, much of the early German anti-shipping activity involved minelaying by destroyers, aircraft and U-boats off British ports. With the outbreak of war, the British and French immediately began a blockade of Germany, the Royal Navy quickly introduced a convoy system for the protection of trade that gradually extended out from the British Isles, eventually reaching as far as Panama, Bombay and Singapore. Convoys allowed the Royal Navy to concentrate its escorts near the one place the U-boats were guaranteed to be found, each convoy consisted of between 30 and 70 mostly unarmed merchant ships
3.
Minister of Food
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The Minister of Food Control and the Minister of Food were British government ministerial posts separated from that of the Minister of Agriculture. In the Great War the Ministry sponsored a network of canteens known as National Kitchens, in the Second World War a major task of the Ministry was to oversee rationing in the United Kingdom arising out of World War II. The Minister was assisted by a Parliamentary Secretary, the ministrys work was transferred in 1921 to the Board of Trade which had a small Food Department between the wars. This became its Food Department in 1937 and was constituted as the Ministry of Food on the outbreak of war in 1939. Jamies Ministry of Food was a 2008 UK TV programme featuring celebrity chef Jamie Oliver that aimed to recreate the successes of the Ministry of Food in encouraging healthy eating. In April 1940 Lord Woolton, a prominent businessman, was appointed Minister of Food by Neville Chamberlain, Woolton retained this position until 1943. He supervised 50,000 employees and over a thousand local offices where people could obtain ration cards and his ministry had a virtual monopoly of all food sold in Britain, whether imported or local. His mission was to guarantee adequate nutrition for everyone, with food supplies cut sharply because of enemy action and the needs of the services, rationing was essential. Woolton and his advisors had one scheme in mind but economists convinced them to try point rationing, everyone would have a certain number of points a month that they could allocate any way they wanted. They tried an experiment and it worked very well, indeed, food rationing was a major success story in Britains war. He said iron rations were stored for use only in great emergency, other rations were stored in the outskirts of cities liable to German bombing. When the Blitz began in late summer 1940 he was ready with more than 200 feeding stations in London, Woolton was faced with the task of overseeing rationing due to wartime shortages. He took the view that it was insufficient to merely impose restrictions and he warned that meat and cheese, as well as bacon and eggs, were in very short supply and would remain that way. Calling for a diet, he noted that there was plenty of bread, potatoes, vegetable oils, fats. By January 1941 the usual food supply had fallen to half what it had been. However, by 1942 ample food supplies were arriving through Lend Lease from the U. S. Lend Lease was a gift and there was no charge. The bad news was that his national loaf of mushy grey wholemeal bread replaced the white variety. Children were sad to learn that supplies of sweets were reduced to save shipping space on sugar, Woolton kept food prices down, eggs and other items were subsidised
4.
Demography of the United Kingdom
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According to the 2011 census, the total population of the United Kingdom was around 63,182,000. It is the 22nd-largest in the world and its overall population density is 259 people per square kilometre, with England having a significantly higher population density than Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This population growth through natural change has been accompanied in the past two decades by growth through net international migration into the UK, the United Kingdoms assumed high literacy rate is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900. Parents are obliged to have their children educated from the ages of 5 to 16, about 40% of British students go on to post-secondary education. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland function as the churches in their respective countries. The UKs population is predominantly White British, historically, British people were thought to be descended mainly from the different ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century, pre-Celtic, Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Viking and Norman. Although Celtic languages are spoken in Scotland, Cornwall, and Northern Ireland. In North and West Wales, Welsh is widely spoken as a first language, but much less so in the South East of the country, during the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The proportion of the born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 per thousand in 1730–1749 to 31.8 per thousand in 1810–1829. According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, the first Census in 1801 revealed that the population of Great Britain was 10.5 million. In 1800, the population of Ireland was between 4.5 and 5.5 million, the 1841 UK Census counted the population of England and Wales to be 15.9 million. Irelands population was 8.2 million in 1841, the population of Scotland was 2.6 million. The Great Irish Famine, which began in the 1840s, caused the deaths of one million Irish people, mass emigration became entrenched as a result of the famine and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. The population of England had almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, ireland’s population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901. The estimated population of the United Kingdom in the 2011 census was 63.182 million of whom 31. 029m were male and 32. 153m female. Based on the 2011 census the population of England was 53. 012m, Scotland was estimated at 5. 295m, Wales was 3. 063m and Northern Ireland 1. 811m. The mid-2015 population estimates for the UK was 65. 1m – approximately 54. 8m for England,5. 4m for Scotland,3. 1m for Wales and 1. 9m for Northern Ireland. The UK Office for National Statistics 2012-based National Population Projections indicated that, if recent trends continue and this is an average annual growth rate of 0. 6% per annum
5.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
6.
Unrestricted submarine warfare
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Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink vessels such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules. Prize rules call for submarines to surface and search merchantmen and place crews in a place of safety before sinking them, or active resistance to visit or search. Following Germanys resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare on February 1,1917, during the First World War, instead, the London Naval Treaty required submarines to abide by prize rules. These regulations did not prohibit arming merchantmen or having them report contact with submarines and this rendered the restrictions on submarines effectively useless. There have been four major campaigns of unrestricted warfare, The U-boat campaign of World War I. One of The most brutal acts was on May 7,1915 when U-boat U-20 deliberately torpedoed the British Cunard Luxury Liner RMS Lusitania, Germanys acts eventually brought United States into the war in 1917 on the British side, together with the Zimmermann Telegram. It was also a casus belli for the entry of Brazil into the war in 1917, the Battle of the Atlantic during World War II. Between 1939 and 1945, it was waged between Germany and the Allies and from 1940 to 1943 between Italy and the Allies, the Baltic Sea Campaigns on the Eastern Front, during World War II between 1941 and 1945, especially from 1942. Waged by Germany and the USSR against each other, primarily in the Baltic Sea, the Pacific War during World War II, between 1941 and 1945, waged by the United States and the British Empire against Japan. The Law of Naval Warfare, A Collection of Agreements and Documents With Commentaries
7.
