1.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
2.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
–
British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
–
Flag
New York (state)
–
1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
–
The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
4.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
Harvard University
–
Engraving of
Harvard College by
Paul Revere, 1767
Harvard University
–
Harvard University
Harvard University
–
John Harvard statue,
Harvard Yard
Harvard University
–
Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view, facing northeast.
5.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Stereographic card showing an MIT mechanical drafting studio, 19th century (photo by
E.L. Allen, left/right inverted)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
A 1905 map of MIT's Boston campus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Plaque in Building 6 honoring
George Eastman, founder of
Eastman Kodak, who was revealed as the anonymous "Mr. Smith" who helped maintain MIT's independence
6.
Free Software Foundation
–
The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSFs funds were used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSFs employees and volunteers have worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement. Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use free software on its own computers. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development and it continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement, the FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed. The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, as holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License when copyright infringement occurs on that software. From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSFs lawyer, typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations. org. In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn, with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, from 2002-2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent. GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a focus of the FSFs efforts during this period. In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBMs contributions to free software, including FSFs GNU. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5,2003, during 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software. From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL, usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL. In 2007, the FSF published the version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input. In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products, Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. The GNU project The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software, the organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this. GNU licenses The GNU General Public License is a widely used license for software projects
Free Software Foundation
–
gNewSense is a distribution officially supported by the FSF
7.
Free software movement
–
Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project. Stallman later established the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to support the movement, the philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology and this effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art. Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition, while social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change. This quote by San Jose State professor Joel West explains much of the philosophy, if it is assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people. If not to make a change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many more freedoms than we have without a computer, the debate over the morality of both sides to the free software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition. Within the free movement, the FLOSS Manuals foundation specialises on the goal of providing such documentation. Members of the free software movement advocate that works which serve a practical purpose should also be free, the core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software, some supporters of the free software movement take up public speaking, or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom. The ideas sparked by the GNU associates are an attempt to promote an environment that understands the benefits of having a local community. A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents, other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects. The Venezuelan government implemented a free software law in January 2006, decree No.3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period. Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, the incident invited the attention of got Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva. His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments. In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging use of software by state government agencies. Like many social movements, the free movement has ongoing internal conflict between the many FOSS organizations and their personalities. For instance there is disagreement about the amount of compromises and pragmatism needed versus the need for strict adherence to values, after this Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative, to promote the term open source software as an alternative term for free software
Free software movement
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the
GNU Project and the free software movement, in or before 2002
Free software movement
–
GNU and
Tux mascots around free software supporters at
FISL 16
8.
GNU
–
GNU /ɡnuː/ is an operating system and an extensive collection of computer software. GNU is composed wholly of free software, most of which is licensed under the GNU Projects own GPL, GNU is a recursive acronym for GNUs Not Unix. Chosen because GNUs design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software, the GNU project includes an operating system kernel, GNU HURD, which was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation. However, non-GNU kernels, most famously Linux, can also be used with GNU software, and since the kernel is the least mature part of GNU, the combination of GNU software and the Linux kernel is commonly known as Linux. Richard Stallman, the founder of the project, views GNU as a means to a social end. unix-wizards. Software development began on January 5,1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Lab so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU components as free software, Richard Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song The Gnu. The goal was to bring a free software operating system into existence. This philosophy was published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985. It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, at the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system. The design of Unix was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece, in October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation. In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU, as GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat, GNU developers have contributed to Linux ports of GNU applications and utilities, which are now also widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and macOS. Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems, including proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows, GNU programs have been shown to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts. As of November 2015, there are a total of 466 GNU packages hosted on the official GNU development site. With the April 30,2015 release of the Debian GNU/HURD2015 distro, GNU OS now provides the components to assemble a system that users can install. This includes the GNU Hurd kernel, that is currently in a pre-production state, the Hurd status page states that it may not be ready for production use, as there are still some bugs and missing features. However, it should be a base for further development. Due to Hurd not being ready for use, in practice these operating systems are Linux distributions
GNU
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project
GNU
–
GNU
9.
Emacs
–
Emacs /ˈiːmæks/ and its derivatives are a family of text editors that are characterized by their extensibility. The manual for the most widely used variant, GNU Emacs, describes it as the extensible, customizable, self-documenting, development of the first Emacs began in the mid-1970s and continues actively as of 2017. Emacs has over 2,000 built-in commands and allows the user to combine these commands into macros to automate work, Emacs Lisp provides a deep extension capability allowing users and developers to write new commands using a dialect of the Lisp programming language. Extensions have been written to manage email, files, outlines, the original EMACS was written in 1976 by David A. Moon and Guy L. Steele, Jr. as a set of Editor MACroS for the TECO editor. It was inspired by the ideas of the TECO-macro editors TECMAC, the most popular, and most ported, version of Emacs is GNU Emacs, which was created by Richard Stallman for the GNU Project. XEmacs is a variant that branched from GNU Emacs in 1991, both GNU Emacs and XEmacs use Emacs Lisp and are for the most part compatible with each other. Emacs is, along with vi, one of the two contenders in the traditional editor wars of Unix culture. Both are among the oldest application programs still in use, unlike most modern text editors, TECO used separate modes in which the user would either add text, edit existing text, or display the document. This behavior is similar to that of the program ed. Richard Stallman visited the Stanford AI Lab in 1972 or 1974 and saw the labs E editor and he was impressed by the editors intuitive WYSIWYG behavior, which has since become the default behavior of most modern text editors. Stallman reimplemented this mode to run efficiently and then added a feature to the TECO display-editing mode that allowed the user to redefine any keystroke to run a TECO program. E had another feature that TECO lacked, random-access editing, TECO was a page-sequential editor that was designed for editing paper tape on the PDP-1 and typically allowed editing on only one page at a time, in the order of the pages in the file. Almost all modern editors use this approach, the new version of TECO quickly became popular at the AI Lab and soon accumulated a large collection of custom macros whose names often ended in MAC or MACS, which stood for macro. Two years later, Guy Steele took on the project of unifying the overly diverse macros into a single set, Steele and Stallmans finished implementation included facilities for extending and documenting the new macro set. The resulting system was called EMACS, which stood for Editing MACroS or, alternatively, Stallman picked the name Emacs because <E> was not in use as an abbreviation on ITS at the time. An apocryphal hacker koan alleges that the program was named after Emack & Bolios, the first operational EMACS system existed in late 1976. Stallman saw a problem in too much customization and de facto forking and he later wrote, EMACS was distributed on a basis of communal sharing, which means all improvements must be given back to me to be incorporated and distributed. The original Emacs, like TECO, ran only on the PDP-10 running ITS and its behavior was sufficiently different from that of TECO that it could be considered a text editor in its own right, and it quickly became the standard editing program on ITS. Mike McMahon ported Emacs from ITS to the TENEX and TOPS-20 operating systems, other contributors to early versions of Emacs include Kent Pitman, Earl Killian, and Eugene Ciccarelli
Emacs
–
Richard Stallman as St I
GNUcius, a saint in the Church of Emacs
Emacs
–
Editing multiple
Dired buffers in
GNU Emacs
10.
