1.
Triangulation station
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The station is usually set up by a government with known coordinate and elevation published. Many stations are located on hilltops for the purposes of visibility, a graven metal plate on the top of a pillar may provide a mounting point for a theodolite or reflector. Trigonometrical stations are grouped together to form a network of triangulation, positions of all land boundaries, roads, railways, bridges and other infrastructure can be accurately located by the network, a task that is essential to the construction of modern infrastructure. Apart from the known stations set up by government, some temporary trigonometrical stations are set up near construction sites for monitoring the precision, some trigonometrical stations use the Global Positioning System for convenience, however, the accuracy depends on factors such as ionospheric and tropospheric propagation delay errors. Although stations are no longer required for many surveying purposes, they remain useful to hikers as navigational aids and these trig stations are clearly visible for many kilometres and useful for hikers. In Japan, there are five classes of triangulation stations, Class 1 They are installed approximately every 40 kilometres, There are about 1000 throughout Japan. The pillars are 18 centimetres on a side, and each pillar is anchored with two large perpendicular rocks buried underground. Class 2 They are installed approximately every 8 kilometres, There are about 5000 throughout Japan, and the pillars are 15 centimetres on a side. Each pillar is anchored with a large perpendicular rock buried underground. Class 3 There are about 32,000 installed throughout Japan, the pillars are 15 centimetres on a side, and each pillar is anchored with a large perpendicular rock buried underground. Class 4 They are installed approximately every 2 kilometres, and there are about 69,000 throughout Japan, the pillars are 12 centimetres on a side, and each pillar is anchored with a large perpendicular rock buried underground. Class 5 These markers were installed in 1899 and are the predecessors to the modern triangulation stations used in Japan today and they are generally not used anymore since the installation of the Class 1-4 stations. Some of them still exist at various locations throughout Japan, in Spain there are 11,000 triangulation stations, concrete buildings which typically consist of a cylinder 120 cm high and 30 cm diameter over a concrete cubic base. They were erected by the Instituto Geográfico Nacional, usually painted in white, in the United Kingdom, trig points are typically concrete pillars, and were erected by the Ordnance Survey. The process of placing trig points on top of prominent hills, the Ordnance Surveys first trig point was erected on 18 April 1936 near Cold Ashby, Northamptonshire. In low-lying or flat areas some trig points are only a few metres above sea level, in most of the UK, trig points are truncated square concrete pyramids or obelisks tapering towards the top. On the top a brass plate with three arms and a depression is fixed, it is used to mount and centre a theodolite used to take angular measurements to neighbouring trig points. A benchmark is set on the side, marked with the letters O S B M
2.
Crompton Moor
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Crompton Moor is an area of moorland in the South Pennines, in North West England. It lies along the outskirts of Shaw and Crompton, in the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham. Spanning approximately 160 acres, and reaching an elevation of 1,282 feet at Crow Knowl and it is a registered common of Greater Manchester, and a Site of Biological Importance since 2003. The Friends of Crompton Moor are a conservation group, who work in partnership with Oldham Countryside Service to maintain. Most of Crompton Moor is covered in purple moor grass and heather, wildlife on the moors includes red grouse, golden plover, and the meadow pipit. An early type of axe known as a palstave has been discovered on Crompton Moor, during the 18th century Crompton Moor had several farms, dry stone walls still exist from these times as evidence of field division for pasture. Crow Knowl, at the summit of Crompton Moor, features a station, Crow Knowl Telecommunications mast. Crow Knowl overlooks Rochdale to the northwest, Manchester to the southwest, Crompton Moor has been the site of several wildfires. A significant fire occurred in 1995, raging for over two weeks and burning a proportion of the surface vegetation as well as the subsurface peat. Another took place in March 2007, brushes Clough and Pingot are former coal and sandstone quarries on Crompton Moor. During the 1970s, quarrying was halted, the land was reclaimed, the area has since been used for recreation, including hiking, orienteering, cycling and horse riding. Brushes Clough Reservoir was constructed in the 19th century by the Oldham County Borough Council, after being managed by United Utilities for a number of years, the reservoir and some of the surrounding land is now privately owned. An unnamed waterfall cascades off Crompton Moor into the now unused Pingot Quarry forming the Old Brook, breathingplaces. org, The BBCs page on Crompton Moor. Friends of Crompton Moor A volunteer conservation group working in partnership with the landowner, trigpointinguk. com, information on the trig point at Crow Knowl
3.
