1.
Rib
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In vertebrate anatomy, ribs are the long curved bones which form the rib cage. In most tetrapods, ribs surround the chest, enabling the lungs to expand and they serve to protect the lungs, heart, and other internal organs of the thorax. In some animals, especially snakes, ribs may provide support, the first seven sets of ribs, known as true ribs also known as vertebrosternal ribs, are directly attached to the sternum through the costal cartilage. Rib 1 is unique and harder to distinguish than other ribs and it is a short, flat, C-shaped bone. The vertebral attachment can be found just below the neck and the majority of this bone can be found above the level of the clavicle, Ribs 2 through 7 have a more traditional appearance and become longer and less curved as they progress downwards. The following five sets are known as ribs, three of these sharing a common cartilaginous connection to the sternum, while the last two are termed floating ribs or vertebral ribs. They are attached to the only, and not to the sternum or cartilage coming off of the sternum. Some people lack one of the two pairs of floating ribs, while others have a third pair, in general, human ribs increase in length from ribs 1 through 7 and decrease in length again through rib 12. Along with this change in size, the ribs become progressively oblique from ribs 1 through 9, the ribcage is separated from the lower abdomen by the thoracic diaphragm which controls breathing. When the diaphragm contracts, the cavity is expanded, reducing intra-thoracic pressure. In fish, there are two sets of ribs attached to the vertebral column. One set, the ribs, are found in the dividing septum between the upper and lower parts of the main muscle segments, projecting roughly sideways from the vertebral column. The second set, of ventral ribs arise from the vertebral column just below the dorsal ribs, not all species possess both types of rib, with the dorsal ribs being most commonly absent. Sharks, for example, have no ribs, and only very short ventral ribs. In some teleosts, there may be additional rib-like bones within the muscle mass, tetrapods, however, only ever have a single set of ribs which are probably homologous with the dorsal ribs of fishes. In the early tetrapods, every vertebra bore a pair of ribs, the sacral ribs were stout and short, since they formed part of the pelvis, connecting the backbone to the hip bones. In most subsequent forms, many of these early ribs have been lost, frogs typically have no ribs, aside from a sacral pair, which form part of the pelvis. In birds, ribs are present as distinct bones only on the thoracic region, the thoracic ribs of birds possess a wide projection to the rear, this uncinate process is an attachment for the shoulder muscles
2.
Ribs (food)
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Ribs of pork, beef, lamb, and venison are a cut of meat. The term ribs usually refers to the less meaty part of the chops, often cooked as a slab. Ribs of bison, goat, ostrich, crocodile, alligator, llama, alpaca, beefalo, African buffalo, water buffalo, kangaroo and they can be roasted, grilled, fried, baked, braised, or smoked. A set of ribs served together, is known as a rack, in American cuisine, ribs usually refers to barbecue pork ribs, or sometimes beef ribs, which are served with various barbecue sauces. They are served as a rack of meat which diners customarily tear apart by hand, slow roasting or barbecuing for as much as 10–12 hours creates a tender finished product. Meat on the bone Pork ribs - Pork belly Prime rib Short ribs Spare ribs Rack of lamb Media related to Ribs at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
4.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
5.
Thorax
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The thorax or chest is a part of the anatomy of humans and various other animals located between the neck and the abdomen. The thorax includes the thoracic cavity and the thoracic wall and it contains organs including the heart, lungs, and thymus gland, as well as muscles and various other internal structures. Many diseases may affect the chest, and one of the most common symptoms is chest pain, in humans and other hominids, the thorax is the chest region of the body between the neck and the abdomen, along with its internal organs and other contents. It is mostly protected and supported by the rib cage, spine, arteries and veins are also contained –, bones. The area exposed by open-necked shirts, the V of the chest is sometimes the location of a skin disease polymorphous light eruption. In the human body, the region of the thorax between the neck and diaphragm in the front of the body is called the chest, the corresponding area in an animal can also be referred to as the chest. The shape of the chest does not correspond to part of the thoracic skeleton that encloses the heart. All the breadth of the shoulders is due to the girdle, and contains the axillae. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, at the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and above this there is often a depression known as the pit of the stomach. The bones of the thorax, called the thoracic skeleton is a component of the axial skeleton and it consists of the ribs and sternum. The ribs of the thorax are numbered in ascending order from 1-12. 11 &12 are known as floating ribs because they have no anterior attachment point in particular the cartilage attached to the sternum, as 1-7 are, whereas ribs 8-10 are termed false ribs as their costal cartilage articulates with the rib aboves costal cartilage. The anatomy of the chest can also be described through the use of anatomical landmarks, the female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a heart is in the fifth left intercostal space. Different types of diseases or conditions that affect the chest include pleurisy, flail chest, atelectasis, and these conditions can be hereditary or caused by birth defects or trauma. Any condition that lowers the ability to breathe deeply or to cough is considered a chest disease or condition. Injury to the chest results in up to ¼ of all due to trauma in the United States. The major pathophysiologies encountered in blunt chest trauma involve derangements in the flow of air, blood, sepsis due to leakage of alimentary tract contents, as in esophageal perforations, also must be considered. Blunt trauma commonly results in chest wall injuries, the pain associated with these injuries can make breathing difficult, and this may compromise ventilation
6.