GNU Compiler Collection
–
The GNU Compiler Collection is a compiler system produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages. GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain and the compiler for most Unix-like Operating Systems. The Free Software Foundation distributes GCC under the GNU General Public License, GCC has played an important role in the growth of free software, as both a tool and an example. Originally named the GNU C Compiler, when it handled the C programming language. It was extended to compile C++ in December of that year, front ends were later developed for Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran, Java, Ada, and Go among others. Version 4.5 of the OpenMP specification is now supported in the C and C++ compilers, by default, the current version supports gnu++14, a superset of C++14 and gnu11, a superset of C11, with strict standard support also available. It also provides support for C++17 and later. GCC has been ported to a variety of instruction set architectures. GCC is also available for most embedded systems, including ARM-based, AMCC, the compiler can target a wide variety of platforms. Versions are also available for Microsoft Windows and other operating systems, GCC can compile code for Android and iOS. In an effort to bootstrap the GNU operating system, Richard Stallman asked Andrew S. Tanenbaum, when Tanenbaum told him that while the Free University was free, the compiler was not, Stallman decided to write his own. Stallmans initial plan was to rewrite an existing compiler from Lawrence Livermore Laboratory from Pastel to C with some help from Len Tower, none of the Pastel compiler code ended up in GCC, though Stallman did use the C front end he had written. GCC was first released March 22,1987, available by FTP from MIT, multiple forks proved inefficient and unwieldy, however, and the difficulty in getting work accepted by the official GCC project was greatly frustrating for many. In 1997, a group of developers formed Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System to merge several experimental forks into a single project, the basis of the merger was a GCC development snapshot taken between the 2.7 and 2.81 releases. Projects merged included g77, PGCC, many C++ improvements, and many new architectures, with the release of GCC2.95 in July 1999 the two projects were once again united. GCC has since been maintained by a group of programmers from around the world under the direction of a steering committee. It has been ported to more kinds of processors and operating systems than any other compiler, GCC has been ported to a wide variety of instruction set architectures, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software. GCC is also available for most embedded systems, including Symbian, ARM-based, AMCC, the compiler can target a wide variety of platforms, including video game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Cell SPE of PlayStation 3 and Dreamcast
GNU Compiler Collection
–
To obtain a stable
ABI, like e.g. the
Linux Standard Base aims to procure, the Compiler version is important.
11.
GPL
–
The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
GPL
–
Richard Stallman at the launch of the first draft of the GNU GPLv3. MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. To his right is Columbia Law Professor
Eben Moglen, chairman of the Software Freedom Law Center
GPL
–
GNU GPLv3 Logo
12.
MacArthur Fellowship
–
The MacArthur Fellows Program, MacArthur Fellowship, or Genius Grant, is a prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. According to the Foundations website, the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishment, but rather an investment in a persons originality, insight, the current prize is $625,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a review of the MacArthur Fellows Program, since 1981,942 people have been named MacArthur Fellows, ranging in age from 18 to 82. The award has been called one of the most significant awards that is no strings attached. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the Foundation and reviewed by an anonymous, the committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the President and board of directors. Most new Fellows first learn of their nomination upon receiving a phone call. MacArthur Fellow Jim Collins described this experience in a column of The New York Times. Cecilia Conrad is the Managing Director leading the MacArthur Fellows Program and she debunked several myths about the Fellowship in The Washington Post. Guggenheim Fellowship MacArthur Fellows Program website
MacArthur Fellowship
–
Robert Penn Warren
MacArthur Fellowship
–
William Gaddis
MacArthur Fellowship
–
John Sayles
MacArthur Fellowship
–
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala
13.
Software freedom
–
Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project. Stallman later established the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to support the movement, the philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology and this effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art. Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition, while social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change. This quote by San Jose State professor Joel West explains much of the philosophy, if it is assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people. If not to make a change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many more freedoms than we have without a computer, the debate over the morality of both sides to the free software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition. Within the free movement, the FLOSS Manuals foundation specialises on the goal of providing such documentation. Members of the free software movement advocate that works which serve a practical purpose should also be free, the core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software, some supporters of the free software movement take up public speaking, or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom. The ideas sparked by the GNU associates are an attempt to promote an environment that understands the benefits of having a local community. A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents, other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects. The Venezuelan government implemented a free software law in January 2006, decree No.3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period. Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, the incident invited the attention of got Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva. His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments. In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging use of software by state government agencies. Like many social movements, the free movement has ongoing internal conflict between the many FOSS organizations and their personalities. For instance there is disagreement about the amount of compromises and pragmatism needed versus the need for strict adherence to values, after this Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative, to promote the term open source software as an alternative term for free software
Software freedom
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the
GNU Project and the free software movement, in or before 2002
Software freedom
–
GNU and
Tux mascots around free software supporters at
FISL 16
14.
Programmer
–
A programmer, computer programmer, developer, dev, coder, or software engineer is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst, a programmers primary computer language is often prefixed to these titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with web. The use of the term programmer for these positions is sometimes considered an insulting or derogatory oversimplification. Because Babbages machine was never completed to a standard in her time. The first person to run a program on a functioning modern electronically based computer was computer scientist Konrad Zuse, the ENIAC programming team, consisting of Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were the first regularly working programmers. International Programmers Day is celebrated annually on 7 January, in 2009, the government of Russia decreed a professional annual holiday known as Programmers Day to be celebrated on 13 September. It had also been an international holiday before that. Some of this section is from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–07 Edition, Computer programmers write, test, debug, and maintain the detailed instructions, called computer programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer, job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. Programmers work in many settings, including corporate information technology departments, big companies, small service firms. Many professional programmers also work for consulting companies at client sites as contractors, licensing is not typically required to work as a programmer, although professional certifications are commonly held by programmers. Programming is widely considered a profession, Programmers work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. In most cases, several work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily by more senior programmers, after the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer codes these instructions in one of many programming languages, different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for example, is used for business applications that typically run on mainframe and midrange computers, whereas Fortran is used in science
Programmer
–
Student programmers at the
Technische Hochschule in
Aachen, Germany in 1970
Programmer
–
Ada Lovelace is considered the first computer programmer.
Programmer
–
A computer programmer writing Java code
15.
Free software
–
The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
Free software
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the
Free Software Movement (2009)
Free software
–
Trisquel, an operating system composed entirely of free software
Free software
–
Creating a 3D car racing game using the free/open-source
Blender Game Engine
Free software
–
Of the
world's five hundred fastest
supercomputers, 480 (96%) use the Linux kernel. The world's second fastest computer is the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory 's
Titan supercomputer (illustrated), which uses the
Cray Linux Environment.
16.
GNU Project
–
The GNU Project /ɡnuː/ is a free-software, mass-collaboration project, first announced on September 27,1983 by Richard Stallman at MIT. GNU software guarantees these freedom-rights legally, and is free software. In order to ensure that the software of a computer grants its users all freedom rights, even the most fundamental and important part. Stallman decided to call this operating system GNU, basing its design on that of Unix, development was initiated in January 1984. In 1991, the kernel Linux appeared, developed outside of the GNU project by Linus Torvalds, combined with the operating system utilities already developed by the GNU project, it allowed for the first operating system that was free software, known as Linux or GNU/Linux. The projects current work includes development, awareness building, political campaigning and sharing of the new material. Richard Stallman announced his intent to start coding the GNU Project in a Usenet message in September 1983, when the GNU project first started they had an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, and a linker. The GNU system required its own C compiler and tools to be free software, by June 1987, the project had accumulated and developed free software for an assembler, an almost finished portable optimizing C compiler, an editor, and various Unix utilities. They had a kernel that needed more updates. Once the kernel and the compiler were finished, GNU was able to be used for program development, the main goal was to create many other applications to be like the Unix system. GNU was able to run Unix programs but was not identical to it, GNU incorporated longer file names, file version numbers, and a crashproof file system. The GNU Manifesto was written to support and participation from others for the project. Programmers were encouraged to take part in any aspect of the project that interested them, people could donate funds, computer parts, or even their own time to write code and programs for the project. The origins and development of most aspects of the GNU Project are shared in a narrative in the Emacs help system. It is the detailed history as at their web site. The GNU Manifesto was written by Richard Stallman to gain support, to implement these freedoms, users needed full access to code. Although most of the GNU Projects output is technical in nature, it was launched as a social, ethical, as well as producing software and licenses, the GNU Project has published a number of writings, the majority of which were authored by Richard Stallman. The GNU project uses software that is free for users to copy, edit and it is free in the sense that users can change the software to fit individual needs
GNU Project
–
GNU mascot, by Aurelio A. Heckert (derived from a more detailed version by Etienne Suvasa)
17.