Ordnance Survey
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Ordnance Survey is a non-ministerial government department which acts as the national mapping agency for Great Britain and is one of the worlds largest producers of maps. Since 1 April 2015 it has operated as Ordnance Survey Ltd, the Ordnance Survey Board remain accountable to the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. It is also a member of the Public Data Group, the agencys name indicates its original military purpose, mapping Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745. There was also a general and nationwide need in light of the potential threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Ordnance Survey mapping is usually classified as either large-scale or small-scale, the Surveys large-scale mapping comprises maps at six inches to the mile or more and was available as sheets until the 1980s, when it was digitised. Small-scale mapping comprises maps at less than six inches to the mile, such as the one inch to the mile leisure maps. These are still available in sheet form. Ordnance Survey maps remain in copyright for fifty years after their publication, some of the Copyright Libraries hold complete or near-complete collections of pre-digital OS mapping. The origins of the Ordnance Survey lie in the aftermath of the last Jacobite rising which was defeated by forces loyal to the government at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In 1747, Lieutenant-colonel David Watson proposed the compilation of a map of the Highlands to facilitate the subjugation of clans, in response, King George II charged Watson with making a military survey of the Highlands under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. Among Watsons assistants were William Roy, Paul Sandby and John Manson, the survey was produced at a scale of 1 inch to 1000 yards and included the Duke of Cumberlands Map now held in the British Library. This work was the point of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. Roys technical skills and leadership set the standard for which Ordnance Survey became known. Work was begun in earnest in 1790 under Roys supervision, when the Board of Ordnance began a military survey starting with the south coast of England. A set of stamps, featuring maps of the Kentish village of Hamstreet, was issued in 1991 to mark the bicentenary. In 1801, the first one-inch-to-the-mile map was published, detailing the county of Kent, during the next twenty years, roughly a third of England and Wales was mapped at the same scale under the direction of William Mudge, as other military matters took precedence. It took until 1823 to re-establish a relationship with the French survey made by Roy in 1787, by 1810, one inch to the mile maps of most of the south of England were completed, but were withdrawn from sale between 1811 and 1816 because of security fears. It was gruelling work, major Thomas Colby, later the longest serving director general of Ordnance Survey, in 1824, Colby and most of his staff moved to Ireland to work on a six-inches-to-the-mile valuation survey
4.
Triangulation
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In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by forming triangles to it from known points. Optical 3D measuring systems use this principle as well in order to determine the spatial dimensions, basically, the configuration consists of two sensors observing the item. One of the sensors is typically a digital device. The projection centers of the sensors and the point on the object’s surface define a triangle. Within this triangle, the distance between the sensors is the base b and must be known, by determining the angles between the projection rays of the sensors and the basis, the intersection point, and thus the 3D coordinate, is calculated from the triangular relations. Triangulation today is used for many purposes, including surveying, navigation, metrology, astrometry, binocular vision, model rocketry, the use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity. He measured the length of the shadows and that of his own at the same moment. Such techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem 57 of the Rhind papyrus, a thousand years earlier, defines the seqt or seked as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, i. e. the reciprocal of gradients as measured today. The slopes and angles were measured using a rod that the Greeks called a dioptra
5.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
6.