Vertebrate
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Vertebrates /ˈvɜːrtᵻbrᵻts/ comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata /-ɑː/. Vertebrates represent the majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 66,000 species described. Vertebrates include the fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish. A bony fish known as the lobe-finned fishes is included with tetrapods, which are further divided into amphibians, reptiles, mammals. Extant vertebrates range in size from the frog species Paedophryne amauensis, at as little as 7.7 mm, to the blue whale, vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species, the rest are invertebrates, which lack vertebral columns. The vertebrates traditionally include the hagfish, which do not have proper vertebrae due to their loss in evolution, though their closest living relatives, hagfish do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as Craniata when discussing morphology, molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys, and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense. Others consider them a group of vertebrates in the common taxon of craniata. The word origin of vertebrate derives from the Latin word vertebratus, the Proto-Indo-European language origins are still unclear. Vertebrate is derived from the vertebra, which refers to any of the bones or segments of the spinal column. All vertebrates are built along the basic body plan, a stiff rod running through the length of the animal, with a hollow tube of nervous tissue above it. In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the remaining part of the body continuing after the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and spinal cord, but no gut. However, a few vertebrates have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon, jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, but this trait is not required in order for an animal to be a vertebrate. All basal vertebrates breathe with gills, the gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the pharynx to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch, the bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches than this, as some of their relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills. In amphibians and some primitive fishes, the larvae bear external gills. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes, some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods
7.
Lamprey
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Lampreys are any jawless fish of the order Petromyzontiformes, placed in the superclass Cyclostomata. The adult lamprey may be characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, the common name lamprey is probably derived from Latin lampetra, which may mean stone licker, though the etymology is uncertain. Currently there are about 38 known extant species of lampreys, parasitic species are the best known, and feed by boring into the flesh of other fish to suck their blood, but only 18 species of lampreys are parasitic. Adults of the species do not feed, they live off reserves acquired as ammocoetes. The lampreys are an ancient lineage of vertebrates, though their exact relationship to hagfishes. Adults superficially resemble eels in that they have scaleless, elongated bodies, lacking paired fins, adult lampreys have large eyes, one nostril on the top of the head, and seven gill pores on each side of the head. The pharynx is subdivided, the part forming a respiratory tube that is isolated from the mouth by a valve called the velum. Near the gills are the eyes, which are developed and buried under skin in the larvae. The eyes complete their development during metamorphosis, and in adults are covered by a thin, instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Hagfish, which resemble lampreys, have traditionally considered the sister taxon of the true vertebrates. Studies have shown that lampreys are amongst the most energy-efficient swimmers and their swimming movements generate low-pressure zones around their body, which pull rather than push their bodies through the water. Parasitic lampreys feed on prey as adults by attaching their mouthparts to the animals body, then using their teeth to cut through surface tissues until they reach blood. A study of stomach content of some lampreys have also shown remains of intestines, fins, although attacks on humans do occur, they will generally not attack humans unless starved. Non-parasitic lampreys, which are freshwater species, do not feed as adults, they live off reserves acquired as ammocoetes. Lamprey leukocytes express surface variable lymphocyte receptors generated from somatic recombination of leucine-rich repeat gene segments in a recombination activating gene-independent manner, northern lampreys have the highest number of chromosomes among vertebrates. Pouched lamprey larvae also have a high tolerance for free iron in their bodies. Adult lampreys spawn in rivers and then die, the young larvae, ammocoetes, spend several years in the rivers, where they live burrowed in fine sediment, filter feeding on detritus and microorganisms. Then, ammocoetes undergo a metamorphosis lasting several months, some species do not feed after metamorphosis, while others migrate to the sea or lakes, where they feed on different species of fish and even on marine mammals
8.