GNU Emacs
–
GNU Emacs is the most popular and most ported Emacs text editor. It was created by GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, in common with other varieties of Emacs, GNU Emacs is extensible using a Turing complete programming language. GNU Emacs has been called the most powerful text editor available today, with proper support from the underlying system, GNU Emacs is able to display files in multiple character sets, and has been able to simultaneously display most human languages since at least 1999. Throughout its history, GNU Emacs has been a component of the GNU project. GNU Emacs is sometimes abbreviated as GNUMACS, especially to differentiate it from other EMACS variants, the tag line for GNU Emacs is the extensible self-documenting text editor. In 1976, Stallman wrote the first Emacs, and in 1984, began work on GNU Emacs, GNU Emacs was initially based on Gosling Emacs, but Stallmans replacement of its Mocklisp interpreter with a true Lisp interpreter required that nearly all of its code be rewritten. This became the first program released by the nascent GNU Project, GNU Emacs is written in C and provides Emacs Lisp, also implemented in C, as an extension language. Version 13, the first public release, was made on March 20,1985, the first widely distributed version of GNU Emacs was version 15.34, released later in 1985. Early versions of GNU Emacs were numbered as 1. x. x, the 1 was dropped after version 1.12 as it was thought that the major number would never change, and thus the major version skipped from 1 to 13. A new third version number was added to represent changes made by user sites, in the current numbering scheme, a number with two components signifies a release version, with development versions having three components. GNU Emacs was later ported to Unix and it offered more features than Gosling Emacs, in particular a full-featured Lisp as its extension language, and soon replaced Gosling Emacs as the de facto Unix Emacs editor. Markus Hess exploited a security flaw in GNU Emacs email subsystem in his 1986 cracking spree, the project has since adopted a public development mailing list and anonymous CVS access. Development took place in a single CVS trunk until 2008, Richard Stallman has remained the principal maintainer of GNU Emacs, but he has stepped back from the role at times. Stefan Monnier and Chong Yidong have overseen maintenance since 2008, on September 21,2015 Monnier announced that he would be stepping down as maintainer effective with the feature freeze of Emacs 25. Older versions of the GNU Emacs documentation appeared under a license that required the inclusion of certain text in any modified copy. In the GNU Emacs users manual, for example, this included instructions for obtaining GNU Emacs, the XEmacs manuals, which were inherited from older GNU Emacs manuals when the fork occurred, have the same license. Bug fixes and minor code contributions of fewer than 10 lines are exempt and this policy is in place so that the FSF can defend the software in court if its copyleft license is violated. In 2011 it was noticed that GNU Emacs had been violating the GPL for two years, Richard Stallman described this incident as a very bad mistake, which was promptly fixed and no lawsuit was filed
GNU Emacs
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the
GNU Project and author of GNU Emacs
GNU Emacs
–
GNU Emacs 24.3.1 on
GNOME 3
18.
GNU General Public License
–
The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
GNU General Public License
–
Richard Stallman at the launch of the first draft of the GNU GPLv3. MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. To his right is Columbia Law Professor
Eben Moglen, chairman of the Software Freedom Law Center
GNU General Public License
–
GNU GPLv3 Logo
19.
Unix-like
–
A Unix-like operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, while not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell, there is no standard for defining the term, and some difference of opinion is possible as to the degree to which a given operating system or application is Unix-like. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification and they do not approve of the construction Unix-like, and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Other parties frequently treat Unix as a genericized trademark, in 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership. Unix-like systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s, many proprietary versions, such as Idris, UNOS, Coherent, and UniFlex, aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX. These largely displaced the proprietary clones, growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4. 4BSD, Linux, some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial Unix-like systems, such as BSD/OS and OS X. The various BSD variants are notable in that they are in fact descendants of UNIX, however, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all of the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested there are three kinds of Unix-like systems, Genetic UNIX Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category, so do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can trace their ancestry to AT&T designs. Trademark or branded UNIX These systems—largely commercial in nature—have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name, many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition. Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the price of one dollar. Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with degrees of Unix-like functionality. IBM z/OSs UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete to be certified as trademark UNIX, cygwin and MSYS both provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run. Subsystem for Unix-based Applications provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem, Windows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it
Unix-like
–
Richard Stallman, founder of the
GNU Project and the
free software movement
Unix-like
–
Evolution of Unix and Unix-like systems, starting in 1969
20.
Operating system
–
An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
Operating system
–
OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including computers used by the
Apollo program.
Operating system
Operating system
–
The
first server for the
World Wide Web ran on NeXTSTEP, based on BSD
21.
GNU Debugger
–
GDB was first written by Richard Stallman in 1986 as part of his GNU system, after his GNU Emacs was reasonably stable. GDB is free software released under the GNU General Public License and it was modeled after the DBX debugger, which came with Berkeley Unix distributions. From 1990 to 1993 it was maintained by John Gilmore, now it is maintained by the GDB Steering Committee which is appointed by the Free Software Foundation. GDB offers extensive facilities for tracing and altering the execution of computer programs, the user can monitor and modify the values of programs internal variables, and even call functions independently of the programs normal behavior. GDB has compiled-in simulators for even lesser-known target processors such like M32R or V850, as of version 7.0 new features include support for Python scripting and as of version 7.8 GNU Guile scripting as well. Since version 7.0, support for reversible debugging — allowing a debugging session to step backward, GDB offers a remote mode often used when debugging embedded systems. Remote operation is when GDB runs on one machine and the program being debugged runs on another, GDB can communicate to the remote stub which understands GDB protocol via Serial or TCP/IP. A stub program can be created by linking to the appropriate stub files provided with GDB, alternatively, gdbserver can be used to remotely debug the program without needing to change it in any way. The same mode is used by KGDB for debugging a running Linux kernel on the source level with gdb. With KGDB, kernel developers can debug a kernel in much the way as they debug application programs. It makes it possible to place breakpoints in kernel code, step through the code, on architectures where hardware debugging registers are available, watchpoints can be set which trigger breakpoints when specified memory addresses are executed or accessed. KGDB requires a machine which is connected to the machine to be debugged using a serial cable or Ethernet. On FreeBSD, it is possible to debug using Firewire direct memory access. The debugger does not contain its own user interface. Several front-ends have been built for it, such as UltraGDB, Xxgdb, Data Display Debugger, Nemiver, KDbg, Xcode debugger, GDBtk/Insight and the HP Wildebeest Debugger GUI. IDEs such as Codelite, Code, Blocks, Dev-C++, Geany, GNAT Programming Studio, KDevelop, Qt Creator, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, Eclipse, NetBeans, GNU Emacs has a GUD mode and tools for VIM exist These offer facilities similar to debuggers found in IDEs. Some other debugging tools have been designed to work with GDB, the problem is present in line 8, and occurs when calling the function strlen. Depending on the implementation of strlen, the output can be different, to fix the problem, the variable a must contain a valid string
GNU Debugger
–
GNU Debugger
22.
