1.
North Platte, Nebraska
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North Platte is a city in and the county seat of Lincoln County, Nebraska, United States. It is located in the part of the state, along Interstate 80. The population was 24,733 at the 2010 census, North Platte is a railroad town, Union Pacific Railroads large Bailey Yard is located within the city. Today, North Platte is served only by trains. Tens of thousands of volunteers from North Platte and surrounding towns met the trains passing through North Platte, offering coffee, sandwiches. North Platte is the city of the North Platte Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Lincoln, Logan. North Platte was established in 1868 when the Union Pacific Railroad was extended to that point and it was named from the North Platte River. North Platte is located at 41°8′9″N 100°46′14″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.39 square miles, of which,13.20 square miles is land and 0.19 square miles is water. The normal monthly mean ranges from 25.0 °F in January to 74.3 °F in July. On average, there are 3.5 days that reach 100 °F or higher,37 days that reach 90 °F or higher,33 days that do not climb above freezing, and 13 days with a low of 0 °F or below. The average window for freezing temperatures is September 26 thru May 10, precipitation is greatest in May and June and has ranged from 10.01 in in 1931 to 33.44 in in 1951. As of the census of 2010, there were 24,733 people,10,560 households, the population density was 1,873.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,450 housing units at a density of 867.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 1% White,1. 0% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 7% Asian,2. 8% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 8% of the population. 34. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 37.1 years. 24. 9% of residents were under the age of 18, 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 25% were from 25 to 44,25. 6% were from 45 to 64, and 15. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 8% male and 51. 2% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 23,878 people,9,944 households, and 6,224 families residing in the city
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Oglala Lakota
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The Oglala Lakota or Oglala Sioux are one of the seven subtribes of the Lakota people who, along with the Nakota and Dakota, make up the Great Sioux Nation. A majority of the Oglala live on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, the Oglala are a federally recognized tribe whose official title is the Oglala Sioux Tribe. Of note, however, some Oglala reject the term Sioux because it was a name give to them by the Chippewa Nation, the term means snake and, as such, is seen as a slur. Oglala elders relate stories about the origin of the name Oglala and their emergence as a distinct group, in the early 1800s, whites passed through Lakota territory in greater and greater numbers. They sought furs, especially beaver fur at first, and later buffalo fur, the trade in fur changed the Oglala economy and way of life. 1868 brought the Fort Laramie Treaty, and in its wake the Oglala became increasingly polarized over this question, some bands turned to the Indian agencies—forerunners to the Indian reservations—where they received beef and other rations from the U. S. government. Other bands held fast to traditional ways of life, many bands moved between these two extremes, coming in to the agencies during the winter and joining their relatives in the north each spring. These challenges further split the various Oglala bands, after being moved several times during the 1870s after the Great Sioux Reservation was broken up into five portions, the Red Cloud Agency was relocated in 1878 and renamed the Pine Ridge Reservation. By 1890, the reservation included 5,537 people, divided into a number of districts that included some 30 distinct communities, without that aim and the constant struggle to attain it, the people would no longer be Dakotas in truth. They would no longer even be human and this strong and enduring connection between related families profoundly influenced Oglala history. Dr. John J. Saville, the U. S. Indian agent at the Red Cloud Agency, each of these bands are subdivided into smaller parties, variously named, usually designated by the name of their chief or leader. As the Oglala were settled on the Pine Ridge Reservation in the late 1870s, their communities probably looked something like this, other members include, Black Elk Wakaŋ Makaicu Oglala Tiyośpaye True Oglala Caŋkahuȟaŋ. Other members include, Short Bull, Amos Bad Heart Bull, hokayuta Huŋkpatila Iteśica Payabya Wagluȟe Kiyaksa Tiyošpaye True Kiyaksa Kuinyan Tapišleca By 1830, the Oglala had around 3,000 members. In the 1820s and 1830s, the Oglala, along with the Brulé, another Lakota band and this Alliance attacked surrounding tribes for territorial and hunting reasons. Historically, women have been critical to the life, making almost everything used by the family. Women have historically controlled the food, resources and movable property, typically, in the Oglala Lakota society, the men are in charge of the politics of the tribe. The men are usually the chiefs for political affairs, war leaders and warriors, traditionally, when a man marries, he goes to live with his wife with her people. In addition to men and feminine women, the Lakota also recognize feminine men
4.
Red Cloud's War
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Red Clouds War was an armed conflict between the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho on one side and the United States in Wyoming and Montana territories from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present north-central Wyoming and this grassland, rich in buffalo, was traditionally Crow Indian land, but the Lakota had recently taken control. The Crow tribe held the treaty right to the disputed area, all involved in Red Clouds War were parties in that treaty. In 1863, European Americans had blazed the Bozeman Trail through the heart of the territory of the Cheyenne, Arapaho. It was the shortest and easiest route from Fort Laramie and the Oregon Trail to the Montana gold fields. From 1864 to 1866, the trail was traversed by about 3,500 miners, emigrant settlers and others, the United States named the war after Red Cloud, a prominent Oglala Lakota chief allied with the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The United States army had built forts in response to attacks on civilian travelers, using a treaty right to establish roads, military, all three forts were located in 1851 Crow Indian territory and accepted by these Indians. The Crow believed they guarded their interests best by cooperating with the US army, Red Clouds War consisted mostly of constant small-scale Indian raids and attacks on the soldiers and civilians at the three forts in the Powder River country, wearing down those garrisons. He most dramatic battles between the army and the Dakota were on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851, with peace achieved under the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868, the attacking Lakota and their allies were victorious. They gained legal control of the western Powder River country, although their victory would only endure for 8 years until the Great Sioux War of 1876, the Crow lost their hunting grounds in the Powder River region to their enemies. The government had in effect betrayed the Crows, who had helped the army to hold the posts for two years. As early as 1805, a Crow camp allowed French-Canadian fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque to follow it across parts of the Powder River area. Inhabit the Eastern part of the Rocky Mountains at the head of the River aux Roches Jaunes and its Branches and Close to the head of the Missouri. From the late 17th century, the Lakota had been moving west into the Plains, enlarging their territory so that by the early 19th century, Cheyenne and Lakota warriors committed terrible carnage at a big Crow camp at Tongue River in 1820, making their enmity permanent. In 1843, United States explorer John Frémont said that Lakota had told him that they would fight the Crow and take their land. In 1851, the area in question was included in a treaty with the United States for the first time and this peace agreement defined territories for the tribes, in an effort by the US to establish peace among them and protect its own settlers. Intertribal warfare had been common among the tribes to gain social and economic advantages in furs, slaves, horses, hunting grounds and they continued to wage war against each other into the late 19th century, conducting affairs separate from interaction with US forces and representatives. As the big game dwindled in the mid-1850s, the Lakota began to enlarge their hunting grounds and they crossed Powder River and launched their own program for expansions westward at the expense of other Natives
5.
Powder River Country
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The Powder River Country is the Powder River Basin area of the Great Plains in northeastern Wyoming, United States. The area is defined as that between the Bighorn Mountains and the Black Hills, in the upper drainage areas of the Powder, Tongue. During the late 1860s, the area was the scene of Red Clouds War, the Lakota victory in the war resulted in the continuation of their control of the area for the next decade. After control of the fell to the U. S. government in the 1870s following the end of the Great Sioux War of 1876–77. In 1892, the area was the scene of the Johnson County War, in the early 20th century, the discovery of oil in the area led to the development of the areas oil fields
6.
Wyoming
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Wyoming /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ is a state in the mountain region of the western United States. The state is the tenth largest by area, the least populous, Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city in Wyoming, the state population was estimated at 586,107 in 2015, which is less than the population of 31 of the largest U. S. cities. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were some of the inhabitants of the region. Southwestern Wyoming was included in the Spanish Empire and then Mexican territory until it was ceded to the United States in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War. The region acquired the name Wyoming when a bill was introduced to Congress in 1865 to provide a government for the territory of Wyoming. The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania, with the name ultimately being derived from the Munsee word xwé, wamənk, the mineral extraction industry—especially coal, oil, natural gas, and trona—along with the travel and tourism sector are the main drivers behind Wyomings economy. Agriculture has historically been an important component of the economy with the main commodities being livestock, hay, sugar beets, grain. The climate is generally semi-arid and continental, being drier and windier in comparison to the rest of the United States, except for the 1964 election, Wyoming has been a politically conservative state since the 1950s, with the Republican party winning every presidential election. Wyoming is one of three states to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, from the north border to the south border it is 276 miles, and from the east to the west border is 365 miles at its south end and 342 miles at the north end. The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet, to the Belle Fourche River valley in the states northeast corner, at 3,125 feet. In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, in the north central are the Big Horn Mountains, in the northeast, the Black Hills, and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy and Sierra Madre ranges. The Snowy Range in the central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains
7.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
8.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
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The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The treaty ended Red Clouds War, in the treaty, the U. S. included all Ponca lands in the Great Sioux Reservation. Chief Manuelito sent his sons to school, believing that it would help them eventually protect their freedoms. Repeated violations of the exclusive rights to the land by gold prospectors led to the Black Hills War. Migrant workers seeking gold had crossed the borders in violation of the treaty. Indians had attacked these gold prospectors and war ensued, the U. S. government seized the Black Hills land in 1877. It later broke up the Great Sioux Reservation into several reduced reservations, more than a century later, the Sioux nation won a victory in court. On June 30,1980, in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians and it upheld an award of $15.5 million for the market value of the land in 1877, along with 103 years worth of interest at 5 percent, for an additional $105 million. The Lakota Sioux, however, have refused to accept payment, the treaty and its aftermath is the subject of a 1986 video by the Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium. Treaty with the Sioux — Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, ratified Feb.16,1868, proclaimed Feb.24,1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties — Vol. II, government Printing Office,1904, pp. 998–1007. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center, nina Rehfeld, Lakota Nation files lawsuit against parties in sweat lodge incident, www. sedona. biz, 11/12/2009 Suzan Shown Harjo. Nation to Nation, Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations, national Museum of the American Indian. National Archives, Sioux treaty Text of the Fort Laramie treaty Map of treaty land
9.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
10.