1926 United Kingdom general strike
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The 1926 general strike in the United Kingdom was a general strike that lasted 10 days, from 3 May 1926 to 13 May 1926. Some 1.7 million workers went out, especially in transport, the government was prepared and enlisted middle class volunteers to maintain essential services. There was little violence and the TUC gave up in defeat, in the long run, there was little impact on trade union activity or industrial relations. The First World War, The heavy domestic use of coal in the war meant that rich seams were depleted, Britain exported less coal in the war than it would have done in peacetime, allowing other countries to fill the gap. The United States, Poland and Germany and their strong coal industries benefited, coal production was at its lowest ebb. Output per man had fallen to just 199 tonnes in 1920–1924, from 247 tonnes in the four years before the war, total coal output had been falling since 1914. The fall in prices resulting from the 1924 Dawes Plan. It allowed Germany to re-enter the international market by exporting free coal to France and Italy. Mine owners wanted to maintain even during times of economic instability. Coupled with the prospect of working hours, the industry was thrown into disarray. Miners pay had lowered from £6.00 to £3.90 over seven years, mine owners announced that their intention was to reduce miners wages. The Miners Federation of Great Britain rejected the terms, Not a penny off the pay, the Trades Union Congress responded to the news by promising to support the miners in their dispute. It also recommended a reduction by 13. 5% of miners wages, two weeks later, the prime minister announced that the government would accept the report if other parties also did. The Miners Federation of Great Britain refused the wage reduction and regional negotiation, during the next two days, frantic efforts were made to reach an agreement with the government and the mining industry representatives. However, they failed, mainly because of a decision by printers of the Daily Mail to refuse to print an editorial condemning the general strike. They objected to the passage, A general strike is not an industrial dispute. It is a move which can only succeed by destroying the government and subverting the rights. Baldwin was now concerned about the TUC and printers action interfering with the freedom of the press, King George V tried to stabilise the situation and create balance saying, Try living on their wages before you judge them
8.
Breakfast cereal
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Breakfast cereal is a food product made from processed grains that is often eaten as the first meal of the day. It is eaten hot or cold, usually mixed with milk, yogurt, some companies promote their products for the health benefits from eating oat-based and high-fiber cereals. In America, cereals are often fortified with vitamins, a significant proportion of cold cereals are made with high sugar content. Many breakfast cereals are produced via extrusion, the breakfast cereal industry has gross profit margins of 40-45%, 90% penetration in some markets, and steady and continued growth throughout its history. The number of different types of breakfast cereals in the U. S. has grown from 160 to 340 to 4,945, Porridge was a traditional food in much of Northern Europe and Russia back to antiquity. Barley was a common grain used, though other grains and yellow peas could be used, in many modern cultures, porridge is still eaten as a breakfast dish. North American natives had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called grits, while this became a staple in the southern U. S. grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on meat consumption at breakfast. Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant, began the revolution in 1854 with a hand oats grinder in the back room of a small store in, Akron. His German Mills American Oatmeal Company was the nations first commercial oatmeal manufacturer and he marketed the product locally as a substitute for breakfast pork. Improved production technology, combined with an influx of German and Irish immigrants, quickly boosted sales, in 1877, Schumacher adopted the Quaker symbol, the first registered trademark for a breakfast cereal. The acceptance of food for human consumption encouraged other entrepreneurs to enter the industry. Henry Parsons Crowell started operations in 1882, and John Robert Stuart in 1885, Crowell cut costs by consolidating every step of the processing—grading, cleaning, hulling, cutting, rolling, packaging, and shipping—in one factory operating at Ravenna, Ohio. Stuart operated mills in Chicago and Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Stuart and Crowell combined in 1885 and initiated a price war. After a fire at his mill in Akron, Schumacher joined Stuart, the American Cereal Company created a cereal made from oats in 1877, manufacturing the product in Akron, Ohio. Separately, in 1888, a trust or holding company combined the nations seven largest mills into the American Cereal Company using the Quaker Oats brand name. By 1900 technology, entrepreneurship, and the Man in Quaker Garb—a symbol of honesty and reliability—gave Quaker Oats a national market. Early in the 20th century, the Quaker Oats Company jumped into the world market, Schumacher, the innovator, Stuart, the manager and financial leader and Crowell, the creative merchandiser, advertiser, and promoter, doubled sales every decade
9.
Black market
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Parties engaging in the production or distribution of prohibited goods and services are members of the illegal economy. Examples include the trade, prostitution, illegal currency transactions. Violations of the tax code involving income tax evasion constitutes membership in the unreported economy, because tax evasion or participation in a black market activity is illegal, participants will attempt to hide their behavior from the government or regulatory authority. Cash usage is the medium of exchange in illegal transactions since cash usage does not leave a footprint. Common motives for operating in markets are to trade contraband, avoid taxes and regulations. Typically the totality of such activity is referred to with the article as a complement to the official economies, by market for such goods and services. Black money is the proceeds of a transaction, on which income and other taxes have not been paid. Because of the nature of the black economy it is not possible to determine its size. There is no single underground economy, there are many and these underground economies are omnipresent, existing in market oriented as well as in centrally planned nations, be they developed or developing. Different types of activities are distinguished according to the particular institutional rules that they violate. Illegal economy participants engage in the production and distribution of prohibited goods and services, such as trafficking, arms trafficking. The unreported economy consists of economic activities that circumvent or evade the institutionally established fiscal rules as codified in the tax code. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of income that should be reported to the tax authority but is not so reported. A complementary measure of the economy is the tax gap. In the U. S. unreported income is estimated to be $2 trillion resulting in a tax gap of $450–$500 billion, the unrecorded economy consists of those economic activities that circumvent the institutional rules that define the reporting requirements of government statistical agencies. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of unrecorded income. Unrecorded income is a problem in transition countries that switched from a socialist accounting system to UN standard national accounting. New methods have been proposed for estimating the size of the unrecorded economy, but there is still little consensus concerning the size of the unreported economies of transition countries
10.
Victory garden
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They were used along with Rationing Stamps and Cards to reduce pressure on the public food supply. This made victory gardens a part of life on the home front. World War II Victory Gardens became popular in Canada in 1917, under the Ministry of Agricultures campaign, A Vegetable Garden for Every Home, residents of cities, towns and villages utilized backyard spaces to plant vegetables for personal use and war effort. In the city of Toronto, ladies organizations brought expert gardeners into the schools to get school children, in addition to gardening, home owners were encouraged to keep hens in their yards for the purpose of collecting eggs. The result was large production of potatoes, beets, cabbage, in March 1917, Charles Lathrop Pack organized the US National War Garden Commission and launched the war garden campaign. Food production had fallen dramatically during World War I, especially in Europe, the campaign promoted the cultivation of available private and public lands, resulting in over five million gardens in the USA and foodstuff production exceeding $1.2 billion by the end of the war. President Woodrow Wilson said that Food will win the war, to support the home garden effort, a United States School Garden Army was launched through the Bureau of Education, and funded by the War Department at Wilsons direction. Australia launched a Dig for Victory campaign in 1942 as rationing, the situation began to ease in 1943, however, home gardens continued throughout the war. In Britain, digging for victory used much land such as ground, railway edges, ornamental gardens and lawns, sports fields. Sometimes a sports field was left as it was but used for sheep-grazing instead of being mown, county Herb Committees were established to collect medicinal herbs when German blockades created shortages, for instance in Digitalis purpurea which was used to regulate heartbeat. Victory gardens were planted in backyards and on apartment-building rooftops, with the vacant lot commandeered for the war effort. And put to use as a cornfield or a squash patch, during World War II, sections of lawn were publicly plowed for plots in Hyde Park, London to promote the movement. Amid regular rationing of food in Britain, the United States Department of Agriculture encouraged the planting of victory gardens during the course of World War II, around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens. By May 1943, there were 18 million victory gardens in the United States -12 million in cities and 6 million on farms. Fruit and vegetables harvested in these home and community plots was estimated to be 9,000, 000–10,000,000 short tons in 1944, an amount equal to all commercial production of fresh vegetables. In New York City, the lawns around vacant Riverside were devoted to victory gardens, the slogan grow your own, can your own, was a slogan that started at the time of the war and referred to families growing and canning their own food in victory gardens. In 1946, with the war over, many British residents did not plant victory gardens, however, shortages remained in the United Kingdom, and rationing remained in place for at least some food items until 1954. Land at the centre of the Sutton Garden Suburb in Sutton, London was first put to use as a garden during World War II
11.