Copyleft
–
Copyleft software licenses are considered protective or reciprocal, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. Copyleft is a form of licensing, and can be used to maintain copyright conditions for works ranging from software, to documents. In general, copyright law is used by an author to prohibit recipients from reproducing, adapting, Copyleft licenses for software require that information necessary for reproducing and modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the binaries. The source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms, Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first software license to see extensive use. Creative Commons, an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar license provision condition called share-alike. Copyleft is a licensing scheme in which an author surrenders some. Under copyleft, derived works may be produced provided they are released under the compatible copyleft scheme, the underlying principle is that one benefits freely from the work of others, but any modifications one makes public must be released under similar terms. For this reason some copyleft licenses are also known as reciprocal licenses, under fair use, however, the copyleft license may be superseded, just like regular copyrights. Therefore, any person utilizing a copyleft-licensed source for their own work is free to any other license provided they meet the fair use standard. According to Free Software Foundation compliance engineer David Turner, the term viral license creates a misunderstanding and a fear of using copylefted free software. If the firm actually copied code from a GPLd program, such a suit would be a perfectly ordinary assertion of copyright, which most private firms would defend if the shoe were on the other foot. Richard Stallman has described this view with an analogy, saying, The GPLs domain does not spread by proximity or contact and it spreads like a spider plant, not like a virus. In particular, permissive free licenses such as BSD allow re-distributors to remove some or all these rights. Reuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking, other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project, which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely built by volunteer contributions. Despite this, the DMOZ has remained a product for its entire existence. The economic incentives to work on copyleft content can vary, traditional copyright law is designed to promote progress by providing economic benefits to creators
Copyleft
–
Copyleft symbol
23.
League for Programming Freedom
–
Their logo is the Statue of Liberty holding a floppy disk and tape spool. The League produced a newsletter, Programming Freedom 11 issues in 1991-1995 and these primary source materials chronicle the work of the organization. After the lawsuit ended, the League went dormant, to be resurrected by those who were troubled by the enforcement of software patents. In September 2009, LPF President Dean Anderson sent a notice to former members announcing the return of the LPF and reviving its membership, with plans for an election on 12 May 2010
League for Programming Freedom
–
Logo of the LPF
24.
Software patent debate
–
The software patent debate is the argument about the extent to which, as a matter of public policy, it should be possible to patent software and computer-implemented inventions. Policy debate on software patents has been active for years, the opponents to software patents have gained more visibility with less resources through the years than their pro-patent opponents. Arguments and critiques have focused mostly on the economic consequences of software patents. There are several arguments commonly given in defense of software patents or defense of the patentability of computer-implemented inventions, through public disclosure, patents encourage the open sharing of information and additional transparency. Through public disclosure, patents encourage the transfer of technology, software patents resulting from the production of patentable ideas can increase the valuation of small companies. Software patents increase the return on investment made by the public on federally sponsored university research, the ability to patent new software developed as a result of research encourages investment in software-related research by increasing the potential return of investment of said research. Patents provide incentive for innovation, investment, and invention, by incentivizing projects that are unique, copyright on the other hand only protects expression. Substantial modification to a work, even if it performs the same function. To prove copyright infringement also requires the additional hurdle of proving copying which is not necessary for patent infringement and this means that patents incentivize projects that are unique and innovative in functionality rather than simply form. Copyrights, in turn, only incentivize uniqueness in form and they have since decided that to move the electric car market forward for all, their patents are best open sourced. Hardware and software are often interchangeable - software gives the hardware its value, the difference between putting certain features in hardware and others in software depends on factors like cost, reliability, and frequency of the change. If people can patent hardware it does not make sense to not be able to patent the software that is the core of the hardware. Opponents of software patents argue that, A program is the transcription of an algorithm in a programming language, since every programming language implements the Churchs lambda calculus by virtue of the Church-Turing thesis, a program is thus the transcription of a mathematical function. A patent thicket is a web of patents that companies must decipher to develop new technology. There are various types of patent thickets such as when a single innovation is protected by patent holders or when a product is covered by numerous patents. The consequences of patent thickets are increased difficulty of innovation, complex cross-licensing relations between companies, and discouragement of newcomers from entering the software industry, the Electronic Frontier Foundation published the Defend Innovation whitepaper after doing two and a half years of research on software patents. They concluded that many overbroad software patents are being awarded, which is actually stifling innovation. Interoperability is thought to promote innovation, and patent systems have the potential to block the development of such technologies. ”Should a software developer hire a patent attorney to perform a search and provide a clearance opinion
Software patent debate
–
Computer programs, software and patent law
25.
Digital restrictions management
–
Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses
Digital restrictions management
–
Defective by Design member protesting DRM on May 25, 2007.
26.
Software protection dongle
–
The hardware key is programmed with a product key or other cryptographic protection mechanism, it attaches via electrical connector to an external bus of the computer or appliance. Without the dongle, the software may run only in a restricted mode, when used as a device attached to a computer or TV or gaming console, dongles can enable functions that would not be present without it. For example, an attached to a TV may receive an encoded video stream, decode it in the dongle. In late 1970s/early 1980s, Wordcraft became the earliest program to use a software protection dongle, the dongle was passive using a 74LS165 8-bit shift register connected to one of the two tape cassette ports on the Commodore PET microcomputer. The tape cassette port supplied both power and bi-directional data I/O, the requirements for security were identified by the author of the Wordcraft word processor, Pete Dowson, and his colleague Mike Lake. The shift register contained only 8 bits but with lines tied to ground or 5V at random it could provide a number between 0 and 255 which was sufficient security for the software. The prototype was on Veroboard which dangled from the port edge connector on wires - so dangle became dongle. Pete Dowson wrote special self-modifying 6502 machine code to drive the port directly, the first device used a commercial potting box with black or blue epoxy resin. Wordcrafts distributor at the time, Dataview Ltd. then based in Colchester, UK, when Wordcraft International was formed in Derby, UK, responsibility for manufacture was transferred to Brian Edmundson who also produced the plastic moulding for the enclosure. One of the greatest regrets of Graham, Pete and Mike was that they did not patent the idea when they came up with it, versions of the Wordcraft dongle were later produced for Centronics parallel ports,25 pin serial ports and 9 pin serial ports. Among the computers supported, before the arrival of the IBM PC, were Chuck Peddles Sirius Systems Technology Victor 9000, the ACT Apricot Computers, dongles rapidly evolved into active devices that contained a serial transceiver and even a microprocessor to handle transactions with the host. Later versions adopted the USB interface in preference to the serial or parallel interface, the USB interface is gradually becoming dominant. A1992 advertisement for Rainbow Technologies claimed the word dongle was derived from the name Don Gall, though untrue, this has given rise to an urban myth. Efforts to introduce dongle copy-protection in the software market have met stiff resistance from users. In cases such as prepress and printing software, the dongle is encoded with a specific, per-user license key and this is a form of tightly controlled licensing, which allows the vendor to engage in vendor lock-in and charge more than it would otherwise for the product. USB dongles are also a big part of Steinbergs audio production and editing systems, such as Cubase, WaveLab, Hypersonic, HALion, the dongle used by Steinbergs products is also known as a Steinberg Key. A developer can use the dongle to store user settings or even a complete portable version of the application. Not all flash drives are suitable for use, as not all manufacturers install unique serial numbers into their devices
Software protection dongle
–
Early software protection dongles.
Software protection dongle
–
Daisy chained parallel port copy protection dongles.
27.
Copy protection
–
Various methods have been devised to prevent reproduction so that companies will gain benefit from each person who obtains an authorized copy of their product. Unauthorized copying and distribution accounted for $2, making copy protection effective while protecting consumer rights is still an ongoing problem with media publication. Copy prevention and copy control may be more neutral terms, the term is also often related to, and confused with, the concept of digital rights management. Digital rights management is a general term because it includes all sorts of management of works. Copy protection may include measures that are not digital, a more appropriate term may be technological protection measures, which is often defined as the use of technological tools in order to restrict the use or access to a work. Copy protection is most commonly found on videotapes, DVDs, computer software discs, video discs and cartridges, audio CDs. Many media formats are easy to copy using a machine, allowing consumers to distribute copies to their friends, a practice known as casual copying. Opponents of copy protection argue that people who obtain free copies only use what they can get for free, and would not purchase their own copy if they were unable to obtain a free copy. Some even argue that free copies increase profit, people who receive a copy of a music CD may then go and buy more of that bands music. Some publishers have avoided copy-protecting their products, on the theory that the resulting inconvenience to their users outweighs any benefit of frustrating casual copying, from the perspective of the end user, copy protection is always a cost. DRM and license managers sometimes fail, are inconvenient to use, the term copy protection refers to the technology used to attempt to frustrate copying, and not to the legal remedies available to publishers or authors whose copyrights are violated. Software usage models range from node locking to floating licenses, grid computing, the term license management refers to broad platforms which enable the specification, enforcement and tracking of software licenses. To safeguard copy protection and license management technologies themselves against tampering and hacking, floating licenses are also being referred to as Indirect Licenses, and are licenses that at the time they are issued, there is no actually user who will use them. That has some influence over some of their characteristics. Direct Licenses are issued after a user requires it. As an example, an activated Microsoft product, contains a Direct License which is locked to the PC where the product is installed. The basic technical fact is all types of media require a player — a CD player, DVD player. The player has to be able to read the media in order to display it to a human
Copy protection
–
Piracy warning in
Spyro: Year of the Dragon
28.