Frog
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A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura. The oldest fossil proto-frog appeared in the early Triassic of Madagascar, Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforests. There are approximately 4,800 recorded species, accounting for over 85% of extant amphibian species and they are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders. The body plan of a frog is generally characterized by a stout body, protruding eyes, cleft tongue, limbs folded underneath. Besides living in water and on dry land, the adults of some species are adapted for living underground or in trees. The skin of the frog is glandular, with secretions ranging from distasteful to toxic, Frogs skins vary in colour from well-camouflaged dappled brown, grey and green to vivid patterns of bright red or yellow and black to advertise toxicity and warn off predators. Frogs typically lay their eggs in water, the eggs hatch into aquatic larvae called tadpoles that have tails and internal gills. They have highly specialized rasping mouth parts suitable for herbivorous, omnivorous or planktivorous diets, the life cycle is completed when they metamorphose into adults. A few species deposit eggs on land or bypass the tadpole stage, adult frogs generally have a carnivorous diet consisting of small invertebrates, but omnivorous species exist and a few feed on fruit. Frogs are extremely efficient at converting what they eat into body mass and they are an important food source for predators and part of the food web dynamics of many of the worlds ecosystems. The skin is semi-permeable, making them susceptible to dehydration, so they live in moist places or have special adaptations to deal with dry habitats. Frogs are valued as food by humans and also have many roles in literature, symbolism. Frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s, more than one third of species are considered to be threatened with extinction and over one hundred and twenty are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. The number of malformations among frogs is on the rise and a fungal disease. Conservation biologists are working to understand the causes of these problems, the name frog derives from Old English frogga, abbreviated to frox, forsc, and frosc, probably deriving from Proto-Indo-European preu = to jump. About 88% of amphibian species are classified in the order Anura and these include around 4,810 species in 33 families, of which the Leptodactylidae, Hylidae and Ranidae are the richest in species. The use of the common frog and toad has no taxonomic justification. From a classification perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, there are numerous exceptions to this rule
9.
Vertebral column
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The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses, there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples, the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. There are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, the vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine, vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines are independent bones, the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests, a typical vertebra consists of two parts, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person, together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused. Two transverse processes and one process are posterior to the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. Above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints and these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes
10.
Cartilage
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It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is stiffer and less flexible than muscle. Because of its rigidity, cartilage often serves the purpose of holding tubes open in the body, cartilage is classified in three types, elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage, which differ in relative amounts of collagen and proteoglycan. Cartilage does not contain blood vessels or nerves, nutrition is supplied to the chondrocytes by diffusion. The compression of the cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage generates fluid flow. Compared to other tissues, cartilage has a very slow turnover of its extracellular matrix. In embryogenesis, the system is derived from the mesoderm germ layer. Following the initial chondrification that occurs during embryogenesis, cartilage growth consists mostly of the maturing of immature cartilage to a mature state. The division of cells within cartilage occurs very slowly, and thus growth in cartilage is not based on an increase in size or mass of the cartilage itself. The articular cartilage function is dependent on the composition of the extracellular matrix. The ECM consists mainly of proteoglycan and collagens, the main proteoglycan in cartilage is aggrecan, which, as its name suggests, forms large aggregates with hyaluronan. These aggregates are negatively charged and hold water in the tissue, the collagen, mostly collagen type II, constrains the proteoglycans. The ECM responds to tensile and compressive forces that are experienced by the cartilage, cartilage growth thus refers to the matrix deposition, but can also refer to both the growth and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Due to the stress on the patellofemoral joint during resisted knee flexion. The mechanical properties of articular cartilage in load bearing joints such as knee and hip have been studied extensively at macro, micro and these mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile loading. Cartilage is resilient and displays viscoelastic properties, lubricin, a glycoprotein abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid, plays a major role in bio-lubrication and wear protection of cartilage. Cartilage has limited capabilities, Because chondrocytes are bound in lacunae. Therefore, cartilage damage is difficult to heal, also, because hyaline cartilage does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow. Damaged hyaline cartilage is replaced by fibrocartilage scar tissue
11.