Platte River
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The Platte River /plæt/ is a major river in the state of Nebraska and is about 310 mi long. Measured to its farthest source via its tributary the North Platte River, the Platte River is a tributary of the Missouri River, which itself is a tributary of the Mississippi River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The Platte over most of its length is a muddy, broad, shallow, meandering stream with a swampy bottom and these characteristics made it too difficult for canoe travel, and it was never used as a major navigation route by European-American trappers or explorers. This expression is very close to the French words rivière plate, in central north Colorado is the North Park valley, ringed by mountains of 12,000 feet height, this is where the North Platte River originates. The nearest Colorado town is Walden, the county seat, the rugged Rocky Mountains Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over 11,000 feet in height. From Jackson County, the North Platte flows north about 200 miles out of the Routt National Forest and North Park near what is now Walden to Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after passing Casper, the North Platte turns to the east-southeast and flows about 350 miles to the city of North Platte, Nebraska. In Colorado and Wyoming, the North Platte is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, the North Platte River has been dammed about eight times for water storage and irrigation purposes in Wyoming and Nebraska as it flows to its confluence with the South Platte River. The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for rafting and lure and fly fishing for rainbow, brown, cutthroat trout. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America, today, by the time the North Platte reaches Paxton, Nebraska it is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation. Historically, the North Platte River was up to a mile wide in places, as evidenced by the old streambed. The South Platte drains a part of the Front Range mountains east of the continental divide. The part of the river labeled the South Platte is formed in Park County, Colorado, located southwest of Denver, in the South Park grassland basin and mountains east of the continental divide. It is formed by the confluence of the South Fork South Platte River and Middle Fork South Platte River, approximately 15 miles southeast of Fairplay, Colorado. From Greeley, the South Platte turns east and flows about 200 miles to its confluence with the North Platte River near the city of North Platte, Nebraska. The South Platte River has been dammed about 20 times for storage, drinking water. The total number of dams in the South Platte drainage may exceed 1,000 as nearly all major streams have at least one dam on them, the South Platte River serves as the principal source of water for arid eastern Colorado. The South Platte River valley provided a major emigration path to Denver, the wagon trails followed the south side of the Platte/North Platte River
11.
Old Chief Smoke
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Old Chief Smoke, an original Oglala Sioux head chief. Smokes mother Looking Walker Woman was Teton Oglala Lakota, and his father and he had an maternal uncle named Stone Chief or Knife. Smoke was the brother to White Cow Woman and Walks As She Thinks, when Smoke was born his parents named him Standing Bull after his paternal grandfather Standing Buffalo. In his youth he was given a Toklalas name Smoke, then later on and he took the name of Slow Buffalo Bull, but the Smoke name stuck with him until he died. Chief Smoke was a great horse capturer and great warrior in his youth and he achieved military accomplishments, and, later on, he rose rapidly as a major and prominent and recognizable headman. Eventually the people and council of the Lakotas chose him as one of the main-chiefs, after the Húŋkpa’ti′las headman Stone Knifes death in 1797. He most noted for co-founding the Oglalas name in 1834, the tribe solidified under central governance of Smoke when he became chief in 1797 but the tribe became loosely organized and split into two factions. When Smokes rival cousin Bull Bear tried to overthrow him as the chief in 1834. Instead he became the first chief of the Eastern Oglalas, when Smoke separated the tribe into two divisions, Kiyaska and Itéšiča bands, the Kiyaska name meaning Cutt Offs came about when Smoke told Bull Bear and his followers that they were cut off from the tribe. The Itéšiča name meaning Bad Faces originated from when Bull Bear threw some dust in the face of Smoke after he told Bull Bear that he cut off. His longstanding feud with Bull Bear which resulted in Bull Bears death by the hands of Red Cloud in 1841, Chief Smokes headdress wasnt just another ordinary headdress. In fact it wasnt like any other chiefs headdress it was detailed and designed with the finest and longest eagle feathers available. It was longer than Chief Touch the Cloudss headdress, and it had special significance, indeed it was most honored and sacred among the Lakotas. When Chief Smoke stood or walked in full headdress, there was a magnificent train of eagle feathers trailing or dragging on the ground for many feet behind him and he earned these eagle feathers one by one. The Lakota people made and awarded him this headdress for his status as a warrior as well as his many good deeds. Chief Smoke’s height was 6’5, and he weighed at least 250 pounds and was robust, only eight out of nine sons of the old Chief Smoke were prominent chiefs of a band of the Lakotas. Big Mouth and Blue Horse were twin brothers and they were born in the year as their cousin Chief Red Cloud,1822. The Smoke family was the most prominent and recognized family of the Lakotas during the 18th and 19th centuries and he was one of the last great Shirt Wearers, a highly prestigious Lakota warrior society
12.
Pawnee people
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The Pawnee are a Plains Indian tribe who are headquartered in Pawnee, Oklahoma. Pawnee people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma, historically, they lived in Nebraska and Kansas. In the Pawnee language, the Pawnee people refer to themselves as Chaticks si Chaticks or Men of Men, historically, the Pawnee lived in large earth lodge villages with adjacent farmlands. With the arrival of horses, the Pawnee retained their agricultural lifestyle, in the early 19th century, the Pawnee numbered over 10,000 people and were one of the largest and most powerful tribes in the west. They had suffered losses due to diseases brought by the expanding Europeans. By 1860, the Pawnee population was reduced to 4000 and it further decreased, because of disease, crop failure and warfare, to approximately 2400 by 1873, at which time they were forced to move to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. Many Pawnee warriors enlisted to serve as Indian scouts in the US Army to track, there are approximately 3200 enrolled Pawnee and nearly all reside in Oklahoma. Their tribal headquarters is in Pawnee, Oklahoma and their tribal area is in parts of Noble, Payne. The tribal constitution establishes the government of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma and this government consists of the Nasharo Council, the Pawnee Business Council, and the Supreme Court. Enrollment into the tribe requires a minimum blood quantum. The Nasharo Council, also known as the Chiefs Council consists of eight members, each band has two representatives on the Nasharo Council selected by the members of the tribal bands, Chaui, Kitkehahki, Pitahawirata and Skidi. Current Pawnee Business Council, Marshall R. Gover, President Bruce Pratt, Vice President Misty M. Nuttle, the Pawnee operate two gaming casinos, three smoke shops, two fuel stations, and one truck stop. Their estimated economic impact for 2010 was $10.5 million, increased revenues from the casinos have helped them provide for education and welfare of their citizens. They issue their own vehicle tags and operate their housing authority. The Pawnee were divided into two large groupings—the Skidi living in the north and the South Bands, while the Skidi were the most populous group of Pawnee, the Chaui of the South Bands were generally the politically leading group, although each band was autonomous. As was typical of many Native American tribes, each band saw to its own, in response to pressures from the Spanish, French and Americans, as well as neighboring tribes, the Pawnee began to draw closer together. Archeology studies of ancient sites have demonstrated the people lived in this pattern for nearly 700 years, the Pawnee generally settled close to the rivers and placed their lodges on the higher banks. They built earth lodges that by historical times tended to be oval in shape, at earlier stages and they constructed the frame, made of 10–15 posts set some 10 feet apart, which outlined the central room of the lodge
13.