Motivation
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Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reason for actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as ones direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior, a motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, Motivation is a word that is part of the culture as few other psychological concepts are. Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases, Natural vs. Rational, content vs. Process, based on whether the focus is on the content motivates vs process motivation takes place. This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia, activated seeking behavior, such as locomotor activity is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and in micro dialysis reveals dopamine release during anticipation of a reward. The wanting behavior associated with a stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure, however outside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire, furthermore, depletion or inhibition of DA in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreases appetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule and that is, subjects were willing to go to greater lengths to obtain a reward. Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, the idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research has significantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality, the field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents. Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze ones capacity, to observe and it is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior, in these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is an element in cognitive, social. Students who are motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills. The employee has the motivation to gain more knowledge
12.
Game (hunting)
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Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world, in some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, as either small game or large game. Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food, the term game arises in medieval hunting terminology by the late 13th century and is particular to English, from the generic meaning of Old English gamen joy, amusement, sport, merriment. Small game includes animals, such as rabbits, pheasants. Large game includes animals like deer and bear, big game is a term sometimes used interchangeably with large game although in other contexts it refers to large, typically African, mammals which are hunted mainly for trophies in safaris. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world and this is influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted views about what can or cannot be legitimately hunted. Sometimes a distinction is made between varieties and species of a particular animal, such as wild turkey and domestic turkey. Fish caught for sport are referred to as game fish, the flesh of the animal, when butchered for consumption is often described as having a gamey flavour. This difference in taste can be attributed to the diet of the animal. In some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, a single small game licence may cover all small game species and be subject to yearly bag limits. Large game are often subject to individual licensing where a licence is required for each individual animal taken. In some parts of Africa, wild animals hunted for their meat are called bushmeat, see article for more detailed information on how this operates within the economy. In Africa, animals hunted for their pelts or ivory are sometimes referred to as the big game, also see the legal definition of game in Swaziland. South Africa has 62 species of gamebirds, including guineafowl, francolin, partridge, quail, sandgrouse, duck, geese, snipe, bustard, of the remaining 41 species,24 have shown an increase in numbers and distribution range in the last 25 years or so. The status of 14 species appears unchanged, with insufficient information being available for the three species. S. and Canada, deer are the most commonly hunted big game. Other game species include, In the PRC there is a special category called ye wei. In the UK game is defined in law by the Game Act 1831 and it is illegal to shoot game on Sundays or at night. Other that are hunted for food in the UK are specified under the Wildlife, the ban is generally considered voluntary on private lands, and few birds live away from RSPB or Forestry Commission land allegedly
13.
Rabbit
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Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. There are eight different genera in the classified as rabbits, including the European rabbit, cottontail rabbits. There are many species of rabbit, and these, along with pikas and hares. The male is called a buck and the female is a doe, Rabbit habitats include meadows, woods, forests, grasslands, deserts and wetlands. Rabbits live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit, lives in underground burrows, a group of burrows is called a warren. More than half the worlds rabbit population resides in North America and they are also native to southwestern Europe, Southeast Asia, Sumatra, some islands of Japan, and in parts of Africa and South America. They are not naturally found in most of Eurasia, where a number of species of hares are present, rabbits first entered South America relatively recently, as part of the Great American Interchange. Much of the continent has just one species of rabbit, the tapeti, the European rabbit has been introduced to many places around the world. Male rabbits are called bucks, females are called does, an older term for an adult rabbit is coney, while rabbit once referred only to the young animals. Another term for a rabbit is bunny, though this term is often applied informally to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the kit or kitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A young hare is called a leveret, this term is sometimes applied to a young rabbit as well. A group of rabbits is known as a colony, or nest, a group of young rabbits with the same parentage is referred to as a litter, and a group of domestic rabbits is sometimes called a herd. Because the rabbits epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents, with which they are often confused, the rabbits long ears, which can be more than 10 cm long, are probably an adaptation for detecting predators. They have large, powerful hind legs, the two front paws have 5 toes, the extra called the dewclaw. The hind feet have 4 toes and they are plantigrade animals while at rest, however, they move around on their toes while running, assuming a more digitigrade form. Unlike some other paw structures of quadruped mammals, especially those of domesticated pets and their nails are strong and are used for digging, along with their teeth, they are also used for defense
14.
Common wood pigeon
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The common wood pigeon is a large species in the dove and pigeon family. It belongs to the Columba genus and, like all pigeons and doves and it is locally known in southeast England as the culver, This name has given rise to several areas known for keeping pigeons to be named after it, such as Culver Down. The genus name Columba is the Latin word meaning pigeon, dove, whose etymology comes from the Ancient Greek κόλυμβος. Aristophanes and others use the word κολυμβίς, diver, for the name of the bird, the specific epithet palumbus is derived from the Latin palumbes, wood pigeon.5 cm and 300–615 g, and the white on its neck and wing. It is otherwise a basically grey bird, with a pinkish breast, the wingspan can range from 68 to 80 cm and the wing chord measures 24 to 25.4 cm. The tail measures 13.8 to 15 cm, the bill is 1.9 to 2.2 cm, adult birds bear a series of green and white patches on their necks, and a pink patch on their chest. Juvenile birds do not have the white patches on either side of the neck, when they are about six months old they gain small white patches on both sides of the neck, which gradually enlarge until they are fully formed when the bird is about 6–8 months old. Juvenile birds also have a beak and an overall lighter grey appearance than adult birds. Its flight is quick, performed by regular beats, with a sharp flick of the wings. It takes off with a loud clattering and it perches well, and in its nuptial display walks along a horizontal branch with swelled neck, lowered wings, and fanned tail. During the display flight the bird climbs, the wings are smartly cracked like a whiplash, the common wood pigeon is gregarious, often forming very large flocks outside the breeding season. It breeds in trees in woods, parks and gardens, laying two eggs in a simple stick nest which hatch after 17 to 19 days. Wood pigeons seem to have a preference for trees near roadways, males exhibit aggressive behaviour towards each other during the breeding season by jumping and flapping wings at each other. Their plumage becomes much darker, especially the head, during hot summer periods, the nests are vulnerable to attack, particularly by crows, because they live in the countryside, the more so early in the year when the leaf cover is not fully formed. The young usually fly at 33 to 34 days, however, if the nest is disturbed, in the autumn they also eat figs and acorns, and in winter buds of trees and bushes. They will also eat larvae, ants, and small worms and they need open water to drink and bathe in. This species can be an agricultural pest, and it is often shot and it is wary in rural areas, but often quite tame where it is not persecuted. Young common wood pigeons swiftly become fat, as a result of the milk they are fed by their parents
15.