Thoracic cavity
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The thoracic cavity is the chamber of the body of vertebrates that is protected by the thoracic wall. The central compartment of the cavity is the mediastinum. There are two openings of the cavity, a superior thoracic aperture known as the thoracic inlet. The thoracic cavity includes the tendons as well as the system which could be damaged from injury to the back. It contains three potential spaces lined with mesothelium, the paired pleural cavities and the pericardial cavity, the mediastinum comprises those organs which lie in the centre of the chest between the lungs. The cavity also contains two openings one at the top, the superior thoracic aperture also called the inlet. If the pleural cavity is breached from the outside, as by a wound or knife wound. If the volume of air is significant, one or both lungs may collapse, which requires medical attention. Thoraxlesson3 at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman
12.
Shoulder girdle
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The shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle is the set of bones which connects the arm to the appendicular skeleton on each side. In humans it consists of the clavicle and scapula, in species with three bones in the shoulder, it consists of the clavicle, scapula, and coracoid. Some mammalian species have only the scapula, the pectoral girdles are to the upper limbs as the pelvic girdle is to the lower limbs, the girdles are the parts of the appendicular skeleton that anchor the appendages to the axial skeleton. In humans, the only true anatomical joints between the shoulder girdle and the skeleton are the sternoclavicular joints on each side. In those species having only the scapula, no joint exists between the forelimb and the thorax, the only attachment being muscular, the shoulder girdle is a complex of five joints that can be divided into two groups. Three of these joints are true anatomical joints while two are physiological joints, within each group, the joints are mechanically linked so that both groups simultaneously contribute to the different movements of the shoulder to variable degrees. e. They join both ends of the clavicle, the glenohumeral joint is the articulation between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. It is a ball and socket type of synovial joint with three rotatory and three degree of freedom. The glenohumeral joint allows for adduction, abduction, medial and lateral rotation, flexion and extension of the arm, acromioclavicular joint The acromioclavicular joint is the articulation between the acromion process of the scapula and the lateral end of the clavicle. It is a type of synovial joint. The acromion of the scapula rotates on the end of the clavicle. The sternoclavicular joint is the articulation of the manubrium of the sternum and it is a saddle type of synovial joint but functions as a plane joint. The sternoclavicular joint accommodates a range of scapula movements and can be raised to a 60° angle. The scapulocostal joint is a physiological joint formed by an articulation of the anterior scapula and it is musculotendinous in nature and is formed predominantly by the trapezius, rhomboids and serratus anterior muscles. The pectoralis minor also plays a role in its movements, the gliding movements at the scapulocostal joint are elevation, depression, retraction, protraction and superior and inferior rotation of the scapula. Disorders of the joint are not very common and usually restricted to snapping scapula. The suprahumeral joint is a physiological joint formed by an articulation of the coracoacromial ligament and it is formed by the gap between the humerus and the acromion process of the scapula. This space is filled mostly by the bursa and the tendon of supraspinatus
13.
Human skeleton
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The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of around 300 bones at birth – this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together, the bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 20. The human skeleton can be divided into the skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the column, the rib cage. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle. The human skeleton performs six major functions, support, movement, protection, production of cells, storage of minerals. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of other primate species. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population, the human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate child birth. Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones, the axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, a part of the rib cage, and the skull. The upright posture of humans is maintained by the skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments, the erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance. The appendicular skeleton is formed by the pectoral girdles, the limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction. The skeleton serves six major functions, support, movement, protection, production of cells, storage of minerals. The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape, the pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e. g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement and it is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement
14.
Costal cartilage
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The costal cartilages are bars of hyaline cartilage that serve to prolong the ribs forward and contribute to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax. Costal cartilage is only found at the ends of the ribs. Like the ribs, the costal cartilages vary in their length, breadth and they increase in length from the first to the seventh, then gradually decrease to the twelfth. Their breadth, as well as that of the intervals between them, diminishes from the first to the last, each costal cartilage presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities. The others are covered by, and give attachment to. Of the two borders the superior is concave, the convex, they afford attachment to the intercostales interni. The inferior borders of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and these projections carry smooth oblong facets which articulate with facets on slight projections from the upper borders of the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth cartilages, respectively. The lateral end of each cartilage is continuous with the tissue of the rib to which it belongs. The medial end of the first is continuous with the sternum, the medial ends of the eighth, ninth, and tenth costal cartilages are pointed, and are connected each with the cartilage immediately above. Those of the eleventh and twelfth are pointed and free, in old age the costal cartilages are prone to undergo superficial ossification. Costochondritis Rib Sternum This article incorporates text in the domain from the 20th edition of Grays Anatomy Link to picture
15.