Crow Nation
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In the 21st century, the Crow people are a Federally recognized tribe known as the Crow Tribe of Montana, and have a reservation located in the south central part of the state. From there, they were pushed to the west by the Cheyenne, the Cheyenne eventually became allies of the Lakota, as they sought to expel European Americans from the area. The Crow remained bitter enemies of both the Sioux and Cheyenne, the Crow were generally friendly with the whites and managed to retain a large reservation of more than 9300 km2 despite territorial losses. Since the 19th century, Crow people have been concentrated on their reservation established south of Billings and they also live in several major, mainly western, cities. Tribal headquarters are located at Crow Agency, Montana, the name of the tribe, Apsáalooke, meaning children of the large-beaked bird, was given to them by the Hidatsa, a neighboring Siouan-speaking tribe. French interpreters translated the name as gens du corbeaux, and they became known in English as the Crow, Other tribes also refer to the Apsáalooke as crow or raven in their own languages. In 1743 the Absaroka encountered their first people of European descent, the explorers called the Apsáalooke beaux hommes. The Crow called the French explorers baashchíile, the early home of the Crow-Hidatsa ancestral tribe was in the Ohio country, near Lake Erie. Driven from there by armed, aggressive neighbors, they settled for a while south of Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. Later the people moved to the Devils Lake region of North Dakota before the Crow split from the Hidatsa, the Crow were largely pushed westward due to intrusion and influx of the Cheyenne and subsequently the Sioux, also known as the Lakota. To acquire control of their new territory, they warred against Shoshone bands and they allied with local Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands. The Kiowa and Kiowa Apache bands later migrated southward, and the Crow remained dominant in their area through the 18th and 19th centuries. Formerly semi-nomad hunters and farmers in the woodland, they adapted to the nomadic lifestyle of the Plains Indians as hunters and gatherers. Before 1700, they were using dog travois for carrying goods, from about 1740, the Plains tribes rapidly adopted the horse, which allowed them to move out on to the Plains and hunt buffalo more effectively. However, the winters in the North kept their herds smaller than those of Plains tribes in the South. The Crow, Hidatsa, Eastern Shoshone and Northern Shoshone soon became noted as horse breeders and dealers, at the time, other eastern and northern tribes were also moving on to the Plains, in search of game for the fur trade, bison, and more horses. The Crow were subject to raids and horse thefts by horse-poor tribes, including the powerful Blackfoot Confederacy, Gros Ventre, Assiniboine, Pawnee, later they had to face the Lakota and their allies, the Arapaho and Cheyenne, who also stole horses from their enemies. Their greatest enemies became the tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Lakota-Cheyenne-Arapaho alliance, the Crow were generally friendly with the northern Plains tribes of the Flathead, Nez Perce, Kutenai, Shoshone, Kiowa and Kiowa Apache
14.
Wyoming Territory
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The Territory of Wyoming was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 25,1868, until July 10,1890, when it was admitted to the Union as the State of Wyoming. The boundaries of the Wyoming Territory were identical to the modern State of Wyoming, the portion of the Wyoming Territory east of the continental divide was acquired by the U. S. in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase and organized into the Nebraska Territory in 1854. In 1863, the Idaho Territory was formed, it included the entirety of the states of Idaho and Montana. The Idaho Territory subsumed this land as well, in 1863, the southwestern corner of what became the Wyoming Territory, south of the 42nd parallel, became part of the United States with the 1848 Mexican Cession. An eastern section of this was claimed by the Republic of Texas. A small corner of Wyoming remained part of Utah until the creation of the Wyoming Territory, the Territory of Wyoming was created by Act of Congress on July 25,1868. At the time of its formation, it took land from the Dakota, Idaho, in 1872, Wyoming Territory had five counties, Albany, Carbon, Laramie, Sweetwater, and Uinta, each a tall narrow rectangle comprising approximately one-fifth of the territory. The territory was admitted to the Union as the 44th state on July 10,1890. S. S, congressional delegates from the Territory of Wyoming Timeline of Wyoming History
15.
Montana Territory
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The Montana Territory was organized out of the existing Idaho Territory by Act of Congress and signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on May 26,1864. The areas east of the Continental Divide had been part of the Nebraska Territory. The part of the Oregon Territory that became part of Montana had been split off as part of the Washington Territory and they successfully implemented the boundary change that won the Flathead and Bitterroot valleys for Montana Territory. The boundaries of the territory did not change during its existence and it was admitted to the Union as the State of Montana on November 8,1889. The act of Congress of 1864 creating Montana, known as the Organic Act and it established executive, judicial, and legislative branches of government, however, the federal government held a dominant role in administering the new territory. Particularly, the Congress reserved the right to any laws passed by the citizen-elected territorial legislature. S. The citizens of the territory elected an assembly, consisting of a Council and House of Representatives. Citizens also elected a delegate to Congress as strictly an advisor to the U. S. House of Representatives. The territorial government was meant to provide a ground for a future move to statehood, allowing time for an areas institutions to mature. The governor served a term, unless removed by the President. Duties of the office included 1) the faithful execution of the laws, 2) to serve as the commander-in-chief of the militia, the governor also had to approve or veto laws within three days of passage by the territorial legislative assembly. Parties Dem Democratic Rep Republican The secretary of the territory served a four-year term, importantly, the secretary also served as acting governor in case of the death, removal, resignation, or absence of the governor from the territory. Parties Dem Democratic Rep Republican The eligible citizens of Montana Territory voted for a delegate to Congress, electing them to a two-year term. The territorial delegate had a seat in the House of Representatives and, as any other representative, participated in debates, State created from the Territory of Montana, State of Montana,1889 William F. Wheeler, U. S. Marshal of the Montana Territory An Act to provide a temporary Government for the Territory of Montana, archived from the original on January 12,2007. Malone, Michael P. Roeder, Richard B, lang, William L. Montana, a history of two centuries. An Illustrated History of the State of Montana, owings, Ralph E. Montana Directory of Public Affairs, 1864-1955. Ann Arbor, MI, Edwards Bothers, Inc, delegates to the U. S. Congress, History and Current Status
16.
Cheyenne
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The Cheyenne are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Sótaeoo or Sótaétaneoo and the Tsétsêhéstâhese and these tribes merged in the early 19th century. At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne were living in the area of what is now Minnesota, at times they have been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains, in turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota. The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota and they fought their traditional enemies, the Crow and later the United States Army forces. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some choosing to remain near the Black Hills. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate there are approximately 10,840 members. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans, with 72. 8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne, slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneoo meaning Roped People, together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, the Tsétsêhéstâhese, which translates to those who are like this. Though the identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is Sáheaeoo, a word that sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya, another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is a bit like the alien speech. The etymology of the name Tsitsistas, which the Cheyennes call themselves, is uncertain, grinnells record is typical, he states They call themselves Tsistsistas, which the books commonly give as meaning people. It most likely related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is Tsiihistano, the Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as Tsêhésenêstsestôtse. Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma, there are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters, the Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group
17.
Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
18.
Arapaho
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The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota, the Arapaho language, Heenetiit, is an Algonquian language closely related to Gros Ventre, whose people are seen as an early offshoot of the Arapaho. Blackfeet and Cheyenne are the other Algonquian-speakers on the Plains, by the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word Arapaho came from and it may have come from the Pawnee word for trader, iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for tattoo. The Arapaho autonym is Hinonoeino or Inun-ina, when referring to the tribe they use Hinonoeiteen and they were also known as Hitanwoiv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevoeoo by their Cheyenne allies or Mahpíyato by Dakota, Maȟpíya thó by Lakota and Assiniboine. The Caddo called them Detsekayaa, the Wichita Niarharis-kûrikiwaahûski, and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika, to Pawnee, Ute and other tribes they were also known as “dog-eaters”. The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuunena, the Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo/ Vánoétaneoo and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsennat or Nomseneo. The Arapaho recognize among themselves five main divisions, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct, through much of Arapaho history, each tribal-nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each also spoke mutually intelligible dialects, but there existed a degree of difference from Arapaho proper, dialectically, the Haaninin, Beesowuunenno, and Hinonoeino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects, Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuunenan or Aanûnhawa, occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinahaana, spoke the now extinct Haanahawunena dialect. Hinonoeino or Hinanaeinan, they spoke the Arapaho language Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuunenan or Bäsawunena and their war parties used temporary brush shelters like the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have left their old homes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes, before their historic geo-political ethnogensis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno, the different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the former distinct Arapaho tribal groups. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho and they absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. There are still about 50 people of Beesowuunenno-lineage among the Northern Arapaho, Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno, are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathineha, the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the name for the wild plum
19.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
20.