Binary file
–
A binary file is a computer file that is not a text file. The term binary file is used as a term meaning non-text file. Binary files are usually thought of as being a sequence of bytes, binary files typically contain bytes that are intended to be interpreted as something other than text characters. Compiled computer programs are examples, indeed, compiled applications are sometimes referred to, particularly by programmers. But binary files can also mean that they contain images, sounds, compressed versions of files, etc. — in short. Some binary files contain headers, blocks of metadata used by a program to interpret the data in the file. The header often contains a signature or magic number which can identify the format, for example, a GIF file can contain multiple images, and headers are used to identify and describe each block of image data. The leading bytes of the header would contain text like GIF87a or GIF89a that can identify the binary as a GIF file, if a binary file does not contain any headers, it may be called a flat binary file. To send binary files through certain systems that do not allow all data values, encoding the data has the disadvantage of increasing the file size during the transfer, as well as requiring translation back into binary after receipt. See Binary-to-text encoding for more on this subject, a hex editor or viewer may be used to view file data as a sequence of hexadecimal values for corresponding bytes of a binary file. If a binary file is opened in an editor, each group of eight bits will typically be translated as a single character. Other type of viewers simply replace the characters with spaces revealing only the human-readable text. This type of view is useful for inspection of a binary file in order to find passwords in games, find hidden text in non-text files. It can even be used to inspect suspicious files for unwanted effects, for example, the user would see any URL/email to which the suspected software may attempt to connect in order to upload unapproved data. If the file is itself treated as an executable and run, standards are very important to binary files. For example, a binary file interpreted by the ASCII character set will result in text being displayed, a custom application can interpret the file differently, a byte may be a sound, or a pixel, or even an entire word. Binary itself is meaningless, until such time as an executed algorithm defines what should be done with each bit, byte, thus, just examining the binary and attempting to match it against known formats can lead to the wrong conclusion as to what it actually represents. This fact can be used in steganography, where an algorithm interprets a binary data file differently to reveal hidden content, without the algorithm, it is impossible to tell that hidden content exists
Binary file
–
A
hex dump of the 318
byte Wikipedia
favicon, or. The first column numerates the line's starting address, while the * indicates repetition.
29.
Executable
–
These instructions are traditionally machine code instructions for a physical CPU. Executable code is used to describe sequences of instructions that do not necessarily constitute an executable file, for example. Several object files are linked to create the executable, object files, executable or not, are typically in a container format, such as Executable and Linkable Format. This structures the generated code, for example dividing it into sections such as the. text. data. In order to be executed by the system, a file must conform to the systems Application Binary Interface. For example, in ELF, the point is specified in the header in the e_entry field. In the GCC this field is set by the based on the _start symbol. For C, this is done by linking in the crt0 object, Executable files thus normally contain significant additional machine code beyond that directly generated from the specific source code. In some cases it is desirable to omit this, for example for embedded systems development or simply to understand how compilation, linking, comparison of executable file formats EXE File Format at What Is
Executable
–
A
hex dump of an executable
real modeloader
30.
Source code
–
In computing, source code is any collection of computer instructions, possibly with comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as ordinary text. The source code of a program is designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code understood by the computer, the machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed, most application software is distributed in a form that includes only executable files. If the source code were included it would be useful to a user, programmer or a system administrator, the Linux Information Project defines source code as, Source code is the version of software as it is originally written by a human in plain text. The notion of source code may also be more broadly, to include machine code and notations in graphical languages. It is therefore so construed as to include code, very high level languages. Often there are several steps of program translation or minification between the source code typed by a human and an executable program. The earliest programs for stored-program computers were entered in binary through the front panel switches of the computer and this first-generation programming language had no distinction between source code and machine code. When IBM first offered software to work with its machine, the code was provided at no additional charge. At that time, the cost of developing and supporting software was included in the price of the hardware, for decades, IBM distributed source code with its software product licenses, until 1983. Most early computer magazines published source code as type-in programs, Source code can also be stored in a database or elsewhere. The source code for a piece of software may be contained in a single file or many files. Though the practice is uncommon, a source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, in some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time. The code base of a programming project is the larger collection of all the source code of all the computer programs which make up the project. It has become practice to maintain code bases in version control systems. Moderately complex software customarily requires the compilation or assembly of several, sometimes dozens or even hundreds, in these cases, instructions for compilations, such as a Makefile, are included with the source code
Source code
–
An illustration of
Java source code with prologue comments indicated in red, inline comments indicated in green, and program statements indicated in blue
31.
Honorary doctorate
–
An example of identifying a recipient of this award is as follows, Doctorate in Business Administration. The degree is conferred as a way of honouring a distinguished visitors contributions to a specific field or to society in general. It is sometimes recommended that such degrees be listed in ones CV as an award, rev. Theodore Hesburgh held the record for most honorary degrees, having been awarded 150 during his lifetime. The earliest honorary degree on record was awarded to Lionel Woodville in the late 1470s by the University of Oxford and he later became Bishop of Salisbury. In the latter part of the 16th century, the granting of honorary degrees became quite common, generally, universities nominate several persons each year for honorary degrees, these nominees usually go through several committees before receiving approval. Under certain circumstances, a degree may be conferred on an individual for both the nature of the office they hold and the completion of a dissertation, the dissertation et jure dignitatis is considered to be a full academic degree. Although higher doctorates such as DSc, DLitt, etc. are often awarded honoris causa, the university will appoint a panel of examiners who will consider the case and prepare a report recommending whether or not the degree be awarded. Usually, the applicant must have some strong connection with the university in question, for example full-time academic staff. The Archbishop of Canterbury has the authority to award degrees, some institutes of higher education do not confer honorary degrees as a matter of policy - see below. Some learned societies award honorary fellowships in the way as honorary degrees are awarded by universities. A typical example of university regulations is, Honorary graduates may use the approved post-nominal letters and it is not customary, however, for recipients of an honorary doctorate to adopt the prefix Dr. In some universities, it is however a matter of preference for an honorary doctor to use the formal title of Doctor. Written communications where an honorary doctorate has been awarded may include the letters h. c. after the award to indicate that status. In some countries, a person who holds an honorary doctorate may use the title Doctor prenominally, abbreviated Dr. h. c. or Dr. Sometimes, they use Hon before the letters, for example. In recent years, some universities have adopted entirely separate post nominal titles for honorary degrees and this is in part due to the confusion that honorary degrees have caused. It is now common in countries to use certain degrees, such as LLD or HonD. For instance, a doctor of the Auckland University of Technology takes the special title HonD. Some universities, including the Open University grant Doctorates of the University to selected nominees, most American universities award the degrees of LLD, LittD, LHD, ScD, PedD and DD only as honorary degrees
Honorary doctorate
–
The honoris causa
doctorate received by
Jimmy Wales from the
University of Maastricht (2015).
Honorary doctorate
–
Letter from
Ezra Stiles to
George Washington announcing the awarding of an honorary degree to Washington by the president and fellows of
Yale College (1781).