Principal Triangulation of Great Britain
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The Principal Triangulation of Britain was the first high precision trigonometric survey of the whole of Great Britain, carried out between 1791 and 1853 under the auspices of the Board of Ordnance. In addition there was a purely scientific aim in providing data for geodetic calculations such as the determination of the length of Meridian arcs. Most of the work was carried out under the direction of Isaac Dalby, William Mudge and Thomas Frederick Colby, the survey stood the test of time for almost one hundred years until the Retriangulation of Great Britain between 1935 and 1962. Watson employed William Roy as an assistant to carry out the bulk of the work. The proposal was rejected on grounds of expense, Roy continued to lobby for a survey and his ambitions were realised to a certain extent by an unexpected development. The Royal Society agreed and, jointly with the Board of Ordnance, Roys first task was to measure a base line between Hampton Poor House and Kings Arbour on Hounslow Heath, a distance of just over 5 miles. This was a process, three rods of about 20 ft. were supported on trestles and the ends aligned to an accuracy of a thousandth part of an inch. The first rod was carried to the end of the third. The final measurement gave the length of the base as 27404.01 ft, for the subsequent triangulation Roy ordered a new theodolite from leading instrument-maker Jesse Ramsden. This Ramsden theodolite, delivered in 1787, for the first time divided angular scales accurately to within a second of arc. The theodolite was the largest ever constructed but, despite its size, it was carried from London to the Channel coast and employed on hills, steeples. At each location the angles to other vertices of the mesh were measured many times. Finally the angle data was used to calculate the sides of the triangles by using spherical trigonometry, in his final report, published posthumously, Roy once again pressed for the extension of the survey to the rest of Britain. Moreover the renewed threat of French invasion made him alarmed at the lack of accurate maps, the catalyst for action was the sudden availability of a new improved Ramsden theodolite which had been intended for the East India Company. The purchase of this instrument on 21 June 1791 by the Board is taken as the inauguration of the Ordnance Survey, the very next day Richmond appointed Isaac Dalby as its first employee, with a brief to extend Roys survey. In the following month Richmond appointed William Mudge and Edward Williams, for the 1784 measurement of the original base-line across Hounslow Heath, Roy had ordered three deal rods cut from a new mast in the Admiralty dock yards. These were intended to be used for the precision measurement but Roy also ordered a 100ft steel chain from Ramsden which could be used for a quick preliminary measurement. For this reason the 1791 survey started by remeasuring the base with two new 100ft chains, the second to be kept unused as a reference against which any stretching of the first would be detected, the process of measurement was exceedingly precise
7.
Satellite navigation
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A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location to high precision using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites, the system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver. The signals also allow the receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision. Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the information generated. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global satellite system. As of December 2016 only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, the Russian GLONASS, the European Unions Galileo GNSS is scheduled to be fully operational by 2020. China is in the process of expanding its regional BeiDou Navigation Satellite System into the global BeiDou-2 GNSS by 2020, India currently has satellite-based augmentation system, GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation, which enhances the accuracy of NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS positions. India has already launched the IRNSS, with an operational name NAVIC and it is expected to be fully operational by June 2016. France and Japan are in the process of developing regional navigation systems as well, Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 18–30 medium Earth orbit satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50°, Ground based augmentation is provided by systems like the Local Area Augmentation System. GNSS-2 is the generation of systems that independently provides a full civilian satellite navigation system. These systems will provide the accuracy and integrity monitoring necessary for civil navigation and this system consists of L1 and L2 frequencies for civil use and L5 for system integrity. Development is also in progress to provide GPS with civil use L2 and L5 frequencies, making it a GNSS-2 system. ¹ Core Satellite navigation systems, currently GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Global Satellite Based Augmentation Systems such as Omnistar and StarFire. Regional SBAS including WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS and GAGAN, Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as Chinas Beidou, Indias NAVIC, and Japans proposed QZSS. Continental scale Ground Based Augmentation Systems for example the Australian GRAS, Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks. Local GBAS typified by a single GPS reference station operating Real Time Kinematic corrections, early predecessors were the ground based DECCA, LORAN, GEE and Omega radio navigation systems, which used terrestrial longwave radio transmitters instead of satellites. These positioning systems broadcast a radio pulse from a known master location, the delay between the reception of the master signal and the slave signals allowed the receiver to deduce the distance to each of the slaves, providing a fix. The first satellite system was Transit, a system deployed by the US military in the 1960s
8.
Dunnose, Isle of Wight
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Dunnose is a cape on the Isle of Wight in the English Channel. The headland is visible from out to sea, and is used in navigation. It has twice been used as the point for a triangulation of Great Britain. The line of accurately surveyed points running north from Dunnose to Clifton in Yorkshire provide the basis for triangulation to determine the positions of all locations in Britain. Dunnose Point lies to the east of Ventnor, and can be reached via the A3055 and it is said to be haunted by HMS Eurydice, which sank off the point on 24 March 1878 with the loss of 300 people. The bay between Dunnose and St. Catherines Point to the southeast has a bottom and can be hazardous. Around 1800 Dunnose was taken as a point for a triangulation of Great Britain, in which Captain William Mudge measured a section of the meridional arc running up into Yorkshire. The triangulation was conducted in 1801 and 1802, the Retriangulation of Great Britain that began in 1935 again took Dunnose as a base point
9.