Fetterman Fight
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All 81 men under the command of Captain William J. Fetterman were killed by the Indians. At the time, it was the worst military disaster suffered by the U. S. Army on the Great Plains. The battle led to an Indian victory, with the U. S. forces withdrawing from the area, in June 1866, Colonel Henry B. Carrington advanced from Fort Laramie into the Powder River country, the grounds of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne. His orders were to protect the emigrants traveling west along the Bozeman Trail, Carrington had 700 soldiers and 300 civilians in his command. He established three forts along the trail, including his headquarters at Fort Phil Kearny, near present-day Buffalo, about 400 of his soldiers and most of the civilians were stationed at Fort Kearny. During the next few months, while Fort Kearny was under construction, Carrington suffered about 50 Indian attacks, the Native American warriors, invariably mounted, generally appeared in groups of 20 to 100. Several of Carringtons junior officers pressed him to take the offensive and they increased their urging after November 3, when a cavalry company of 63 men arrived to reinforce the post. Leading the cavalrymen was Lieutenant Horatio S. Bingham and he was accompanied by infantry Captains William J. Fetterman and James W. Powell. Both had been assigned to Fort Kearney from the 18th Infantrys headquarters at Fort Laramie, Bingham and Fetterman were Civil War veterans, while Fetterman had a distinguished war record. Even though he had no experience fighting Indians, Fetterman was critical of Carringtons defensive posture and he allegedly boasted, Give me 80 men and I can ride through the whole Sioux nation. Many other officers shared Fettermans feelings, shortly after his arrival at Fort Kearny, Carrington gave Fetterman permission to attempt a night ambush. However, the Indians saw through it and instead stampeded a herd of the cattle on the bank of the Powder River opposite Fettermans intended trap, on November 22, Fetterman himself almost fell into an Indian ambush. He had accompanied an escort that guarded a wagon train gathering firewood, a single Indian appeared, trying to entice the soldiers into chasing him into the woods. Lieutenant Bisbee, commanding the wagon train, sensibly took cover instead of pursuing the bait, on November 25,1866, Carringtons superior, General Philip St. George Cooke, ordered him to take the offensive in response to their murderous and insulting attacks. Carringtons first opportunity to strike came on December 6. His pickets on Pilot Hill signaled that an Army wood train was being attacked four miles west of the fort, Carrington told Fetterman to proceed west with a company of cavalry and a squad of mounted infantry to relieve the wood train. Carrington himself led another mounted detachment to circle north in an attempt to cut off the Indians retreat, during the movement, Lieutenant Grummond and Bingham with several others became separated from Carrington, who found himself surrounded by about 100 Indian warriors
21.
William J. Fetterman
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William Judd Fetterman was an officer in the United States Army during the American Civil War and the subsequent Red Clouds War on the Great Plains. Fetterman and his command of 80 men were killed in the Fetterman Fight, Fetterman was probably born in New London, Connecticut, although this is uncertain. His father was a career Army officer of Pennsylvania Dutch descent, Fetterman enlisted in the Union Army on May 14,1861, in Delaware, and was promptly commissioned a first lieutenant. He served with the First Battalion of the US 18th Infantry Regiment throughout the war and was brevetted for gallant conduct. After the war, he chose to remain in the Regular Army and was assigned as a captain in the Second Battalion of the 18th Infantry Regiment. In November 1866, the regiment was stationed at Fort Phil Kearny, Fetterman allegedly boasted that with 80 soldiers, he could ride through the Sioux Nation. On December 21,1866, a band of Cheyenne. George Grummond,49 enlisted troops of the 18th Infantry,27 men of the 2nd Cavalry, ignoring his orders not to venture beyond Lodge Trail Ridge, Fetterman pursued a small band of Sioux and was lured into an ambush. He found himself facing approximately 2,000 Indians, within 20 minutes, Fetterman and his command had been wiped out. The Fetterman Massacre, as the encounter became known, was second in notoriety only to Custers disastrous defeat in 1876 and it led to the dismissal of Fettermans commanding officer, Henry B. Carrington, who was blamed for the disaster, but was eventually exonerated. Fettermans grave is in the National Cemetery at the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument and he had never married and left no heirs. His pension was sent to his mother, in 1867, the army designated a new outpost in the Dakota Territory as Fort Fetterman in honor of the slain officer. There is also a Fetterman Street and Fetterman Drive in Laramie, brown, Dee, The Fetterman Massacre, University of Nebraska Press,1971. Fetterman battle on Friends of the Little Big Horn site Fetterman battlefield photos
22.
Fort Phil Kearny
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Fort Phil Kearny was an outpost of the United States Army that existed in the late 1860s in present-day northeastern Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail. The post was named for Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, the fort should be distinguished from the similarly named Fort Kearny in Nebraska, which was named for Kearnys uncle Stephen W. Kearny. Today, the fort and the nearby Fetterman and Wagon Box battle sites are maintained by the State of Wyoming as the Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site. The fort was located along the east side of the Bighorn Mountains in present-day northern Johnson County, along with Fort Reno and Fort C. F. Fort Phil Kearny was the largest of the three stockaded fortifications along the trail and its eight-foot high log walls enclosed an area of 17 acres. The longer walls on the north-east and south-west sides each measured 1,496 feet in length, the width of the north-west side was 600 feet and this tapered to 240 feet at the south-east side. The perimeter of the stockade was approximately 3,900 feet, further building construction in 1867 required over 606,000 board feet of lumber and 130,000 adobe bricks. The fort was under construction and was nearing completion in December 1866. The fort, known to the Indians as the hated post on the Little Piney, the area around the fort was the site of the Fetterman Fight in 1866 and the Wagon Box Fight in 1867. By 1868, the Union Pacific Railroad had reached far enough west that emigrants could reach the Montana gold fields through present-day Idaho, all three forts along the trail were abandoned as part of the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Shortly after, it was burned by Cheyenne Indians, Fort Phil Kearny, including the nearby sites of the Fetterman Fight and the Wagon Box Fight, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960. Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site includes a center with exhibits, videos, a bookstore. The tour marks the remains of the forts buildings. A cabin built by the Civilian Conservation Corps has been furnished to depict the period quarters of an officers wife, visitors can also tour the nearby battlefields which are located within a five-mile radius of the visitor center and include interpretive trails. In 1966, NBC televised The Massacre at Fort Phil Kearny on the anthology series Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre, other stars were Richard Egan, Phyllis Avery, and Carroll OConnor. Fort Phil Kearny was also the subject of the 1951 movie “Tomahawk“ starring Van Heflin, the Internet Movie Database called the movie unusually accurate historically. Http, //www. imdb. com/title/tt0044135/ Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site - official site Fort Phil Kearny State Historic Site - Fort Phil Kearny/Bozeman Trail Association
23.
Crazy Horse
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Crazy Horse, literally His-Horse-Is-Crazy, was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota. He ranks among the most notable and iconic of Native American tribal members and was honored by the U. S. Postal Service in 1982 with a 13¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. Sources differ on the year of Crazy Horses birth. According to a friend, he and Crazy Horse were both born in the same year at the same season of the year, which census records. Among the Oglala winter counts, the stealing of 100 horses is noted by Cloud Shield, oral history accounts from relatives on the Cheyenne River Reservation place his birth in the spring of 1840. On the evening of his sons death, the elder Crazy Horse told Lieutenant H. R. Lemly 1840, Crazy Horse was named at birth Cha-O-Ha His mothers nickname for him was Curly or Light Hair, as his light curly hair resembled that of his mother. Crazy Horse was born to parents from two tribes of the Lakota division of the Sioux, his father was an Oglala and his mother was a Miniconjou and his father, born in 1810, was also named Crazy Horse. One account said that after the son had reached maturity and shown his strength, his father gave him his name and took a new one and his mother Rattling Blanket Woman died when Crazy Horse was only four years old. Crazy Horses cousin was Touch the Clouds and he saved Crazy Horses life at least once and was with him when he died. Rattling Blanket Woman was the daughter of Black Buffalo and White Cow and her older siblings were Lone Horn and Good Looking Woman. Her younger sister was named Looks At It, later given the name They Are Afraid of Her, the historian George Hyde wrote that Rattling Blanket Woman was Miniconjou and the sister of Spotted Tail, who became a Brulé head chief. In the summer of 1844, Waglula went on a buffalo hunt and he came across a Minneconjou Lakota village under attack by Crow warriors. He led his party of warriors to the village and rescued it. Corn, the man of the village, had lost his wife in the raid. In gratitude he gave Waglula his two eldest daughters as wives, Iron Between Horns and Kills Enemy, corns youngest daughter, Red Leggins, who was 15 at the time, requested to go with her sisters, all became Waglulas wives. According to Frederick Hoxies Encyclopedia of North American Indians, Crazy Horse was the third in his line to bear the name of Crazy Horse. Tasunke Witko III was the son of Rattling Blanket Woman and Tasunke Witko II, the love of his life was Black Buffalo Woman, whom he courted, but she married another man named No Water. At one point, Crazy Horse persuaded Black Buffalo Woman to run away with him, No Water borrowed a pistol and ran after his wife
24.