Honorary doctorate
–
Elena Ceauşescu becoming
Doctor Honoris Causa of the
University of Manila,
Philippines, in 1975
32.
IBM 7090
–
The IBM7090 was a second-generation transistorized version of the earlier IBM709 vacuum tube mainframe computers and was designed for large-scale scientific and technological applications. The 7090 was the member of the IBM 700/7000 series scientific computers. The first 7090 installation was in November 1959, in 1960, a typical system sold for $2.9 million or could be rented for $63,500 a month. The 7090 used a 36-bit word length, with a space of 32,768 words. It operated with a memory cycle of 2.18 μs. With a processing speed of around 100 Kflop/s, the 7090 was six times faster than the 709, although the 709 was a superior machine to its predecessor, the 704, it was being built and sold at the time that transistor circuitry was supplanting vacuum tube circuits. Hence, IBM redeployed its 709 engineering group to the design of a transistorized successor and that project became called the 709-T, which because of the sound when spoken, quickly shifted to the nomenclature 7090. Similarly, the related machines such as the 7070 and other 7000 series equipment were called by names of digit - digit - decade, an upgraded version, the IBM7094, was first installed in September 1962. It had seven index registers, instead of three on the earlier machines, the 7094 console had a distinctive box on top that displayed lights for the four new index registers. Photos The 7094 introduced double-precision floating point and additional instructions, but was backward compatible with the 7090. Minor changes in instruction formats, particularly the way the additional index registers were addressed, sometimes caused problems. On the earlier models, when more than one bit was set in the tag field, on the 7094, if the three-bit tag field was not zero, it selected just one of seven index registers, however the or behavior remained available in a multiple tag compatibility mode. In 1963, IBM introduced two new, lower cost machines called the IBM7040 and 7044, a 7094/7044 Direct Coupled System was introduced later, with the 7094 performing computation while the 7044 handled Input/Output. The 7090 used germanium transistors and germanium diffused junction drift transistors. The 7090 used the Standard Modular System cards using current-mode logic some using diffused junction drift transistors, the basic instruction format was the same as the IBM709, a three-bit prefix, 15-bit decrement, three-bit tag, and 15-bit address. The prefix field specified the class of instruction, the decrement field often contained an immediate operand to modify the results of the operation, or was used to further define the instruction type. The three bits of the tag specified three index registers, the contents of which were subtracted from the address to produce an effective address, the address field contained either an address or an immediate operand. Fixed-point numbers were stored in binary sign/magnitude format, the double-precision number was stored in memory in an even-odd pair of consecutive words, the sign and exponent in the second word were ignored when the number was used as an operand
IBM 7090
–
IBM 7090 console
IBM 7090
–
IBM 7094 operator's console showing additional index register displays in a distinctive extra box on top. Note "Multiple Tag Mode" light in the top center.
IBM 7090
–
IBM 7090 operator's console at the NASA
Ames Research Center in 1961, with two banks of IBM 729 magnetic tape drives. The man on the right is galvanizing the card reader.
IBM 7090
–
Dual 7090s at NASA during
Project Mercury.
33.
Biology
–
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
Biology
Biology
Biology
Biology
34.
Rockefeller University
–
The Rockefeller University is a center for scientific research, primarily in the biological and medical sciences, providing doctoral and postdoctoral education. Rockefeller is one of the most prestigious institutes for research in the world. Of a 78 person faculty,38 are members of the National Academy of Sciences,18 are members of the National Academy of Medicine,8 are Lasker Award recipients, Rockefeller is located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, between 63rd and 68th Streets along York Avenue. Richard P. Lifton—previously the executive director of the Center for Human Genetics and Genomics at Yale University—became the universitys president on September 1,2016. The Rockefeller University Press publishes the Journal of Experimental Medicine, the Journal of Cell Biology, the Rockefeller Foundation, a philanthropic organization, founded in 1913, is a separate entity, but had close connections mediated by prominent figures holding dual positions. The first director of laboratories was Simon Flexner, who supervised the development of capacity at the Institute, whose staff made major discoveries in basic research. Flexner retired in 1935 and was succeeded by Herbert Gasser and he was succeeded in 1953 by Detlev Bronk, who broadened The Rockefeller Institute into a university that began awarding the PhD degree in 1954. In 1965 The Rockefeller Institutes name was changed to The Rockefeller University, the Rockefeller Hospitals first director Rufus Cole retired in 1937 and was succeeded by Thomas Milton Rivers. As director of The Rockefeller Institutes virology laboratory, he established virology as an independent field apart from bacteriology, Rockefeller has a remarkable history of research breakthroughs especially given the size of the institution. Discovery of the cell, the sentinel of the immune system Identification of a genetic defect associated with atherosclerosis. Others attained eminence before being drawn to the university, joshua Lederberg, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958, served as president of the university from 1978 to 1990. Paul Nurse, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2001, in all,24 Nobel Prize recipients have been associated with the University. In the mid-1970s, the University attracted a few prominent academicians in the humanities, urged by Rockefeller Jr, his only son, who was enthusiastic about the Institute, Rockefeller Sr visited but once. Rockefeller Jrs youngest son David would visit with his father, to foster an interdisciplinary atmosphere among its 79 laboratories, the university assigns a faculty member to one of six interconnecting research areas. D. and M. D. -Ph. D. Students 1,178 alumni Award affiliations taken from The Rockefeller University » Nobel Laureates, David Albert, physicist and philosopher David Baltimore, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology & Medicine in 1975 for the discovery of reverse transcriptase. Has served as president of both the Rockefeller University and the California Institute of Technology, michael Bratman, Durfee Professor of philosophy at Stanford University. Gerald Edelman, recipient of the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, barbara Ehrenreich, social commentator and author of the 2001 book Nickel and Dimed, On Getting By In America. Nef Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago, recipient of Prince of Asturias Award in 1994
Rockefeller University
–
Founder's Hall
Rockefeller University
–
The Rockefeller University
Rockefeller University
–
The
Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive runs under the campus
35.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
36.
Fortran
–
Fortran is a general-purpose, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing. It is a language for high-performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark. Fortran encompasses a lineage of versions, each of which evolved to add extensions to the language while usually retaining compatibility with prior versions, the names of earlier versions of the language through FORTRAN77 were conventionally spelled in all-capitals. The capitalization has been dropped in referring to newer versions beginning with Fortran 90, the official language standards now refer to the language as Fortran rather than all-caps FORTRAN. In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM704 mainframe computer. Backus historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Lois Haibt, and David Sayre. Its concepts included easier entry of equations into a computer, a developed by J. Halcombe Laning and demonstrated in the Laning. A draft specification for The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System was completed by mid-1954, the first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957. John Backus said during a 1979 interview with Think, the IBM employee magazine, the language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate faster and more efficient code. The inclusion of a complex data type in the language made Fortran especially suited to technical applications such as electrical engineering. By 1960, versions of FORTRAN were available for the IBM709,650,1620, significantly, the increasing popularity of FORTRAN spurred competing computer manufacturers to provide FORTRAN compilers for their machines, so that by 1963 over 40 FORTRAN compilers existed. For these reasons, FORTRAN is considered to be the first widely used programming language supported across a variety of computer architectures, the arithmetic IF statement was similar to a three-way branch instruction on the IBM704. However, the 704 branch instructions all contained only one destination address, an optimizing compiler like FORTRAN would most likely select the more compact and usually faster Transfers instead of the Compare. Also the Compare considered −0 and +0 to be different values while the Transfer Zero, the FREQUENCY statement in FORTRAN was used originally to give branch probabilities for the three branch cases of the arithmetic IF statement. The Monte Carlo technique is documented in Backus et al, many years later, the FREQUENCY statement had no effect on the code, and was treated as a comment statement, since the compilers no longer did this kind of compile-time simulation. A similar fate has befallen compiler hints in other programming languages. The first FORTRAN compiler reported diagnostic information by halting the program when an error was found and that code could be looked up by the programmer in a error messages table in the operators manual, providing them with a brief description of the problem. Before the development of disk files, text editors and terminals, programs were most often entered on a keyboard onto 80-column punched cards
Fortran
–
The Fortran Automatic Coding System for the
IBM 704 (15 October 1956), the first Programmer's Reference Manual for Fortran
Fortran
–
FORTRAN code on a
punched card, showing the specialized uses of columns 1-5, 6 and 73-80.