Skin
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Skin is the soft outer tissue covering vertebrates. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton have different developmental origin, structure, the adjective cutaneous means of the skin. In mammals, the skin is an organ of the system made up of multiple layers of ectodermal tissue. Skin of a different nature exists in amphibians, reptiles, all mammals have some hair on their skin, even marine mammals like whales, dolphins, and porpoises which appear to be hairless. The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors, for example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, severely damaged skin may heal by forming scar tissue. This is sometimes discoloured and depigmented, the thickness of skin also varies from location to location on an organism. The skin on the palms and the soles of the feet is 4 mm thick, the speed and quality of wound healing in skin is promoted by the reception of estrogen. Primarily, fur augments the insulation the skin provides but can serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals, the skin is hard and thick. Reptiles and fish have hard scales on their skin for protection. Amphibian skin is not a barrier, especially regarding the passage of chemicals via skin and is often subject to osmosis. For example, a sitting in an anesthetic solution would be sedated quickly. Amphibian skin plays key roles in everyday survival and their ability to exploit a range of habitats. Keratinocytes are the cells, constituting 95% of the epidermis, while Merkel cells, melanocytes. Keratinocytes from the stratum corneum are eventually shed from the surface, the epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries extending to the upper layers of the dermis. The epidermis and dermis are separated by a sheet of fibers called the basement membrane. The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress
16.
Thoracic wall
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The thoracic wall or chest wall is the boundary of the thoracic cavity. The bony skeletal part of the wall is the rib cage, and the rest is made up of muscle, skin. The chest wall has 10 layers, namely skin, superficial fascia, deep fascia, serratus anterior, layer for ribs, however, the muscular layers vary according to the region of the chest wall. For example, they may include muscles like pectoralis major or latissimus dorsi, when not breathing for long and dangerous periods of time in cold water, a persons body undergoes great temporary changes to try to prevent death. It achieves this through the activation of the diving reflex. In this stage, the lungs alveoli fill up with blood plasma and this stage of the diving reflex has been observed in humans during extremely deep free dives. In rare cases intentional or accidental trauma may lead to chest wall necrosis, thoracic wall at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings Anatomy photo,18, lo-0000 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
17.
Vertebra
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The basic configuration of a vertebra varies, the large part is the body, and the central part is the centrum. The upper and lower surfaces of the vertebra body give attachment to the intervertebral discs, the posterior part of a vertebra forms a vertebral arch, in eleven parts, consisting of two pedicles, two laminae, and seven processes. The laminae give attachment to the ligamenta flava, there are vertebral notches formed from the shape of the pedicles, which form the intervertebral foramina when the vertebrae articulate. These foramina are the entry and exit conducts for the spinal nerves, the body of the vertebra and the vertebral arch form the vertebral foramen, the larger, central opening that accommodates the spinal canal, which encloses and protects the spinal cord. Vertebrae articulate with other to give strength and flexibility to the spinal column. Structurally, vertebrae are essentially alike across the species, with the greatest difference seen between an aquatic animal and other vertebrate animals. As such, vertebrates take their name from the vertebrae that compose the vertebral column, each vertebra is an irregular bone. The size of the vertebrae varies according to placement in the column, spinal loading, posture. Along the length of the spine the vertebrae change to different needs related to stress. Every vertebra has a body, which consists of a large anterior middle portion called the centrum, the body is composed of cancellous bone, which is the spongy type of osseous tissue, whose micro-anatomy has been specifically studied within the pedicle bones. This cancellous bone is in turn, covered by a coating of cortical bone. The vertebral arch and processes have thicker coverings of cortical bone, the upper and lower surfaces of the body of the vertebra are flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the intervertebral discs. These surfaces are the vertebral endplates which are in contact with the intervertebral discs. The endplates are formed from a layer of the cancellous bone of the vertebral body. The endplates function to contain the adjacent discs, to spread the applied loads. They also act as an interface for the exchange of water. The vertebral arch is formed by pedicles and laminae, two pedicles extend from the sides of the vertebral body to join the body to the arch. The pedicles are short thick processes that extend, one each side, posteriorly, from the junctions of the posteriolateral surfaces of the centrum
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Intercostal space