Great Sioux Reservation
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The Great Sioux Reservation was the original area encompassing what are today the various Sioux Indian reservations in South Dakota and Nebraska. The reservation was established in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 and this area was established by the United States as a reservation for the Teton Sioux, also known as the Lakota, the seven western bands of the Seven Council Fires. In addition to the dedicated to the Lakota, the Sioux reserved the right to hunt and travel in unceded territory in much of Wyoming and in the Sandhills. Because each band had its own territory, the US established several agencies through the Bureau of Indian Affairs to regulate the Lakota in this vast area. The United States used the Missouri River to form the boundary of the Reservation. Custers 1874 Black Hills Expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln to the Black Hills or Paha Sapa discovered gold, the public announcement brought miners and open conflict with the Lakota. The US Army defeated the Lakota in the Black Hills War, most of the Great Sioux Reservation remained intact for another 13 years. In 1887, Congress passed the General Allotment Act, also called the Dawes Act to break up communal Indian lands into individual family holdings, much of the area was not homesteaded until the 1910s, after the Enlarged Homestead Act increased allocations to 320 acres for semi-arid land. Settlement was encouraged by the railroads, and the US government issued publications of scientific instruction on how to farm the arid land, new European immigrants came to the area. The Lakota tribes received $1.25 per acre, usually used to offset agency expenses in meeting federal treaty obligations to the tribes, federal registrars recorded tribal members in each tribe, as land was allotted to heads of households. The government allocated 160 acre parcels to heads of families, and declared any remaining land to be surplus, after a period of time, Native Americans could sell their land individually, and did. The allocations were not based on knowledge of whether the arid lands could support the small family farms envisioned by the government. This was largely an experiment for the Lakota and most homesteaders alike. Numerous European immigrants homesteaded the newly available lands on the Plains, self-styled experts recommended regular tilling of the soil to attract moisture from the sky. The Plains were settled during what historians now know was a wetter than normal period, but, as more normal drought conditions returned, many farms folded. The farmers did not know how to best preserve the moisture in the soil. Many had to abandon their land, today most farming is done by large-scale industrial farms which use different techniques, such as winter planting, to raise wheat. By the 1960s, the five reservations had lost much of their territories, similar reductions occurred in the other reservations
25.
Ely S. Parker
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Ely Samuel Parker, was a Seneca attorney, engineer, and tribal diplomat. He was commissioned a lieutenant colonel during the American Civil War and he wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox. Later in his career, Parker rose to the rank of brigadier general. President Grant appointed him as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the first Native American to hold that post, Parker was born in 1828 as the sixth of seven children to Elizabeth and William Parker, of prominent Seneca families, at Indian Falls, New York. He was named Ha-sa-no-an-da and later baptized Ely Samuel Parker and his father was a miller and a Baptist minister. The Seneca are one of the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee, Ely had a classical education at a missionary school, was fully bilingual speaking Seneca as well as English, and went on to college. He spent his life bridging his identities as Seneca and a resident of the United States, the parents strongly supported education for all the children, who included Spencer Houghton Cone, Nicholson Henry, Levi, Caroline, Newton, and Solomon. Nicholson Parker also became a prominent Seneca leader as he was a powerful orator, Parker worked in a legal firm reading law for the customary three years in Ellicottville, New York and then applied to take the bar examination. He was not permitted because, as a Seneca, he was not considered a United States citizen at that time and it was not until 1924 that all American Indians were considered citizens under the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. Browns Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee stated Parker was refused because he was not a white man, through this chance meeting, Morgan and Parker became friends. Parker invited Morgan to the Tonawanda reservation, Parker became Morgans main source of information and entrée to others in the Seneca and other Iroquois nations. Morgan dedicated his book on the Iroquois to Parker, noting their joint collaboration on the project, the relationship between the two men proved important for them both. Just as Parker helped Morgan to become a pioneer, Morgan helped Parker to make connections in the larger society. Later in life, Parker reached the position that Morgan had wanted for himself—the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, more immediately, with Morgans help, Parker gained admission to study engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. He worked as an engineer until the start of the American Civil War. Parker married Minnie Orton Sackett in 1867 and they had one daughter, Maud Theresa. Before this he had met and worked with Morgan, an independent scholar in the field of ethnology and anthropology, Morgan dedicated his book League of the Iroquois to Parker, writing the materials are the fruit of our joint researches. Morgan helped Parker gain entry to Rensselaer Polytechnic, because he recognized the mans abilities, as an engineer, Parker contributed to upgrades and maintenance of the Erie Canal, among other projects
26.
Seneca people
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The Seneca are a group of indigenous Iroquoian-speaking people native to North America who historically lived south of Lake Ontario. They were the nation located farthest to the west within the Six Nations or Iroquois League in New York before the American Revolution, in the 21st century, more than 10,000 Seneca live in the United States, which has three federally recognized Seneca tribes. Two are in New York, the Seneca Nation of New York, the Seneca-Cayuga Nation is located in Oklahoma, where their ancestors were relocated from Ohio during Indian Removal. Approximately 1,000 Seneca live in Canada, near Brantford, Ontario and they are descendants of Seneca who resettled there after the American Revolution, as they had been allies of the British and forced to cede much of their lands. The Seneca nations own name is Onöndowága, meaning Great Hill Place and it is identical to the endonym used by the Onondaga people. At the time of formation of the Haudenosaunee, they lived as the farthest west of the five nations within the league and they were referred to as the Keepers of the Western Door. Other nations called them Seneca after their village of Osininka. Since Osininka sounds like the Anishinaabe word Asinikaa, meaning Those at the Place Full of Stones, non-Haudenosaunee nations confused the Seneca nations name with that of the Oneida nations endonym Onyotaa, ka, meaning People of the Standing Stone. A legend of the Seneca tribe states that the tribe originated in a village called Nundawao, near the end of Canandaigua Lake. Close to South Hill stands the 865 foot -high Bare Hill, Bare Hill is part of the Bare Hill Unique Area, which began to be acquired by the state in 1989. Bare Hill had been the site of a Seneca or pre-Seneca indigenous fort and they indicate defenses raised by Indian hands, or more probably belong to the labors of a race that preceded the Indian occupation. The wall is now about tumbled down, the stones seem somewhat scattered, in the early 1920s, the material that made up the Bare Hill fort was used by the Town of Middlesex highway department for road fill. The Seneca traditionally lived in what is now New York state between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake, the dating of an oral tradition mentioning a solar eclipse yields 1142 AD as the year for the Seneca joining the Iroquois. The Seneca were by far the most populous of the Haudenosaunee nations, the villages were the homes and headquarters of the Seneca. While the Seneca maintained substantial permanent settlements and raised crops in the vicinity of their villages. The villages, where hunting and military campaigns were planned and executed, major Seneca villages were protected with wooden palisades. Ganondagan, with 150 longhouses, was the largest Seneca village of the 17th century, while Chenussio, the Seneca had two branches, the western and the eastern. Each branch distinct, they were incorporated and recognized by the Iroquois Confederacy Council
27.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
28.
Red Cloud Agency
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The Red Cloud Agency was an Indian agency for the Oglala Lakota as well as the Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, from 1871 to 1878. It was located at three different sites in Wyoming Territory and Nebraska before being moved to South Dakota and it was then renamed the Pine Ridge Reservation. As stipulated in the Fort Laramie Treaty, the US government built Indian agencies for the various Lakota and these were forerunners to the modern Indian reservations. The Red Cloud Agency was established for the Oglala Lakota in 1871 on the North Platte River in Wyoming Territory, the location was one mile west of the present town of Henry, Nebraska. In August 1873, the agency was moved to the corner of Nebraska. Constructed on a hill overlooking the White River, the buildings included a large warehouse, offices, home for the agent, blacksmith shop. A school house was later added, two trading stores were also built adjacent to the agency. Following the killing of agency clerk Frank Appleton, the government assigned US troops to the agency in March 1874, the military encampment was named Camp Robinson. The Red Cloud Agency was the center of activity during the Great Sioux War of 1876-77. In May 1877, Crazy Horse and allied leaders came with their people to the Red Cloud Agency for surrender, following the killing of Crazy Horse, the agency was moved further west. The site of Red Cloud Agency No.2 is included in Fort Robinson and Red Cloud Agency, the agency was moved to the White River in October 1877, in present day, South-Central South Dakota. In 1878, the Red Cloud Agency was relocated to southern South Dakota, James Wham Jared Daniels Dr. John J. Saville - a physician from Sioux City Iowa, arrived as agent in the fall of 1873. During his administration, the established a post nearby. The first treaty negotiations for the Black Hills were held between the US government and the Lakota, accused of graft, Saville resigned as agent in late 1875, although a commission investigation had cleared him of wrongdoing. Valentine McGillycuddy James S. Hastings Lieut, charles A. Johnson Dr. James Irwin George E. Hyde, Red Clouds Folk, A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem, catherine Price, The Oglala People, 1841-1879, A Political History. Roger T. Grange, Jr, Fort Robinson, Outpost on the Plains, Reprinted from Nebraska History, Volume 39, No.3, mari Sandoz, Crazy Horse, The Strange Man of the Oglalas
29.