Isle of Wight
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The Isle of Wight /ˈaɪl əv ˈwaɪt/ is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is located in the English Channel, about 4 miles off the coast of Hampshire, the island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines. The island has been home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria and it has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the hovercraft, and Britains space rockets. The island hosts annual festivals including the Isle of Wight Festival. It has well-conserved wildlife and some of the richest cliffs and quarries for dinosaur fossils in Europe, the Isle was owned by a Norman family until 1293 and was earlier a kingdom in its own right. Rural for most of its history, its Victorian fashionability and the affordability of holidays led to significant urban development during the late 19th. The island was part of Hampshire until 1890 when it became its own administrative county, apart from a shared police force, there is now no administrative link with Hampshire, although a combined local authority with Portsmouth and Southampton is being considered. Until 1995 the island had a governor, the quickest public transport link to the mainland is the hovercraft from Ryde to Southsea, while three ferry and two catamaran services cross the Solent to Southampton, Lymington and Portsmouth. During the Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the valley became flooded. The first inhabitants are assumed to have been hunter-gatherers migrating by land during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period, as the ice age began to recede. From the Neolithic era onwards, there are indications that the island had wide trading links, with a port at Bouldnor, evidence of Bronze Age tin trading, caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight in about 85 BC and gave its name as Vectis. The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the island was captured by the commander Vespasian, the Romans built no towns or roads on the island, but the remains of at least seven Roman villas have been found, indicating the prosperity of local agriculture. During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers and it suffered especially from Viking raids, and was often used as a winter base by Viking raiders when they were unable to reach Normandy. Later, both Earl Tostig and his brother Harold Godwinson held manors on the island, the Norman Conquest of 1066 created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight, the island being given by William the Conqueror to his kinsman William FitzOsbern. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were then founded, allegiance was sworn to FitzOsbern rather than the king, the Lordship was subsequently granted to the de Redvers family by Henry I, after his succession in 1100. For nearly 200 years the island was a semi-independent feudal fiefdom, the final private owner was the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, who, on her deathbed in 1293, was persuaded to sell it to Edward I
10.
Great Whernside
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Great Whernside is a fell in the Yorkshire Dales, England, not to be confused with Whernside, some 17 miles to the west. Its summit is the highest point of the flank of Wharfedale above Kettlewell. The curving escarpment above the pass between Wharfedale and Coverdale is known as Whernside, of which Great Whernside is the highest point, Little Whernside is a few kilometres to the north-east. Great Whernside forms the watershed between Wharfedale and Nidderdale, and is on the boundary between the Yorkshire Dales National Park and Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Little Whernside forms the watershed between Coverdale and Nidderdale. The River Nidd rises on the slopes of Great Whernside. The summit of Great Whernside is a plateau strewn with rocks of millstone grit, until 1997 no public right of way was established to the summit of Great Whernside. In that year two public footpaths were registered, one from Kettlewell in Wharfedale to the summit and one along the summit ridge, following the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 large parts of the fell became open access land. Great Whernside can be ascended from Kettlewell, or by a route from Park Rash Pass on the minor road from Kettlewell to Coverdale. It can also be ascended by a longer, less popular, routes from the East are often boggy even after prolonged dry weather. Hag Dyke, halfway between Kettlewell and the summit, is a run by 1st Ben Rhydding Scout Group in Ilkley. The fell is the site of aircraft crashes. Tor Dike is an earthwork with ditch and rampart constructed in the limestone and it appears to have been built either by Iron Age tribes, perhaps in the 1st century AD, to protect themselves from the invading Romans, or in the Dark Ages. Media related to Great Whernside at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Rangefinder
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A rangefinder is a device that measures distance from the observer to a target, in a process called ranging. Active methods use unilateral transmission and passive reflection, Active rangefinding methods include laser, radar, sonar, lidar and ultrasonic rangefinding. Other devices measure distance using trigonometry, older methodologies that use a set of known information, usually distances or target sizes, to make the measurement, have been in regular use since the 18th century. Special ranging makes use of actively synchronized transmission and travel time measurements and this principle is used with SatNav, the Satellite Navigation class of systems. In conjunction with a model of the Globe surface a certain location on the Globe may be determined with high accuracy. Ranging methods without accurate time synchronization of the receiver are called pseudorange, with other systems ranging is obtained from passive radiation measurements only, hence the noise or radiation signature of the object is generating the signal that is computed for range. Ranging is the term merely applying for distance metering with moving objects, combining several metering results in a time sequence leads to tracking and tracing. Commonly used term for residing terrestrial objects is surveying, applications include surveying, navigation, to assist focusing in photography, choosing a golf club according to distance, and correcting aim of a projectile weapon for distance. Laser rangefinders are used for many today, including golf. People can use this technology not only to measure the yardage of a particular shot, the technology makes it very simple to obtain a yardage. In a typical rangefinder, one aims the reticle at the flagstick, there has been debate over whether they should be allowed in tournaments. While their use is banned on the level, they are becoming widely used on the amateur level. Rangefinders may be used by users of firearms over long distances, the laser rangefinder displays a luminous dot that may alert a target. Rangefinders are used for surveying in forestry, special devices with anti-leaf filters are used. Since the 1990s, rangefinders have been used in virtual reality systems to detect operator movements, fiske Dazzle camouflage Range-finder painting The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. Further considerations of defocus rangefinders Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 27, pp. 297–316 Ward, A. Jones, A and Hopper, A. A New Location Technique for the Active Office IEEE Personal Communications 4, pp. 42–47 Werb, J. and Lanzi, designing a positioning system for finding things arid people indoors IEEE Spectrum 35, pp. 71–78 Range-Finding in the Army
12.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
13.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
14.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
15.