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The intercostal space is the anatomic space between two ribs. Since there are 12 ribs on each side, there are 11 intercostal spaces, one particular concept is that the neurovascular bundle has a strict order, V-A-N, or vein-artery-nerve, from top to bottom. This neurovascular bundle runs high in the space, and the collateral neurovascular bundle runs just superior to the inferior rib of the space. Invasive procedures such as thoracentesis are thus performed with oblique entry of the instrument, Anatomy figure,18, 04-00 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center - Structural organization within an intercostal space. Anatomy photo,18, 01-0108 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - Thoracic Wall, The Anterior Thoracic Wall
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Intercostal arteries
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The intercostal arteries are a group of arteries that supply the area between the ribs, called the intercostal space. It usually arises from the trunk, which is a branch of the subclavian artery. Some anatomists may contend that there is no supreme intercostal artery, the anterior intercostal branches of internal thoracic artery supply the upper five or six intercostal spaces. The internal thoracic artery then divides into the superior epigastric artery, the latter gives out the remaining anterior intercostal branches. They are at first situated between the pleurae and the Intercostales interni, and then between the Intercostales interni and innermost and they supply the intercostal muscles and, by branches which perforate the Intercostales externi, the Pectoral muscles and the mamma. The musculophrenic artery also gives branches to the part of the pericardium, and others which run backward to the diaphragm. The posterior intercostal arteries are arteries that supply blood to the intercostal spaces, there are eleven posterior intercostal arteries on each side. The 1st and 2nd posterior intercostal arteries arise from the supreme intercostal artery, the lower nine arteries are the aortic intercostals, so called because they arise from the back of the thoracic aorta. Opposite the heads of the ribs, the sympathetic trunk passes downward in front of them, each artery then divides into an anterior and a posterior ramus. A given posterior intercostal artery travels along the bottom of the rib with its corresponding posterior intercostal vein, the vein is superior to the artery, and the intercostal nerve is inferior to it. Thoraxlesson5 at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman Atlas image, abdo_wall70 at the University of Michigan Health System
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Rib cage
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The rib cage is an arrangement of bones in the thorax of all vertebrates except the lamprey and the frog. It is formed by the column, ribs, and sternum and encloses the heart. A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs, the sternum, costal cartilages, and the 12 thoracic vertebrae. Together with the skin and associated fascia and muscles, the rib cage makes up the wall and provides attachments for the muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen. Ribs are described based on their location and connection with the sternum, ribs that articulate directly with the sternum are called true ribs, whereas those that connect indirectly via cartilage are termed false ribs. The terms true and false rib describe rib pairs that are directly or indirectly attached to the sternum, the phrase true rib, or fixed rib, refers to the first seven, or vertebrosternal, rib pairs. The phrase false rib, or vertebrochondral ribs refers to the pairs of ribs. The eighth-to-tenth pairs of ribs connect to the sternum indirectly via the costal cartilages of the ribs above them and their elasticity allows ribcage movement for respiratory activity. The phrase floating rib refers to the two lowermost, the eleventh and twelfth, rib pairs, so-called because they are attached only to the not to the sternum or cartilage of the sternum. These ribs are small and delicate, and include a cartilaginous tip. The spaces between the ribs are known as intercostal spaces, they contain the intercostal muscles, nerves, arteries, each rib consists of a head, neck, and a shaft and they are numbered from top to bottom. The head of rib is the end part closest to the spine with which it articulates and it is marked by a kidney-shaped articular surface which is divided by a horizontal crest into two facets. The superior facet is smaller and articulates with the vertebra above, the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra also articulates with the rib of the same number. The crest gives attachment to the intra-articular ligament, all ribs are attached posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae. The neck of the rib is the part that extends laterally from the head. The neck is about 3 cm long, and is placed in front of the process of the lower of the two vertebrae with which the head articulates. Its anterior surface is flat and smooth, whilst its posterior is perforated by numerous foramina and its surface rough and its upper border presents a rough crest for the attachment of the anterior costotransverse ligament, its lower border is rounded. On the posterior surface at the junction of the neck and body, and nearer the lower than the border, is an eminence—the tubercle, it consists of an articular
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Longissimus