Fort Laramie National Historic Site
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It was founded in the 1830s to service the overland fur trade during the middle 19th century. It sat at the bottom of the long climb leading to the best and lowest crossing point at South Pass into western descending valleys and so was a primary stopping point on the Oregon Trail. Along with Bents Fort on the Arkansas River, the trading post, Fort William was a private fur trading post founded by William Sublette in 1834. In 1841 it was purchased by the American Fur Company and renamed Fort John, the name Fort Laramie came into gradual use, likely as a convenient shortening of Fort John at the Laramie River. The remaining structures are preserved as the Fort Laramie National Historic Site by the National Park Service, in 1815 or 1816, Jacques La Ramee and a small group of fellow trappers settled in the area where Fort Laramie would later be located. He went out alone to trap in 1819 or 1820 and was never seen again, arapahoe Indians were accused of killing La Ramie and putting his body in a beaver dam. The river was named “Laramie” in his honor, and the name would later be given to the Laramie Mountains, the fort, one of the early principal owner-trappers was William Sublette, and the fort was therefore called Fort William. For a period of time until it was sold to the American Fur Company in 1841 and it was later named Fort John after John B. The 1846 treaties established new desirable stable western territories just after viable routes west had become well published. By the time the migration by occasional wagon trains along the Oregon Trail became regular annual flood of migrants. The fort was located along the northward running Laramie River just south of its mouth out-letting onto the North Platte River. The forts site is located on the bank of the location of the town of Fort Laramie, Wyoming. Geographically the site is situated just east of the steeper, much more challenging, in 1845 the nearby Fort Bernard was established about 8 miles east farther down the North Platte River in hopes of cutting into the growing Emigrant Trail trade with western bound wagon trains. This much smaller fort undersold the Laramie trading operation, and did excellent business, fortunately for Fort Laramie, Fort Bernard burnt down in 1866, and was never rebuilt. The fort was purchased from Bruce Husband, a member of the American Fur Company, three companies of cavalry arrived at the fort that same month, and Company ‘G’, 6th Infantry, which was the post’s permanent garrison for many years, arrived on August 12,1849. The fort was taken over by the Army largely to protect, during the increasing strife of the 1860s, the fort took on a more military posture. Fort Laramie was never threatened by Indian attacks during the quarter-century of intermittent warfare sparked by the Grattan massacre. However, a number of civilians were killed in the immediate area, the last known death occurred in March 1877 on the Big Bitter Cottonwood Creek
30.
White River (Missouri River tributary)
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The White River is a Missouri River tributary that flows 580 miles through the U. S. states of Nebraska and South Dakota. The name stems from the waters color, a function of eroded sand, clay. Draining a basin of about 10,200 square miles, about 8,500 square miles of which is in South Dakota, the flows through a region of sparsely populated hills, plateaus. The White River rises in northwestern Nebraska, in the Pine Ridge escarpment north of Harrison and it flows southeast then northeast past Fort Robinson and north of Crawford. It crosses into southwestern South Dakota and flows north across the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, then northeast, receiving Wounded Knee Creek and flowing between units of Badlands National Park. At the northern edge of the reservation, it flows east-northeast and southeast, forming the boundary of the reservation. It receives the Little White River about 15 miles south of Murdo, the river sometimes has no flow, due to the dry climate surrounding its badlands and prairie basin, though thunderstorms can cause brief intense flow. The river near Chamberlain flows year-round, the White River has generally good-quality water
31.
George Armstrong Custer
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George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Raised in Michigan and Ohio, Custer was admitted to West Point in 1857, with the outbreak of the Civil War, Custer was called to serve with the Union Army. Custer developed a reputation during the Civil War. He participated in the first major engagement, the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21,1861, near Washington and his association with several important officers helped his career as did his success as a highly effective cavalry commander. He was wounded in the Battle of Culpeper Court House in Virginia on September 13,1863, in 1864, Custer was awarded another star and brevetted to major general rank. At the conclusion of the Appomattox Campaign, in which he and his troops played a role, Custer was present at General Robert E. Lees surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant. After the Civil War, Custer remained a general in the United States Volunteers until they were mustered out in February 1866. He reverted to his permanent rank of captain and was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the 7th Cavalry Regiment in July 1866 and he was dispatched to the west in 1867 to fight in the American Indian Wars. The battle is known in American history as Custers Last Stand. Custer and his regiment were defeated so decisively at the Little Bighorn that it has overshadowed all of his prior achievements, according to family letters, Custer was named after George Armstrong, a minister, in his devout mothers hope that her son might join the clergy. Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, to Emanuel Henry Custer, a farmer and blacksmith and he had two younger brothers, Thomas Custer and Boston Custer, both of whom died with him on the battlefield at Little Bighorn. His other full siblings were the familys youngest child, Margaret Custer, and Nevin Custer, Custer also had three older half-siblings. It was in large, close knit family that Custer. Emanuel Custer was an outspoken Democrat who taught his children politics, in a February 3,1887 letter to his sons widow, Libby, he related an incident when Autie was about four years old. He had to have a tooth drawn, and he was much afraid of blood. When I took him to the doctor to have the tooth pulled, it was in the night and I told him if it bled well it would get right away. When he got to the doctor he took his seat, the forceps slipped off and he had to make a second trial. He pulled it out, and Autie never even scrunched, going home, I led him by the arm
32.
Black Hills
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The Black Hills are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. Black Elk Peak, which rises to 7,244 feet, is the ranges highest summit, the Black Hills encompass the Black Hills National Forest. The name Black Hills is a translation of the Lakota Pahá Sápa, the hills were so-called because of their dark appearance from a distance, as they were covered in trees. Native Americans have a history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills, however, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custers Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. As the economy of the Black Hills has shifted from natural resources since the late 20th century, locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas, The Southern Hills and The Northern Hills. Attractions in the Northern Hills include Spearfish Canyon, historic Deadwood, the first Rally was held on August 14,1938 and the 75th Rally in 2015 saw more than 1 million bikers visit the Black Hills. Devils Tower National Monument, located in the Wyoming Black Hills, is an important nearby attraction and was the United States first national monument. Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns. For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, however, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins. The Arikara arrived by AD1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, the Lakota arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west. They claimed the land, which they called Ȟe Sápa, the mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills. François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably travelled near the Black Hills in 1743, fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans. European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory, in this treaty, they protected the Black Hills forever from European-American settlement. Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that in their cultures, it was considered the axis mundi, an official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition. The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills, the surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, was the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak. This highest point in the Black Hills is 7,242 feet above sea level, during the 1875–1878 gold rush, thousands of miners went to the Black Hills, in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory. Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills, Deadwood, Central City, around these were groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages
33.
Spotted Tail
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Siŋté Glešká was a Brulé Lakota tribal chief. Although a great warrior in his youth, and having taken part in the Grattan massacre and he had become convinced of the futility of opposing the white incursions into his homeland, he became a statesman, speaking for peace and defending the rights of his tribe. He made several trips to Washington, D. C. in the 1870s to represent his people, Spotted Tail was born about 1823 in the White River country west of the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota. During the previous 40 years, the Lakota or Teton Sioux had moved from present-day Minnesota and they had differentiated into several sub-tribes or bands, including the Saône, Brulé and Oglala. During this time the people adopted the use of horses and expanded their range in hunting the buffalo across their wide grazing patterns, Spotted Tails father, Cunka or Tangle Hair, was from the Saône band, and his mother, Walks-with-the-Pipe, was a Brulé. He was given the name of Jumping Buffalo. The young man took his name, Spotted Tail, after receiving a gift of a raccoon tail from a white trapper. He took part in the Grattan Massacre, two of his sisters, Iron Between Horns and Kills Enemy, were married to the elder Crazy Horse, in what was traditional Sioux practice for elite men. Spotted Tail may have been the uncle of the famous warrior Crazy Horse. Army officers as well as a sense of humor. Spotted Tail married and had children. Eugene Ware, a Fort Laramie army officer, wrote that Spotted Tail’s daughter, Ah-ho-appa, “. was one of those found in all lands, at all places, and among all people, she was misplaced. ”He suggested that she adopted some European-American practices. When she was dying in 1866, Fallen Leaf made her promise that she would be buried on a hillside overlooking Fort Laramie. The entire garrison at the post helped Spotted Tail to honor her request by arranging for a funeral, including a Christian service. Many years later, Spotted Tail had her remains transported to the Rosebud Indian Agency in South Dakota and he put up a monument to her. Spotted Tail agreed to the treaty, which in 1868 established the Great Sioux Reservation in West River, in 1871, the senior Spotted Tail visited Washington, D. C. to meet the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker and President Ulysses S. Grant. While there, he met with Red Cloud, a chief of the Oglala Lakota, in 1881, following the Black Hills War, Spotted Tail was killed by Crow Dog for reasons which have been disputed. According to the historian Dee Brown, White officials, dismissed the killing as the culmination of a quarrel over a woman, but Spotted Tails friends said that it was the result of a plot to break the power of the chiefs
34.
Lone Horn
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Lone Horn, also called One Horn, born in present-day South Dakota), was chief of the Wakpokinyan band of the Minneconjou Lakota. Lone Horns sons were Spotted Elk and Touch the Clouds, and he participated in the signing of the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868, which reads Heh-won-ge-chat, his x mark, One Horn Old Chief Smoke was Lone Horns maternal uncle. Lone Horn died near Bear Butte in 1877 from old age, after Lone Horns death his adopted son Spotted Elk eventually became chief of the Minneconjou and was later killed along with his people at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. In 1832, George Catlin painted One Horn, at Fort Pierre, back East, Caitlin wrote this description of him, a middle-aged man, of middling stature, with a noble countenance, and a figure almost equaling the Apollo, and I painted his portrait. Has risen rapidly to the highest honours in the tribe, from his own extraordinary merits and his costume was a very handsome one, and will have a place in my Indian Gallery by the side of his picture. This extraordinary man, before he was raised to the dignity of chief, was the renowned of his tribe for his athletic achievements. In the chase he was foremost, he could run down a buffalo, which he often had done, on his own legs and he was the fleetest in the tribe, and in the races he had run, he had always taken the prize. A Lakota chief, thought to be Oglala, named Lone Horn or One Horn is recorded in Lakota winter counts, in 1834, he accidentally caused the death of his only son. Consumed by sorrow, he committed suicide by attacking a bull on foot with only a knife. The two-horned animal gored The One Horn to death, Spotted Elk or Big Foot Touch the Clouds
35.