Geodesy
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Geodesists also study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal motion, tides, and polar motion. For this they design global and national networks, using space and terrestrial techniques while relying on datums. Geodesy — from the Ancient Greek word γεωδαισία geodaisia — is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravity field, such geodetic operations are also applied to other astronomical bodies in the solar system. It is also the science of measuring and understanding the earths geometric shape, orientation in space and this applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface and the Earths atmosphere. For this reason, the study of the Earths gravity field is called physical geodesy by some, the geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographical features. It is an idealized surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents, air pressure variations etc. The geoid, unlike the ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between the geoid and the ellipsoid is called the geoidal undulation. It varies globally between ±110 m, when referred to the GRS80 ellipsoid, a reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis a and flattening f. The quantity f = a − b/a, where b is the axis, is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical ellipticity of the Earth can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite orbit perturbations and its relationship with the geometrical flattening is indirect. The relationship depends on the density distribution, or, in simplest terms. The 1980 Geodetic Reference System posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and this system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. It is essentially the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System and is also in widespread use outside the geodetic community. The locations of points in space are most conveniently described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, X, Y and Z. Since the advent of satellite positioning, such systems are typically geocentric. The X-axis lies within the Greenwich observatorys meridian plane, the coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good approximation by sidereal time, which takes into account variations in the Earths axial rotation. A more accurate description also takes polar motion into account, a closely monitored by geodesists
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Ordnance Survey National Grid
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The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
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Frame of reference
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In physics, a frame of reference consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of physical reference points that uniquely fix the coordinate system and standardize measurements. In n dimensions, n+1 reference points are sufficient to define a reference frame. Using rectangular coordinates, a frame may be defined with a reference point at the origin. In Einsteinian relativity, reference frames are used to specify the relationship between an observer and the phenomenon or phenomena under observation. In this context, the phrase often becomes observational frame of reference, a relativistic reference frame includes the coordinate time, which does not correspond across different frames moving relatively to each other. The situation thus differs from Galilean relativity, where all possible coordinate times are essentially equivalent, the need to distinguish between the various meanings of frame of reference has led to a variety of terms. For example, sometimes the type of system is attached as a modifier. Sometimes the state of motion is emphasized, as in rotating frame of reference, sometimes the way it transforms to frames considered as related is emphasized as in Galilean frame of reference. Sometimes frames are distinguished by the scale of their observations, as in macroscopic and microscopic frames of reference, in this sense, an observational frame of reference allows study of the effect of motion upon an entire family of coordinate systems that could be attached to this frame. On the other hand, a system may be employed for many purposes where the state of motion is not the primary concern. For example, a system may be adopted to take advantage of the symmetry of a system. In a still broader perspective, the formulation of many problems in physics employs generalized coordinates, normal modes or eigenvectors and it seems useful to divorce the various aspects of a reference frame for the discussion below. A coordinate system is a concept, amounting to a choice of language used to describe observations. Consequently, an observer in a frame of reference can choose to employ any coordinate system to describe observations made from that frame of reference. A change in the choice of coordinate system does not change an observers state of motion. This viewpoint can be found elsewhere as well, which is not to dispute that some coordinate systems may be a better choice for some observations than are others. Choice of what to measure and with what observational apparatus is a separate from the observers state of motion. D. Norton, The discussion is taken beyond simple space-time coordinate systems by Brading, extension to coordinate systems using generalized coordinates underlies the Hamiltonian and Lagrangian formulations of quantum field theory, classical relativistic mechanics, and quantum gravity
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