Fortran
–
FORTRAN-77 program with compiler output, written on a
CDC 175 at
RWTH Aachen University, Germany, in 1987
37.
APL (programming language)
–
APL is a programming language developed in the 1960s by Kenneth E. Iverson. Its central datatype is the multidimensional array and it uses a large range of special graphic symbols to represent most functions and operators, leading to very concise code. It has been an important influence on the development of concept modeling, spreadsheets, functional programming and it has also inspired several other programming languages. It is still used today for certain applications, the preface states its premise, Applied mathematics is largely concerned with the design and analysis of explicit procedures for calculating the exact or approximate values of various functions. Such explicit procedures are called algorithms or programs, because an effective notation for the description of programs exhibits considerable syntactic structure, it is called a programming language. In 1960, he work for IBM and, working with Adin Falkoff. Students tested their code in Hellermans lab and this implementation of a portion of the notation was called PAT. After this was published, the team turned their attention to an implementation of the notation on a computer system. One of the motivations for this focus of implementation was the interest of John L. Lawrence who had new duties with Science Research Associates, Lawrence asked Iverson and his group to help utilize the language as a tool for the development and use of computers in education. After Lawrence M. Breed and Philip S and this work was finished in late 1965 and later known as IVSYS. The basis of this implementation was described in detail by Abrams in a Stanford University Technical Report and this was formally supervised by Niklaus Wirth. Like Hellermans PAT system earlier, this implementation did not include the APL character set but used special English reserved words for functions and this was used on paper printing terminal workstations using the Selectric typewriter and typeball mechanism, such as the IBM1050 and IBM2741 terminal. Keycaps could be placed over the keys to show which APL characters would be entered and typed when that key was struck. For the first time, a programmer could actually type in and see real APL characters as used in Iversons notation, Falkoff and Iverson had the special APL Selectric typeballs,987 and 988, designed in late 1964, although no APL computer system was available to use them. Iverson cited Falkoff as the inspiration for the idea of using an IBM Selectric typeball for the APL character set, some APL symbols, even with the APL characters on the typeball, still had to be typed in by over-striking two existing typeball characters. An example would be the grade up character, which had to be made from a delta and this was necessary because the APL character set was larger than the 88 characters allowed on the Selectric typeball. IBM was chiefly responsible for the introduction of APL to the marketplace, APL was first available in 1967 for the IBM1130 as APL\1130. It would run in as little as 8k 16-bit words of memory, somewhat later, as suitably performing hardware was finally becoming available in the mid- to late-1980s, many users migrated their applications to the personal computer environment
APL (programming language)
–
Promotional material for APL from 1976
APL (programming language)
–
IBM typeballs (one OCR) with clip, €2 coin for scale
38.
Programming language
–
A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
Programming language
–
The
Manchester Mark 1 ran programs written in
Autocode from 1952.
Programming language
–
A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.
39.
IBM System/360
–
The IBM System/360 is a mainframe computer system family that was announced by IBM on April 7,1964, and delivered between 1965 and 1978. It was the first family of computers designed to cover the range of applications, from small to large. The design made a distinction between architecture and implementation, allowing IBM to release a suite of compatible designs at different prices. The launch of the System/360 family introduced IBMs Solid Logic Technology, the slowest System/360 model announced in 1964, the Model 30, could perform up to 34,500 instructions per second, with memory from 8 to 64 KB. The 1967 IBM System/360 Model 91 could do up to 16.6 million instructions per second, up to 8 megabytes of slower Large Capacity Storage was also available. Many consider the one of the most successful computers in history. The chief architect of System/360 was Gene Amdahl, and the project was managed by Fred Brooks, the commercial release was piloted by another of Watsons lieutenants, John R. Opel, who managed the launch of IBM’s System 360 mainframe family in 1964. Application level compatibility for System/360 software is maintained to present day with the System z servers, contrasting with at-the-time normal industry practice, IBM created an entire series of computers, from small to large, low to high performance, all using the same instruction set. This feat allowed customers to use a model and then upgrade to larger systems as their needs increased without the time. This flexibility greatly lowered barriers to entry, with other vendors, customers had to choose between machines they could outgrow and machines that were potentially overpowered. This meant that many simply did not buy computers. IBM initially announced a series of six computers and forty common peripherals, IBM eventually delivered fourteen models, including rare one-off models for NASA. The initial announcement in 1964 included Models 30,40,50,60,62, the first three were low- to middle-range systems aimed at the IBM1400 series market. All three first shipped in mid-1965, the last three, intended to replace the 7000 series machines, never shipped and were replaced by the 65 and 75, which were first delivered in November 1965, and January 1966, respectively. Later additions to the low-end included models 20,22, and 25, the Model 20 had several sub-models, sub-model 5 was at the higher end of the model. A succession of high-end machines included the Model 67,85,91,95, the 85 design was intermediate between the System/360 line and the follow-on System/370 and was the basis for the 370/165. There was a System/370 version of the 195, but it did not include Dynamic Address Translation, the implementations differed substantially, using different native data path widths, presence or absence of microcode, yet were extremely compatible. Except where specifically documented, the models were architecturally compatible, the 91, for example, was designed for scientific computing and provided out-of-order instruction execution, but lacked the decimal instruction set used in commercial applications
IBM System/360
–
An IBM System/360 Model 50 in use at Volkswagen
IBM System/360
–
An IBM System/360-20 (with front panels removed), with IBM 2560 MFCM (Multi-Function Card Machine)
IBM System/360
–
IBM System/360 Model 30 at the
Computer History Museum
IBM System/360
–
System/360 Model 65 operator's
console, with
register value lamps and
toggle switches (middle of picture) and "
emergency pull " switch (upper right)
40.
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
–
Housed within the Stata Center, CSAIL is the largest on-campus laboratory as measured by research scope and membership. CSAILs research activities are organized around a number of research groups. Research at MIT in the field of artificial intelligence began in 1959, on July 1,1963, Project MAC was launched with a $2 million grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Project MACs original director was Robert Fano of MITs Research Laboratory of Electronics, the program manager responsible for the DARPA grant was J. C. R. Licklider, who had previously been at MIT conducting research in RLE, Project MAC would become famous for groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. Its contemporaries included Project Genie at Berkeley, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, an AI Group including Marvin Minsky, John McCarthy and a talented community of computer programmers was incorporated into the newly formed Project MAC. It was interested principally in the problems of vision, mechanical motion and manipulation, and language, in the 1960s - 1970s the AI Group shared a computer room with a computer for which they built a time-sharing operating system called ITS. These founders envisioned the creation of a utility whose computational power would be as reliable as an electric utility. To this end, Corbató brought the first computer time-sharing system, CTSS, with him from the MIT Computation Center, in 1966, Scientific American featured Project MAC in the September thematic issue devoted to computer science, that was later published in book form. At the time, the system was described as having approximately 100 TTY terminals, mostly on campus, only 30 users could be logged in at the same time. In the late 1960s, Minskys artificial intelligence group was seeking more space, talented programmers such as Richard Stallman, who used TECO to write EMACS, flourished in the AI Lab during this time. Two professors, Hal Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, chose to remain neutral – their group was referred to variously as Switzerland, the AI Lab led to the invention of Lisp machines and their attempted commercialization by two companies in the 1980s, Symbolics and Lisp Machines Inc. This divided the AI lab into camps and resulted in a hiring away of many employees, the experience was influential on Stallmans later work on the GNU project. Nobody had envisioned that the AI labs hacker group would be wiped out, on the fortieth anniversary of Project MACs establishment, July 1,2003, LCS re-merged with the AI Lab to form the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, or CSAIL. This merger created the largest laboratory on the MIT campus and was regarded as a reuniting of the elements of Project MAC. The IMARA group sponsors a variety of programs which bridge the Global Digital Divide. Its aim is to find and implement long-term, sustainable solutions which increase the availability of educational technology and resources to domestic. Rus, 2012– A Marriage of Convenience, The Founding of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Chious et al. - includes important information on the Incompatible Timesharing System Weizenbaum
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
–
MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
41.