Indian Territory
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In general, the tribes ceded land they occupied in exchange for land grants in an area purchased by the United States federal government from Napoleonic France, the Louisiana Purchase. The concept of an Indian Territory was an outcome of the 18th-, after the Civil War, the policy of the government was one of assimilation. The term Indian Reserve describes lands the British government set aside for indigenous tribes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River in the time before the Revolutionary War. The borders of Indian Territory were reduced in size as various Organic Acts were passed by Congress to create incorporated territories of the United States. The 1907 Oklahoma Enabling Act created the state of Oklahoma by combining Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory. Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land within the United States of America reserved for the forced re-settlement of Native Americans, the general borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. The territory was located in the Midwest, while Congress passed several Organic Acts that provided a path for statehood for much of the original Indian Country, Congress never passed an Organic Act for the Indian Territory. Indian Territory was never an organized incorporated territory of the United States, in general, tribes could not sell land to non-Indians. The region never had a government until after the American Civil War. Therefore, the location commonly called Indian Territory was not a traditional territory. These re-written treaties included provisions for a legislature with proportional representation from various tribes. In time, the Indian Territory was reduced to what is now Oklahoma, the Organic Act of 1890 reduced Indian Territory to the lands occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and the Tribes of the Quapaw Indian Agency. The remaining western portion of the former Indian Territory became the Oklahoma Territory, the Oklahoma organic act applied the laws of Nebraska to the incorporated territory of Oklahoma Territory, and the laws of Arkansas to the still unincorporated Indian Territory. The proclamation limited the settlement of Europeans to Crown-claimed lands east of the Appalachian Mountains, the territory remained active until the Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War, and land was ceded to the United States. After the defeat of the British, the Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated, the period after the American Revolutionary War was one of rapid western expansion. The areas occupied by Native Americans in the United States were called Indian country, in 1803 the United States of America agreed to purchase Frances claim to French Louisiana for a total of $15 million. President Thomas Jefferson doubted the legality of the purchase, however, the chief negotiator, Robert R. Livingston believed that the 3rd article of the treaty providing for the Louisiana Purchase would be acceptable to congress. Indian removal became the policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act
36.
Yellow Bear
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YELLOW BEAR Matȟó Ǧí was an Oglala Lakota leader. The first Yellow Bear was a prominent headman among the Tapisleca Tiyospaye and he accompanied the first Oglala delegation to Washington, D. C. in 1870. By the following year, Colonel John E. Smith rated the size of this village at about 40 lodges. Yellow Bear was murdered in 1872 near Fort Laramie during a fight with the controversial white trader John Richard Jr, by 1874, leadership of Yellow Bears band appears to have passed to his younger brother, Black Hawk. At about this time, another Oglala named Yellow Bear began to emerge among the Tapisleca. Born about 1844 or 1845, Yellow Bear was one of several younger Oglala leaders who came into prominence among the Lakota during the Great Sioux War of 1876-77. With the traditional avenues of a no longer available, he is an example of how a new generation of leaders found success as an intermediary between the U. S. government and the Lakota people. Photographer D. S. Mitchell included a portrait of Yellow Bear in his series of prominent Oglala portraits taken that summer or fall, during the excitement over Crazy Horse in the fall of 1877, Yellow Bear attended the council with other Oglala headmen. When Indian scouts were used to surround Crazy Horse’s village on September 4, Yellow Bear was not present but he sent word that he agreed with the action. In the fall of 1877, he was selected as one of the Oglala delegates together with Red Cloud sent to Washington, “I want to know now which is the best way we can live for a long time, ” he told President Hayes. “I have a band of my own and I have come down to work for them. ”Yellow Bear married his first wife, Wild Horse, about four years later, he married his wife’s younger sister, Holy Day. Together, the family bore eight children, four of whom grew to adulthood, as the Oglala settled on the Pine Ridge Agency after 1878, the family bands within the Tapisleca established various communities. Yellow Bear’s community, known as the Shkokpaya, settled just northwest of Allen, South Dakota, the 1890 Pine Ridge census lists the Shkokpaya with 22 families or 99 people. Among the band members listed was Imitates Dog, a brother of Yellow Bear, other sisters of Yellow Bear’s wives married Yellow Hawk and Little Crow, both also members of the Shkokpaya. Another prominent member of the Shkokpaya was Pawnee Killer, though his relationship to Yellow Bear is not known, Yellow Bear continued to serve as a prominent Oglala leader at Pine Ridge, again traveling to Washington, D. C. in 1888. He died September 1,1913 near Allen, South Dakota, in 1965, Leonard Nimoy played Yellow Bear in the episode The Journey of the syndicated western television series, Death Valley Days. In the story line, two officers, Richard Henry Pratt and Sergeant Wilks clash over treatment of Indian prisoners
37.
Little Wound
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Following the death of his brother Bull Bear II in 1865 he became leader of the Kuinyan branch of the Kiyuksa band. His father Chief Old Bull Bear, the chief of the Eastern Oglala from 1834 to 1841, was killed by Red Cloud near Chugwater, Little Wounds grandfather was Stone Chief, and his son was George Little Wound. Old Chief Smoke took Little Wounds younger brother, Young Bull Bear III, Little Wound was present at the battle of Massacre Canyon on August 5,1873, in Hitchcock County, Nebraska. It was one of the last battles between the Pawnee and the Sioux and the last large scale battle between Native American tribes in the area of the present day United States of America. At an Indian scout reorganization at Red Cloud Agency in 1877 the Oglalas formed the majority of Company B, major chiefs Red Cloud, Young Man Afraid of His Horses, Yellow Bear and American Horse served as his sergeants. Eventually he joined the delegation to Washington which is where the photo on the right was taken, in later life, Little Wound was a powerful advocate of the Ghost dance movement among the Lakota in 1890. After appearance of troops at Pine Ridge, he advocated for peace with the European Americans, sandoz, Mari and Vine Deloria, Jr. Crazy Horse, The Strange Man of the Oglalas
38.
Young Man Afraid Of His Horses
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Young-Man-Afraid-Of-His-Horses, also translated as His-Horses-Are-Afraid and They-Fear-Even-His-Horses, was a chief of the Oglala Sioux. Commonly misinterpreted, his name means They fear his horse or His horse is feared and he is known for his participation in Red Clouds War, as a negotiator for the Sioux Nation after the Wounded Knee Massacre, and for serving on delegations to Washington, D. C. The latter nineteenth century Oglala Lakota leader known to the whites as Young Man Afraid of His Horse was born about 1836 into a family of Oglala headmen. According to his father, Young Man Afraid was the fourth in a line of Oglala chiefs to bear the name. After Young Man Afraid became a renowned Lakota warrior and headman in his own right, Old Man Afraid served as a headman and chief of the Hunkpatila band of Oglalas until the 1870s, when the Oglalas split over the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation. In 1871, the followers of the Man Afraids settled permanently at the Red Cloud Agency, the non-treaty Oglala faction retained the Hunkpatila name and remained in the Powder River country. Young Man Afraids Oglalas became known as the Payabya band, on 7 January 1865, a combined force of 1000 warriors attacked the stagecoach station at Julesburg, Colorado, and they continued raiding throughout the South Platte region for several weeks. Young Man Afraid of His Horse emerged as a leading Oglala warrior during these raids and this duplicity enraged Old Man Afraid of His Horse and Red Cloud, and most of the Lakota stormed out of the council in anger. These events precipitated Red Clouds War of 1866-1868, the only Indian war to end in defeat for the United States, Young Man Afraid of His Horse served as an instrumental war leader during this conflict. He played an important role in the Lakota victory at the Battle of the Hundred Slain, at the Wagon Box Fight of 2 August 1867, Young Man Afraid of His Horse served along with Crazy Horse as the leaders of the combined Lakota/Cheyenne war party. They were the last four head Oglala shirtwearers, in the 1930s, the official interpreter at the Pine Ridge Agency stated that Young Man Afraid of His Horse was the only one of the four who kept his shirt until his death. The influx of pioneers had managed to drive away most of the game which sustained the Lakota nomadic lifestyle. By the early 1870s, during winters the Hunkpatilas suffered considerably from hunger. By the latter part of 1871, the Oglalas split, with Young Man Afraid and his father, as well as Red Cloud, after settling on the Great Sioux Reservation, Young Man Afraid worked tirelessly to help preserve his peoples land and culture. He countered the obstructionist policy of Red Cloud that led to constant conflict between Red Cloud and the U. S. agent during the 1880s. He attended several delegations to Washington, D. C. for improved treatment as well as a negotiator with federal authorities to assist the Lakota people in adjusting to reservation life. For three years, he served as President of the Pine Ridge Board of Councilmen, along with most of the Lakota, Young Man Afraid of His Horse resisted the push from the government for the Indians to become commercial farmers. He merely cultivated a garden patch and began raising livestock, raising cattle, horses
39.