Laboratory rat
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A laboratory rat is a rat of the species Rattus norvegicus which is bred and kept for scientific research. While less commonly used for research than mice, rats have served as an important animal model for research in psychology, laboratory rats share origins with their cousins in domestication, the fancy rats. In 18th century Europe, wild Brown rats ran rampant and this fueled the industry of rat-catching. Rat-catchers would not only make money by trapping the rodents, but also by selling them for food, or more commonly, rat-baiting was a popular sport which involved filling a pit with rats and timing how long it took for a terrier to kill them all. Over time, breeding the rats for these contests may have produced variations in color, notably the albino, the first time one of these albino mutants was brought into a laboratory for a study was in 1828, in an experiment on fasting. Over the next 30 years rats were used for several more experiments, the rat found early use in laboratory research in five areas, W. S. Small suggested that the rate of learning could be measured by rats in a maze, watson for his Ph. D. dissertation in 1903. The reproductive function of rats was studied at Institute for Experimental Biology at University of California, Berkeley by Herbert McLean Evans, the genetics of rats was studied by William Ernest Castle at the Bussey Institute of Harvard University until it closed in 1994. And rats have long used in cancer research, for instance at Crocker Institute for Cancer Research. The historical importance of species to scientific research is reflected by the amount of literature on it. Laboratory rats are frequently subject to dissection or microdialysis to study effects on organs. Laboratory rats not sacrificed may be euthanized or, in some cases, scientists have bred many strains or lines of rats specifically for experimentation. Most are derived from the albino Wistar rat, which is widely used. Other common strains are the Sprague Dawley, Fischer 344, Holtzman albino strains, the Long-Evans, as a result, many have been forced to study questions in mice that might be better pursued in rats. In October 2003, however, researchers succeeded in cloning two laboratory rats by nuclear transfer, so rats may begin to see more use as genetic research subjects. Much of the genome of Rattus norvegicus has been sequenced, a 1972 study compared neoplasms in “Sprague-Dawley” rats from six different commercial suppliers and found highly significant differences in the incidences of endocrine and mammary tumors. There were even significant variations in the incidences of adrenal medulla tumors among rats from the same source raised in different laboratories, all but one of the testicular tumors occurred in the rats from a single supplier. The researchers found that the incidence of tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats from different commercial sources varied as much each other as from the other strains of rats
16.
Allotment (gardening)
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An allotment garden, often called simply an allotment, or a community garden is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred land parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the allotment, a community garden can refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single. The term victory garden is still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to World War II or I. The individual size of a parcel typically suits the needs of a family, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter, the gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide by the corresponding constitution and by-laws. However, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights, for children, gardens offer places to play and to learn about nature, while for the unemployed, they offer a feeling of doing something useful as well as low-cost food. For the elderly and disabled, gardens offer an opportunity to people, to share in activity with like-minded people. In Vancouver, Toronto, Calgary, Montreal, Ottawa, these are called Community Gardens, Allotment gardening used to be widely popular in the former Czechoslovakia under the communist regime. It gave people from suburban prefab apartment blocks - called paneláky in Czech - a chance to escape from city chaos, pollution, holiday houses and gardens served also as the only permitted form of investment of savings for common middle-class citizens. Since then allotment gardens have spread to most Danish towns, in 1904 there were about 20,000 allotment gardens in Denmark. 6,000 of them were in Copenhagen, during the interwar years the number of allotment gardens grew rapidly. In 2001 the number of allotment gardens was estimated to be about 62,120, in 1908 twenty allotment associations in Copenhagen formed the Allotment Garden Union which in 1914 was expanded to cover all of Denmark. The Allotment Garden Federation was founded to negotiate more favourable deals with the state, today the federation represents roughly 400 allotment associations in 75 municipalities. The Danish tradition for allotment gardens later spread to the other Scandinavian countries, first Sweden, then Norway, today most allotment gardens are on land owned by the municipality which rents the land to an allotment association. The association in turn gives each member a plot of land, to preserve allotment gardens as something that is available for all kinds of people the membership charge is set significantly below what a market price would be. Since allotments are often placed on attractive plots of land, this has led to waiting lists for membership in many allotment associations. Although the main purpose of the allotment is gardening, most allotment gardens have a built in them
17.
Fish and chip shop
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A fish and chip shop is a form of restaurant that specialises in selling fish and chips. Usually, fish and chip shops provide takeaway service, although some have seating facilities, variations on the name include fish bar, fish shop and chip shop. In the United Kingdom, they are known as a chippy while, in Ireland. Fish and chip shops may also sell other foods, including variations on their core offering such as battered sausage and burgers, a blue plaque at Oldhams Tommyfield Market in England marks the 1860s origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries. By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, in 1928, Harry Ramsdens fast food restaurant chain opened in the UK. On a single day in 1952, his fish and chip shop in Guiseley, West Yorkshire served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, the word chip-shop is first recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1953. Chippy or chippie was first recorded in 1961, many British villages, suburbs, towns and cities have fish and chip shops, especially near coastal regions. Fish and chip outlets sell roughly 30 percent of all the fish consumed in the United Kingdom. List of fish and chip restaurants Media related to Fish and chip shops at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
19.