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The longissimus is the muscle lateral to the semispinalis. It is the longest subdivision of the erector spinae that extends forward into the processes of the posterior cervical vertebrae. The longissimus thoracis is the intermediate and largest of the continuations of the erector spinae, the longissimus capitis lies medial to the longissimus cervicis, between it and the semispinalis capitis. It is almost always crossed by an intersection near its insertion. Semispinalis muscle Erector spinae Spinalis Iliocostalis Anatomy figure,01, 06-05 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center - Intrinsic muscles of the back
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Scalene muscles
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The scalene muscles are a group of three pairs of muscles in the lateral neck, namely the anterior scalene, middle scalene, and posterior scalene. They are innervated by the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical spinal nerves, a fourth muscle, the scalenus minimus, is sometimes present behind the lower portion of the anterior scalene. The scalene muscles originate from the processes from the cervical vertebrae of C2 to C7 and insert onto the first and second ribs. The anterior scalene muscle, lies deeply at the side of the neck and it is supplied by the anterior ramus of cervical nerve 5 and 6. The middle scalene, is the largest and longest of the three scalene muscles, the middle scalene arises from the posterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the lower six cervical vertebrae. It descends along the side of the column to insert by a broad attachment into the upper surface of the first rib. The brachial plexus and the subclavian artery pass anterior to it, the posterior scalene, is the smallest and most deeply seated of the scalene muscles. It is supplied by cervical nerves C6, C7 and C8 and it is occasionally blended with the middle scalene. Because they elevate the upper ribs they also act as muscles of respiration. The scalene muscles have an important relationship to other structures in the neck, the brachial plexus and subclavian artery pass between the anterior and middle scalenes. The subclavian vein and phrenic nerve pass anteriorly to the anterior scalene as the crosses over the first rib. The phrenic nerve is oriented vertically as it passes in front of the anterior scalene, the passing of the brachial plexus and the subclavian artery through the space of the anterior and middle scalene muscles constitute the scalene hiatus. The region in which lies is referred to as the scaleotracheal fossa. It is bound by the clavicle inferior anteriorly, the trachea medially, posteriorly by the trapezius, the nerve block, called an interscalene block, may be performed prior to arm or shoulder surgery
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Serratus anterior
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The serratus anterior is a muscle that originates on the surface of the 1st to 8th ribs at the side of the chest and inserts along the entire anterior length of the medial border of the scapula. Serratus anterior normally originates by nine or ten slips from either the first to ninth ribs or the first to eighth ribs, because two slips usually arise from the second rib, the number of slips is greater than the number of ribs from which they originate. The muscle is inserted along the border of the scapula between the superior and inferior angles along with being inserted along the thoracic vertebrae. The serratus anterior lies deep to the subscapularis, from which it is separated by the subscapularis bursa and it is separated from the rib by the scapulothoracic bursa. The serratus anterior is innervated by the long thoracic nerve, a branch of the brachial plexus, the long thoracic nerve travels inferiorly on the surface of the serratus. The nerve is vulnerable during certain types of surgery. Damage to this nerve can lead to a winged scapula, all three parts described above pull the scapula forward around the thorax, which is essential for anteversion of the arm. As such, the muscle is an antagonist to the rhomboids, the inferior part can pull the lower end of the scapula laterally and forward and thus rotates the scapula to make elevation of the arm possible. Additionally, all three parts can lift the ribs when the shoulder girdle is fixed, and thus assist in respiration, the serratus anterior also plays an important role in the upward rotation of the scapula, such as when lifting a weight overhead. It performs this in sync with the upper and lower fibers of the trapezius, the muscles of the shoulder can be categorized into three topographic units, the scapulohumeral, axiohumeral, and axioscapular groups. Serratus anterior forms part of the group together with rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, levator scapulae. The trapezius evolved separately, but the three muscles in this group evolved from the first eight or ten ribs and the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. Functional demands have resulted in the evolution of individual muscles from the unit formed by the serratus anterior. In primates, the cage is wide and the scapula is rotated onto its posterior side to have the glenoid cavity face laterally. Additionally, the clavicle takes care of medial forces, in cursorial mammals, the scapula is hanging vertically on the side of the thorax and the clavicle is absent. Therefore, in climbing animals, the serratus anterior supports the scapula against the forces of the free limb. To sustain these forces, the ribs have a pronounced curvature and are supported by the clavicle, in cursorial animals, the thorax is hanging between the scapulae at the serratus anterior and pectoralis muscles. Pectoralis minor muscle Serratus posterior inferior muscle Serratus posterior superior muscle Backpack palsy Brand, origin and Comparative Anatomy of the Pectoral Limb