Great Sioux War of 1876
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The cause of the war was the desire of the U. S. government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and that Indian victory notwithstanding, the U. S. leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under the presidencies of Ulysses S. Grant, the Agreement of 1877 officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations. The Cheyenne had migrated west to the Black Hills and Powder River Country before the Lakota, by the late 18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had begun expanding its territory west of the Missouri River. They pushed out the Kiowa and formed alliances with the Cheyenne, the Black Hills, located in present-day western South Dakota, became an important source to the Lakota for lodge poles, plant resources and small game. They are considered sacred to the Lakota culture, by the early 19th century, the Northern Cheyenne became the first to wage tribal-level warfare. Because European Americans used many different names for the Cheyenne, the military may not have realized their unity, the US Army destroyed seven Cheyenne camps before 1876 and three more that year, more than any other tribes suffered in this period. From 1860 on, the Cheyenne were a force in warfare on the Plains. No other group on the plains achieved such centralized tribal organization, the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, signed with the US by Lakota and Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Clouds War, set aside a portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation. This comprised the western one-half of South Dakota, including the Black Hills region for their exclusive use and it also provided for a large unceded territory in Wyoming and Montana, the Powder River Country, as Cheyenne and Lakota hunting grounds. On both the reservation and the territory, white men were forbidden to trespass, except for officials of the U. S. government. The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching in the Dakota Territory, however, the US government could not keep settlers out. The geographic uplift area suggested the potential for mineral resources, when a commission approached the Red Cloud Agency about the possibility of the Lakotas signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted that this was the only portion worth anything to them. He concluded that nothing short of their annihilation will get it from them, in 1874, the government dispatched the Custer Expedition to examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition, before Custers column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln, news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally. The presence of mineral resources was confirmed the following year by the Newton-Jenney Geological Expedition. Prospectors, motivated by the panic of 1873, began to trickle into the Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. This trickle turned into a flood as thousands of miners invaded the Hills before the rush was over
40.
Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
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Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
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Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
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The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Native American reservation located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was established in 1889 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border. Today it consists of 3,468.85 sq mi of area and is the eighth-largest reservation in the United States, larger than Delaware. The reservation encompasses the entirety of Oglala Lakota County, the half of Jackson County. Of the 3,142 counties in the United States, these are among the poorest, only 84,000 acres of land are suitable for agriculture. Pine Ridge is the site of events that marked tragic milestones in the history between the Sioux of the area and the United States government. Stronghold Table—a mesa in what is today the Oglala-administered portion of Badlands National Park—was the location of the last of the Ghost Dances, the U. S. authorities attempt to repress this movement eventually led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29,1890. The families were intercepted by an armed detachment of the Seventh Cavalry. This was the last large engagement between U. S. forces and Native Americans and marked the end of the western frontier. Changes accumulated in the last quarter of the 20th century, in 1971 the Oglala Sioux Tribe started Oglala Lakota College, a tribal college, which offers 4-year degrees. In 1973 decades of discontent at the Pine Ridge Reservation resulted in a grassroots protest that escalated into the Wounded Knee Incident and this event inspired American Indians across the country and gradually led to changes at the reservation, with a revival of some cultural traditions. In 1981 the Lakota Tim Giago started the Lakota Times at Pine Ridge, a great variety of plant and animal life flourishes on and adjacent to the reservation, including the endangered black-footed ferret. As stipulated in the Fort Laramie Treaty, the U. S. government built Indian agencies for the various Lakota and these were forerunners to the modern Indian reservations. The Red Cloud Agency was established for the Oglala Lakota in 1871 on the North Platte River in Wyoming Territory, the location was one mile west of the present town of Henry, Nebraska. The location of the Red Cloud Agency was moved to two locations before being settled at the present Pine Ridge location. Its mission was to look for locations for a fort, find a route to the southwest. After his discovery of gold was made public, miners began migrating there illegally although it was reservation land, Custers florid descriptions of the mineral and timber resources of the Black Hills, and the lands suitability for grazing and cultivation. Received wide circulation, and had the effect of creating a popular demand for the opening of the Hills for settlement
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Dawes Act
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The Dawes Act of 1887, adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Those who accepted allotments and lived separately from the tribe would be granted United States citizenship, the Dawes Act was amended in 1891, in 1898 by the Curtis Act, and again in 1906 by the Burke Act. The Act was named for its creator, Senator Henry Laurens Dawes of Massachusetts, individual household ownership of land and subsistence farming on the European-American model was seen as an essential step. The Dawes Commission, set up under an Indian Office appropriation bill in 1893, was created to try to persuade the Five Civilized Tribes to agree to allotment plans and this commission registered the members of the Five Civilized Tribes on what became known as the Dawes Rolls. This completed the extinguishment of tribal land titles in Indian Territory, during the ensuing decades, the Five Civilized Tribes lost 90 million acres of former communal lands, which were sold to non-Natives. Tribe members also suffered from the breakdown of the structure of the tribes. During the Great Depression, the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration supported passage on June 18,1934 of the US Indian Reorganization Act and it ended land allotment and created a New Deal for Indians, renewing their rights to reorganize and form their self-governments. During the 1850s, the United States federal governments attempt to control over the Native Americans expanded. Numerous new European immigrants were settling on the border of the Indian territories. Conflicts between the groups increased as they competed for resources and operated according to different cultural systems, many European Americans did not believe that members of the two racial societies could coexist within the same communities. The new policy intended to concentrate Native Americans in areas away from encroaching settlers, finally defeated by the US military force and continuing waves of encroaching settlers, the tribes negotiated agreements to resettle on reservations. Native Americans ended up with a total of over 155 million acres of land, the Reservation system, though forced upon Native Americans, was a system that allotted each tribe a claim to their new lands, protection over their territories, and the right to govern themselves. With the Senate supposedly being able to only through the negotiation of treaties, they adjusted their ways of life. The tribe was viewed as a cohesive group, led by a hereditary, chosen chief. The tribes were seen as strong, tight-knit societies led by men who were opposed to any change that weakened their positions. Many white Americans feared them and sought reformation, the Indians failure to adopt the Euroamerican lifestyle, which was the social norm in the United States at the time, was seen as both unacceptable and uncivilized. On February 8,1887, the Dawes Allotment Act was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland, in opposition to their white counterparts, they did not see it from an economic standpoint. But, many began to believe they had to adapt to the majority culture in order to survive
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Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy
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Valentine Trant McGillycuddy was a surgeon who served with expeditions and United States military forces in the West. He was considered controversial for his efforts to build a relationship between the United States and Native American peoples. Valentine Trant OConnell McGillycuddy was born on February 14,1849 in Racine, when he was 13, his family moved to Detroit. He graduated from the Detroit Medical School at 20 years of age and he began working as a doctor at the Wayne Country Insane Asylum and practiced medicine for one year. Next he began teaching at the medical college, mcGillycuddys longstanding love for the outdoors led him to leave the city medical field. From 1871 to 1874, McGillycuddy worked for the United States Boundary Survey Commission and he became a topographer and surgeon for the International Expedition. This group headed an expedition to define the border between the United States and Canada along the 49th parallel and they began their expedition in North Dakota, where the ground had frozen due to a wet season. In order to keep their feet warm, the men wore several pairs of socks, wrapped their feet in a square blanket, after the expedition ended, McGilldycuddy returned to Washington, DC. He was soon sent out to Wyoming to continue his career as a topographer, the following year, in 1875, he was invited on the Newton-Jenney Party. As the surveyor for the expedition, McGillycuddy was the first person to record their climb of Harney Peak in the Black Hills of South Dakota and he was responsible for mapping the topography and geology of the region, while the expedition assessed the area for major gold deposits. Upon returning from the expedition, McGillycuddy married Fanny Hoyt and he was recruited as the Contract Surgeon with General George Crook during the Battle of the Rosebud, the Battle of Slim Buttes, and the Horsemeat March. McGillycuddy was appointed Assistant Post Surgeon at Fort Robinson in what became Nebraska and he was known to the Lakota at the agency as a Friend of Crazy Horse, a notable Lakota leader. McGillycuddy treated Crazy Horse after he was shot by guards who said he was trying to escape. After Crazy Horses death, McGillycuddy went to Washington D. C. to lobby for humane treatment of Indians at Fort Robinson. McGillycuddy was appointed as Indian Agent in 1879, when he was 30 and he served at the Pine Ridge Agency (now Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. He did not manage to achieve such friendly relations here as he had with Crazy Horse, Red Cloud, a major chief, accused McGillycuddy of mismanagement, leading to several investigations of the Agents administration. Despite this, McGillycuddy established an Indian police force, and set up a school to educate Indian children of the region. Under pressure to fire a loyal clerk for no reason he could see and he was suspended from his position in October 1882