Ivor Novello
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Ivor Novello, born David Ivor Davies, was a Welsh composer and actor who became one of the most popular British entertainers of the first half of the 20th century. He was born into a family and his first successes were as a songwriter. His first big hit was Keep the Home Fires Burning, which was popular during the First World War. His 1917 show, Theodore & Co, was a wartime hit, after the war, Novello contributed numbers to several successful musical comedies and was eventually commissioned to write the scores of complete shows. He wrote his musicals in the style of operetta and often composed his music to the librettos of Christopher Hassall, in the 1920s, he turned to acting, first in British films and then on stage, with considerable success in both. He starred in two silent films directed by Alfred Hitchcock, The Lodger and Downhill, on stage, he played the title character in the first London production of Liliom. Novello briefly went to Hollywood, but he returned to Britain. The best known of these were Glamorous Night and The Dancing Years, from the 1930s, he often performed with Zena Dare, writing parts for her in his works. He continued to write for film, but he had his biggest late successes with stage musicals, Perchance to Dream, Kings Rhapsody and Gays the Word. Novello was born in Cardiff, Wales, to David Davies, a rent collector for the city council, and his wife, Clara Novello Davies, as a boy, Novello was a successful singer in the Welsh Eisteddfod. Another of his mothers associates was Clara Butt, who taught him to sing Abide with Me when he was a boy of six, Novello was educated privately in Cardiff and then in Gloucester, where he studied harmony and counterpoint with Herbert Brewer, the cathedral organist. From there he won a scholarship to Magdalen College School in Oxford and he later said that this prolonged youthful exposure to early sacred choral music had turned his tastes, in reaction, to lush romantic music. Although Brewer had told him he would not have a career in music, Novello from his early youth showed a facility for writing songs, after leaving school, he gave piano lessons in Cardiff, and then moved to London in 1913 with his mother. They took a flat above the Strand Theatre, which became his London home for the rest of his life, in London he found a mentor in Sir Edward Marsh, a well-known patron of the arts. Marsh encouraged him to compose and introduced him to people who could help his career and he adopted part of his mothers maiden name, Novello as his professional surname, although he did not change it legally until 1927. In other respects, the war had less impact on Novello than on many men of his age. He avoided enlistment until June 1916, when he reported to a Royal Naval Air Service training depot as a probationary flight sub-lieutenant. After twice crashing an aeroplane, and with the influence of Marsh, Novello continued to write songs while serving in the RNAS
20.
Whale meat
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Whale meat is the flesh of whales used for consumption by humans or other animals, and broadly includes other consumed parts as blubber, skin, and organs. Vincent and the Grenadines in the Caribbean, human consumption of whale meat is controversial and has been denounced by detractors on wildlife conservation, toxicity, and animal rights grounds. In Europe, whale could be hunted throughout the Middle Ages for their meat. Under Catholicism, aquatic creatures were generally considered fish, therefore whale was deemed suitable for eating during Lent, an alternative explanation is that the Church considered hot meat to raise the libido, making it unfit for holy days. Parts submerged in water, such as whale or beaver tails, were considered cold meat. Eating whale meat did not end with the Middle Ages in Europe, thus European whalers had to seek out the New World to catch whales. The Dutch were also active in the whaling commerce during the Middle Ages, and this blubber, known as craspois or lard de carême was food for the poorer strata on the continent. The whaling industry in North America may have supplied rendered fat, colonial America also more commonly consumed the meat and other portions of the blackfish. However, by the beginning of commercial whaling, whale meat was not consumed by the general American public. During the post-World War II period in the United Kingdom, corned whale meat was available as an alternative to other meats. Sold under the name whacon, the meat was described as corned whalemeat with its fishy flavour removed, the Food Ministry emphasised its high food value. Minke whale is one of the most common species hunted in substantial numbers. In recent years Japan has resumed taking North Pacific fin whale, the fin whales are highly desired because they yield arguably the best quality of tail meat. Japanese research vessels refer to the whale meat as incidental byproducts which have resulted from study. In Japan, the whale meat was sold at officially published prices. The channels through which premium cuts such as fin whale meat are sold remain opaque. In places such as Norway, Iceland, and Alaska, whale meat may be served without seasoning, however, it can also be cured or marinated, or made into jerky. In Norway, whale meat was a cheap and common food until the 80s
21.
Thyrsites
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Thyrsites atun, the snoek, is a long, thin species of snake mackerel found in the seas of the Southern Hemisphere. This fish can reach a length of 200 centimetres SL though most do not exceed 75 centimetres SL, the maximum recorded weight for this species is 6 kilograms. It is very important to fisheries and is also a popular game fish. It is currently the only member of its genus. It is also known in Australasia as barracouta though it is not related to the barracuda and it is found near continental shelves or around islands and feeds on crustaceans, cephalopods and small fish like anchovy and pilchard. This species will form schools near the bottom or midwater, sometimes even near the surface at night and it prefers sea water temperature between 13 and 18 °C. It was originally called the zeesnoek by Dutch colonists who arrived in the Cape in 1652 and it is said to have reminded them of the freshwater pike they found at home in the Netherlands. The snoek is widely distributed in the waters in the Southern Hemisphere. Bluish-black on top with a belly, the snoek grows to over a metre in length. It is sold fresh, smoked, canned and frozen and it can be cooked by frying, broiling, baking and it can also be microwaved. It is also made and eaten as fishcakes in regions such as Japan and it is prepared most often by grilling, frying or smoking. Snoek is oily, extremely bony and has fine scales which are almost undetectable. Snoek has a distinctive taste. Though very popular in regions like South Africa, it was not so popular to certain generations of British residents during the Second World War due to it being considered an item of deprivation. Canned Snoek was imported in large quantities into Great Britain and government marketing of the product was not successful, in South Africa, snoek is caught and consumed along the west and southwestern coastal parts of the country. Commercially, snoek is sold as a prepared and processed food, usually in the form of packaged smoked snoek, snoek pates, Snoek is usually bought fresh at the quay side. In and around Cape Town, this may be at Hout Bay, Kalk Bay, up the West coast and down the coast towards Mossel Bay, much of the catch is often salted and air dried for local consumption. Another favourite is a kedgeree using smoked snoek, in the Cape Malay community snoek is a foundation for many dishes
22.
British Restaurant
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British Restaurants were communal kitchens created in 1940 during the Second World War to help people who had been bombed out of their homes, had run out of ration coupons or otherwise needed help. In 1943,2,160 British Restaurants served 600,000 very inexpensive meals a day, there was a political dimension as well, as the Labour Party saw them as a permanent solution to equalising consumption across the class line and guaranteeing a nourishing diet to the poor. Originally called Community Feeding Centres, the name British Restaurants was chosen by the Prime Minister and they were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set price of 9d or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, in one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools were often used because they had cafeterias and kitchens, in London, mobile canteens delivered meals to air raid shelters and on the street in the aftermath of air raids. By contrast, ordinary private restaurants continued in operation and were not subject to rationing and they did have some restrictions, for instance, no meal could be more than three courses and the maximum price was five shillings. In November 1942 there were 1,899 restaurants, by 1943, there were some 2,160 British Restaurants across the country, serving around 600,000 meals per day for around 9d a time. 546 authorities made profits and 203 made losses, though they were set up to be not-for-profit, some smaller places did not qualify for a British Restaurant, but, instead, had what was termed a Cash and Carry Restaurant with meals being delivered from a nearby British Restaurant. After 1947 some restaurants were converted, under the Civic Restaurants Act, in 1949,678 still existed throughout the United Kingdom. The restaurants moved beyond the privations of wartime and into the new world of a Labour government making many changes to the fabric of the country. The Labour Minister of Food, John Strachey, noted that private enterprise in the trade has, on the whole and by and large, catered for the middle class. If a civic restaurant operated at a loss for three years the act provided that ministerial consent would be needed for it to continue to remain open. These restaurants existed at least into the mid-1950s, rationing in the United Kingdom Victory garden Atkins, Peter J. Communal Feeding in War Time, British Restaurants, 1940–1947, in Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska et al. eds
23.
Penny (British pre-decimal coin)
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The pre-decimal penny was a coin worth 1/240th of a pound sterling. Its symbol was d, from the Roman denarius and it was a continuation of the earlier English penny, and in Scotland it had the same monetary value as one pre-1707 Scottish shilling. The penny was minted in silver, but from the late 18th century it was minted in copper. The plural of penny is pence when referring to a quantity of money, thus 8d is eight pence, but eight pennies means specifically eight individual penny coins. Before Decimal Day in 1971 twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound, values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e. g.42 pence would be three shillings and sixpence, pronounced three and six. Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence and this version of the penny was made obsolete in 1971 by decimalisation, and was replaced by the decimal penny which had a value 140% more. The kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged by the 1707 Act of Union to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, the penny replaced the shilling of the pound scots. The design and specifications of the English penny were unchanged by the Union, Queen Annes reign saw pennies minted in 1708,1709,1710, and 1713. These issues, however, were not for circulation, instead being minted as Maundy money. The prohibitive cost of minting silver coins had meant the size of pennies had been reduced over the years, the practice of minting pennies only for Maundy money continued through the reigns of George I and George II, and into that of George III. In 1797, the government authorised Matthew Boulton to strike copper pennies and twopences at his Soho Mint in Birmingham. At the time it was believed that the value of a coin should correspond to the value of the material it was made from. This requirement meant that the coins would be larger than the silver pennies minted previously. The large size of the coins, combined with the rim where the inscription was incuse i. e. punched into the metal rather than standing proud of it. These pennies were minted over the course of years. By 1802, the production of privately issued provincial tokens had ceased, however, in the next ten years the intrinsic value of copper rose. The return of privately minted token coinage was evident by 1811 and endemic by 1812, the Royal Mint undertook a massive recoinage programme in 1816, with large quantities of gold and silver coin being minted. To thwart the further issuance of private token coinage, in 1817 an Act of Parliament was passed which forbade the manufacture of private token coinage under very severe penalties
24.
London County Council
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It covered the area today known as Inner London and was replaced by the Greater London Council. The LCC was the largest, most significant and most ambitious English municipal authority of its day, by the 19th century the City of London Corporation covered only a small fraction of metropolitan London. From 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works had certain powers across the metropolis, many powers remained in the hands of traditional bodies such as parishes and the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent. While the Conservative government of the day would have preferred not to create a body covering the whole of London. It was established as a council on 31 January 1889. Shortly after its creation a Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London considered the means for amalgamation with the City of London. The LCC inherited the powers of its predecessor the MBW, but had authority over matters such as education, city planning. It took over the functions of the London School Board in 1903, from 1899 the Council progressively acquired and operated the tramways in the county, which it electrified from 1903. One of the LCCs most important roles during the late 19th and early 20th century, was in the management of the expanding city, in the Victorian era, new housing had been intentionally urban and large-scale tenement buildings dominated. Beginning in the 1930s, the LCC incentivized an increase in suburban housing styles. The LCC set the standard for new construction at 12 houses per acre of land at a time when some London areas had as many as 80 housing units per acre. By 1938,76,877 units of housing had been built under the auspices of the LCC in the city and its periphery, many of these new housing developments were genuinely working-class, though the poorest could rarely afford even subsidized rents. They relied on an expanding London Underground network that ferried workers en masse to places of employment in the city center and these housing developments were broadly successful, and they resisted the slummification that blighted so many Victorian tenement developments. The LCC undertook between 1857 and 1929 to standardize and clarify street names across London, many streets in different areas of the city had similar or identical names, and the rise of the automobile as a primary mode of transportation in the city made these names unworkable. In an extreme case, there were more than 60 streets called Cross Street spread across the city when the LCC began its process of systematic renaming and these were given names from an approved list that was maintained by the LCC, containing only suitably English names. If street names were deemed un-English, they were slated for change, Zulu Crescent in Battersea, for instance. By 1939, the council had the powers and duties. The LCC initially used the Spring Gardens headquarters inherited from the Metropolitan Board of Works, the building had been designed by Frederick Marrable, the MBWs supeintending architect, and dated from 1860
25.
Elsie Widdowson
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Elsie Widdowson CH CBE FRS, was a British dietitian. She and Dr Robert McCance were responsible for overseeing the government-mandated addition of vitamins to food, Widdowson was born in Wallington, Surrey. Her father was a grocers assistant and her younger sister Eva Crane trained as a nuclear physicist but became a world-renowned authority on bees. She lived in Dulwich and attended Sydenham County Grammar School for Girls and she studied chemistry at Imperial College, London and graduated with a BSc in 1928, becoming one of the first women graduates of Imperial College. She did postgraduate work at the Department of Plant Physiology at Imperial College, dodds suggested that Widdowson should consider specialising in dietetics, and she started a postgraduate diploma at Kings College, London. Widdowson met Robert McCance in the kitchens at Kings College Hospital in 1933, McCance was a junior doctor researching the chemical effects of cooking as part of his clinical research on the treatment of diabetes. Widdowson pointed out an error in McCances analysis of the content of fruit. They became scientific partners and worked together for the next 60 years, McCance became a Reader in Medicine at Cambridge University in 1938, and Widdowson joined his team at the Department of Experimental Medicine in Cambridge. They worked on the composition of the human body. Widdowson also studied the impact of infant diet on human growth and they studied the differing effects from deficiencies of salt and of water, and produced the first tables to compare the different nutritional content of foods before and after cooking. Their work became of importance during the Second World War. Widdowson and McCance were co-authors of The Chemical Composition of Foods and their book McCance and Widdowson became known as the dieticians bible and formed the basis for modern nutritional thinking. Widdowson and McCance headed the first mandated addition of vitamins and mineral to food and their work began in the early 1940s, when calcium was added to bread. They were also responsible for formulating the wartime rationing of Britain during World War II, Widdowson and McCance were employed by the Medical Research Council from 1946, and spent most of their working life in Cambridge. Widdowson followed up this work in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s by studying malnourishment in Africa, Research on animals showed that malnourishment in early life led to lifelong effects on growth and health. Widdowson showed that a human infant has 16 per cent of its weight as fat. She also studied the importance of the content of infant diets, particularly trace vitamins. Her work led to revised standards for breast milk substitutes in the UK in the 1980s, Widdowson became head of the Infant Nutrition Research Division at the Dunn Nutritional Laboratory in Cambridge in 1966
26.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
27.
Faeces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
28.
Bacon
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Bacon is a meat product usually prepared from pork and cured. It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either a brine or a dry packing, fresh bacon may then be dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. Fresh and dried bacon are typically cooked before eating, often by frying, boiled bacon is ready to eat, as is some smoked bacon, but they may be cooked further before eating. Bacon is prepared from different cuts of meat. It can be made from side and back cuts of pork, a side cut has less fat than the belly. In the United States, the term implies belly bacon, with leaner cuts known as Canadian bacon, in the United Kingdom, loin bacon with some belly attached is known as back bacon, or rashers, and belly bacon is called streaky bacon. Bacon may be prepared from one of two distinct back cuts, fatback, which is almost pure fat, or pork loin, Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish, Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning buttock, ham or side of bacon, in Italy, this product is called pancetta and is usually cooked in small cubes or thinly sliced as part of an antipasto. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as bacon. Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, the USDA defines bacon in the American way as the cured belly of a swine carcass, and other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified. For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, Bacon is distinguished from salt pork and ham by differences in the brine or dry packing. Bacon brine has added curing ingredients, most notably sodium nitrite, and occasionally potassium nitrate, flavourings such as brown sugar or maple syrup are used for some bacon products. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may be added to make the easier to slice. Today, a specifically for ham includes a large amount of sugar. Historically, the ham and bacon referred to different cuts of meat that were brined or packed identically. Bacon is cured through either a process of injecting with or soaking in brine or using plain salt. In America, bacon is cured and smoked, and different flavours can be achieved by using various types of wood, or rarely corn cobs
29.
Ham
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Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing. It was traditionally made only from the leg of swine. Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham, technically a processed meat, ham may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming. The precise nature of meat termed ham is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US. The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, there are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul and it was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee and it began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century. Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting, in many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. In addition to the categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. However, injecting smoke flavor is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was smoked, hams can only be labeled honey-cured if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called lean and extra lean hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat, Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions. Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper to the precious saffron. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood, in Tuscan Ham different spices and herbs are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to flavour and taste during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry and it is then hung to air for another period of time. Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites, which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology
30.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
31.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
32.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
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Shilling
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The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
34.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
35.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
36.
Marmalade
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Marmalade generally refers to a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be produced from kumquats, lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots, the peel imparts a lively bitter taste to the marmalade. The term marmalade is not precise, universal, nor definitive, however, it also may be distinguished from jam by the choice of fruit. Historically, the term was often used in senses other than just citrus conserves. The Romans learned from the Greeks that quinces slowly cooked with honey would set when cool, Greek μελίμηλον transformed into Portuguese marmelo— from the Greek μῆλον stood for all globular fruits, and most quinces are too astringent to be used without honey. A Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius gives a recipe for preserving whole quinces, stems and leaves attached, in a bath of honey diluted with defrutum—Roman marmalade. Medieval quince preserves, which went by the French name cotignac, produced in a clear version, in the 17th century, La Varenne provided recipes for both thick and clear cotignac. In 1524, Henry VIII received a box of marmalade from Mr Hull of Exeter, as it was in a box, this was probably marmelada, a solid quince paste from Portugal, still made and sold in southern Europe. The Scots are credited with developing marmalade as a spread, with Scottish recipes in the 18th century using more water to produce a less solid preserve. The first printed recipe for orange marmalade, though without the chunks typically used now, was in Mary Kettilbys 1714 cookery book, A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts. Kettilby called for whole oranges, lemon juice and sugar, with the acid in the lemon juice helping to create the set of marmalade, by boiling the lemon. Kettilby then directs, boil the whole pretty fast till it will jelly – the first known use of the word jelly in marmalade making, kettilby then instructs that the mixture is then poured into glasses, covered and left until set. The Scots moved marmalade to the breakfast table, and in the 19th century the English followed the Scottish example, marmalades place in British life appears in literature. James Boswell remarks that he and Samuel Johnson were offered it at breakfast in Scotland in 1773, when American writer Louisa May Alcott visited Britain in the 1800s, she described a choice pot of marmalade and a slice of cold ham as essentials of English table comfort. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, marmalade appeared in the English language in 1480, borrowed from French marmelade which, in turn, came from the Portuguese language marmelada. In Portuguese, according to the root of the word, which is marmelo, quince, marmelada is a made from quinces. Marmelo in turn derives from Latin melimelum, honey apple, which in turn comes from the earlier Greek μελίμηλον, from μέλι, honey + μήλον, apple. There is a story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache
37.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
38.
Margarine
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Margarine is an imitation butter spread used for spreading, baking, and cooking. Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès created it in France, in 1869 and he was responding to a challenge by Emperor Napoleon III to create a butter substitute for the armed forces and lower classes. Whereas butter is made from the butterfat of milk, modern margarine is made mainly of refined oil and water. In some places in the United States it is referred to as oleo. Margarine, like butter, consists of an emulsion, with tiny droplets of water dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase in a stable crystalline form. In some jurisdictions margarine must have a fat content of 80% to be labelled as such. Colloquially in the United States, the term margarine is used to describe non-dairy spreads like Country Crock, Margarine can be used for spreading, baking, and cooking. It is also used as an ingredient in other food products, such as pastries, doughnuts and cookies. Margarine originated with the discovery by French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid, scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic acid, as one of the three fatty acids that, in combination, form most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural chemist Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid, Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory butter alternative, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes. French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called oleomargarine, which shortened to the trade name margarine. Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France but had commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, in the same year a German pharmacist, Benedict Klein from Cologne, founded the first margarine factory Benedict Klein Margarinewerke, producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram. In John Steeles 1850 California gold miners journal, he wrote, I became acquainted with Mr. Dainels, from Baltimore, manufactured butter from tallow and lard, and it looked and tasted so much like real butter, that. I could not tell the difference, however, he deceived no one, but sold it for just what it was. He never explained the process of its manufacturer, and whether he was the originator of oleomargarine I do not know, the principal raw material in the original formulation of margarine was beef fat. In 1871, Henry W. Bradley of Binghamton, New York received U. S, patent 110,626 for a process of creating margarine that combined vegetable oils with animal fats. The depression of the 1930s, followed by the rationing of World War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat, while butter that cows produced had a slightly yellow color, margarine had a white color, making the margarine look more like lard
39.
Lard
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Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It is obtained from any part of the pig where there is a proportion of adipose tissue. It can be rendered by steaming it or boiling it in water and then separating the insoluble fat from the water and it is a semi-soft white fat with a high saturated fatty acid content and no transfats, and refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks. Lard is commonly used in cuisines around the world as a cooking fat or shortening. It is an ingredient in various dishes such as sausages, pates and fillings. Its use in contemporary cuisine has diminished with the increased popularity of vegetable oils. The culinary qualities of lard vary somewhat depending on the part of the pig from which the fat was taken, Lard can be obtained from any part of the pig where there is a high concentration of fatty tissue. The highest grade of lard, known as leaf lard, is obtained from the visceral fat deposit surrounding the kidneys. Leaf lard has little pork flavor, making it ideal for use in baked goods, the next-highest grade is obtained from fatback, the hard subcutaneous fat between the back skin and muscle of the pig. Lard may be rendered by either of two processes, wet or dry, in dry rendering, the fat is exposed to high heat in a pan or oven without the presence of water. The two processes yield somewhat differing products, wet-rendered lard has a more neutral flavor, a lighter color, and a high smoke point. Dry-rendered lard is somewhat more browned in color and flavor and has a lower smoke point, rendered lard produces an unpleasant smell when mixed with oxygen. Industrially-produced lard, including much of the lard sold in supermarkets, is rendered from a mixture of high-, Lard is often hydrogenated to improve its stability at room temperature. Hydrogenated lard sold to consumers typically contains fewer than 0.5 g of transfats per 13 g serving, Lard is also often treated with bleaching and deodorizing agents, emulsifiers, and antioxidants such as BHT. These treatments make it consistent and prevent spoilage. Consumers seeking a higher-quality source of lard typically seek out artisanal producers of rendered lard, a by-product of dry-rendering lard is deep-fried meat, skin and membrane tissue known as cracklings. Lard consists mainly of fats, which in the language of chemistry are known as triglycerides and these triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids and the distribution of fatty acids varies from oil to oil. In general lard is similar to tallow in its composition, pigs that have been fed different diets will have lard with a significantly different fatty acid content and iodine value
40.
Confectionery
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Confectionery, also called sweets or candy, is sweet food. The term varies among English-speaking countries, in general, though, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, bakers confections and sugar confections. Bakers confectionery, also called flour confections, includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, in the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Sugar confectionery includes sweets, candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum and bubblegum, sweetmeats, pastillage, in some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words candy, sweets, and lollies are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery, the confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records. Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times, and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era, generally, confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods, many confections are considered empty calories. Specially formulated chocolate has been manufactured in the past for use as a high-density food energy source. Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners and these are usually sugars, but it is possible to buy sugar-free sweets, such as sugar-free peppermints. The most common sweetener for cooking is table sugar, which is chemically a disaccharide containing both glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives a mixture called invert sugar, which is sweeter and is also a commercial ingredient. Finally confections, especially commercial ones, are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by hydrolysis of starch and these sweeteners include all types of corn syrup. Bakers confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course, bakers confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack food. This includes sugar candies, chocolates, candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum, in the European Union, the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community scheme matches the UN classification, under code number 10.82. Ice cream and sorbet are classified with dairy products under ISIC1050, NACE10.52, different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections, In Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, sweets or, more colloquially, sweeties. In Australia and New Zealand, lollies, chewy and Chuddy are Australian slang for chewing gum. In North America, candy, although this generally refers to a specific range of confectionery
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Offal
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Offal /ˈɒfəl/, also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of organs, which varies by culture and region. As an English mass noun, the term offal has no plural form, some cultures shy away from offal as food, while others use it as everyday food, or in delicacies. Certain offal dishes—including foie gras, pâté and sweetbread—are considered gourmet food in international cuisine, others remain part of traditional regional cuisine and may be consumed especially in connection with holidays. This includes Scottish haggis, Jewish chopped liver, U. S. chitterlings, intestines are traditionally used as casing for sausages. Depending on the context, offal may refer to parts of an animal carcass discarded after butchering or skinning, it may also refer to the by-products of milled grains. In earlier times, mobs sometimes threw offal and other rubbish at condemned criminals as a show of public disapproval. The word shares its etymology with several Germanic words, Frisian ôffal, German Abfall, afval in Dutch and Afrikaans, avfall in Norwegian and Swedish and these Germanic words all mean garbage or waste, or —literally— off-fall, referring to that which has fallen off during butchering. However, these words are not often used to refer to food with the exception of Afrikaans in the agglutination afvalvleis which does indeed mean offal, for instance, the German word for offal is Innereien meaning innards and the Swedish word is innanmat literally meaning inside-food. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word entered Middle English from Middle Dutch in the form afval, derived from af, the traditional Scottish haggis consists of sheep stomach stuffed with a boiled mix of liver, heart, lungs, rolled oats and other ingredients. In the English Midlands and South Wales, faggots are made from ground or minced pig offal, bread, herbs and onion wrapped in pigs caul fat. Brawn is a British English term for cheese, or the collection of meat and tissue found on an animals skull that is cooked, chilled. Luncheon tongue refers to reformed pork tongue pieces, ox tongue made from pressed complete tongue, is more expensive. Both kinds of tongue are found in tinned form and in slices in supermarkets, home cooking and pressing of tongue has become less common over the last fifty years. Bleached tripe was a dish in Northern England with many specialist tripe shops in industrial areas. Today, in South Lancashire certain markets may still sell tripe, Elder is the name given to cooked cows udder - another Lancashire offal dish rarely seen today. Offal connoiseurs such as Ben Greenwood OBE have frequently campaigned to bring Elder back on the menu of restaurants across Yorkshire and Lancashire, in Norway the smalahove is a traditional dish, usually eaten around and before Christmas time, made from a sheeps head. The skin and fleece of the head is torched, the brain removed, and the head is salted, sometimes smoked, the head is boiled for about 3 hours and served with mashed rutabaga/swede and potatoes
42.
Sausage
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A sausage is a cylindrical meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or veal, along with salt, spices and other flavourings, and breadcrumbs, with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a traditionally made from intestine. Sausages that are sold uncooked are usually cooked in many ways, some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may then be removed. Sausage making is a food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, smoking, or freezing, some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked, there is a huge range of national and regional varieties of sausages, which differ by their flavouring or spicing ingredients, the meat used in them and their manner of preparation. The word sausage was first used in English in the mid-15th century and this word came. from Old North French saussiche. The French word saussiche came. from Vulgar Latin *salsica sausage, from salsicus seasoned with salt, Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers would salt various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood and they would then stuff them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked, early humans made the first sausages by stuffing roasted intestines into stomachs. The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of sausage in the Odyssey, Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled The Sausage. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and most likely with the tribes occupying the larger part of Europe. The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania and was called lucanica, during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning, traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans, a sausage consists of meat, cut into pieces or ground, and filled into a casing, with other ingredients. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, the meat may be from any animal, but is often pork, beef, or veal. The lean meat-to-fat ratio is dependent upon the style and producer, speciality sausages with other ingredients such as apple and leek are also made