Hacker (programmer subculture)
–
The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
Hacker (programmer subculture)
–
A
DIY musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for
"bends" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips
Hacker (programmer subculture)
–
The
Glider, proposed as an
emblem of the "hacker community" by
Eric S. Raymond.
42.
Gerald Jay Sussman
–
Gerald Jay Sussman is the Panasonic Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He received his S. B. and Ph. D. degrees in mathematics from MIT in 1968 and 1973 respectively and he has been involved in artificial intelligence research at MIT since 1964. Sussman has also worked in computer languages, in computer architecture, Sussman is a coauthor of the introductory computer science textbook Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs. It was used at MIT for several decades, and has translated into several languages. Sussman and his student, Guy L. Steele Jr. invented the Scheme programming language in 1975. Sussman saw that artificial intelligence ideas can be applied to computer-aided design, Sussman developed, with his graduate students, sophisticated computer-aided design tools for VLSI. Steele made the first Scheme chips in 1978 and these ideas and the AI-based CAD technology to support them were further developed in the Scheme chips of 1979 and 1981. The technique and experience developed were used to design other special-purpose computers. Sussman was the designer of the Digital Orrery, a machine designed to do high-precision integrations for orbital mechanics experiments. The Orrery was designed and built by a few people in a few months, using the Digital Orrery, Sussman has worked with Jack Wisdom to discover numerical evidence for chaotic motions in the outer planets. The Digital Orrery is now retired at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, Sussman was also the lead designer of the Supercomputer Toolkit, another multiprocessor computer optimized for evolving systems of ordinary differential equations. The Supercomputer Toolkit was used by Sussman and Wisdom to confirm, Sussman has pioneered the use of computational descriptions to communicate methodological ideas in teaching subjects in Electrical Circuits and in Signals and Systems. Over the past decade Sussman and Wisdom have developed a subject that uses techniques to communicate a deeper understanding of advanced classical mechanics. In Computer Science, Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field, expressing the methods in a computer language forces them to be unambiguous and computationally effective. Students are expected to read the programs and to extend them, the task of formulating a method as a computer-executable program and debugging that program is a powerful exercise in the learning process. Also, once formalized procedurally, a mathematical idea becomes a tool that can be used directly to compute results, Sussman and Wisdom, with Meinhard Mayer, have produced a textbook, Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics, to capture these new ideas. Sussman and Abelson have also been a part of the Free Software Movement, including releasing MIT/GNU Scheme as free software and serving on the Board of Directors of the Free Software Foundation. For his contributions to education, Sussman received the ACMs Karl Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award in 1990
Gerald Jay Sussman
–
Gerry Sussman appearing in a video recording of the SICP lectures
43.
Constraint learning
–
In constraint satisfaction backtracking algorithms, constraint learning is a technique for improving efficiency. It works by recording new constraints whenever an inconsistency is found and this new constraint may reduce the search space, as future partial evaluations may be found inconsistent without further search. Clause learning is the name of this technique when applied to propositional satisfiability, backtracking algorithms work by choosing an unassigned variable and recursively solve the problems obtained by assigning a value to this variable. Whenever the current partial solution is found inconsistent, the algorithm goes back to the previously assigned variable, a constraint learning algorithm differs because it tries to record some information, before backtracking, in form of a new constraint. This can reduce the search because the subsequent search may encounter another partial solution that is inconsistent with this new constraint. If the algorithm has learned the new constraint, it will backtrack from this solution, while the original backtracking algorithm would do a subsequent search. If the partial solution x 1 = a 1, …, x k = a k is inconsistent, however, recording this constraint is not useful, as this partial solution will not be encountered again due to the way backtracking proceeds. For example, the algorithm may encounter an evaluation extending the subset x 2 = a 2, x 5 = a 5, x k −1 = a k −1 of the previous partial evaluation, the efficiency of constraint learning algorithm is balanced between two factors. On one hand, the more often a constraint is violated. Small inconsistent subsets of the current partial solution are usually better than large ones, on the other hand, finding a small inconsistent subset of the current partial evaluation may require time, and the benefit may not be balanced by the subsequent reduction of the search time. Size is however not the feature of learned constraints to take into account. Indeed, a constraint may be useless in a particular state of the search space because the values that violate it will not be encountered again. A larger constraint whose violating values are similar to the current partial assignment may be preferred in such cases. Various constraint learning techniques exist, differing in strictness of recorded constraints, learning constraints representing these partial evaluation is called graph-based learning. It uses the same rationale of graph-based backjumping and these methods are called graph-based because they are based on pairs of variables are in the same constraint, which can be found out from the graph associated to the constraint satisfaction problem. Jumpback learning is based on storing as constraints the inconsistent assignments that would be found by conflict-based backjumping, whenever a partial assignment is found inconsistent, this algorithm selects the violated constraint that is minimal according to an ordering based on the order of instantiation of variables. The evaluation restricted of the variables that are in this constraint is inconsistent and is shorter than the complete evaluation. Jumpback learning stores this fact as a new constraint, the ordering on constraints is based on the order of assignment of variable
Constraint learning
–
Search has reached a dead end.
44.
Lisp machine
–
Lisp machines are general-purpose computers designed to efficiently run Lisp as their main software and programming language, usually via hardware support. They are an example of a language computer architecture, and in a sense. Several firms built and sold Lisp machines in the 1980s, Symbolics, Lisp Machines Incorporated, Texas Instruments, the operating systems were written in Lisp Machine Lisp, Interlisp, and later partly in Common Lisp. Artificial intelligence computer programs of the 1960s and 1970s intrinsically required what was considered a huge amount of computer power, as measured in processor time. At first, the cost of computer hardware meant that it had to be shared among many users. To keep the system simple, these machines would not be shared. The machine also did incremental garbage collection, Lisp Machines ran the tests in parallel with the more conventional single instruction additions. If the simultaneous tests failed, then the result was discarded and recomputed and this simultaneous checking approach was used as well in testing the bounds of arrays when referenced, and other memory management necessities. Type checking was further improved and automated when the conventional byte word of 32-bits was lengthened to 36-bits for Symbolics 3600-model Lisp machines, the first machine was called the CONS machine. Often it was referred to as the Knight machine, perhaps since Knight wrote his masters thesis on the subject. It was subsequently improved into a version called CADR which was based on essentially the same architecture and it was so well received at an AI conference held at MIT in 1978 that Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency began funding its development. In a counter-intuitive move for an AI Lab hacker, Greenblatt acquiesced, hoping perhaps that he could recreate the informal and these ideas and goals were considerably different from those of Noftsker. The two negotiated at length, but neither would compromise, the ensuing discussions of the choice divided the lab into two factions. In February 1979, matters came to a head and it was at this juncture that Symbolics, Noftskers enterprise, slowly came together. While Noftsker was paying his staff a salary, he had no building or any equipment for the hackers to work on. He bargained with Patrick Winston that, in exchange for allowing Symbolics’ staff to keep working out of MIT, Greenblatt had decided to start his own rival Lisp machine firm, but he had done nothing. Jacobson pulled together business plans, a board, a partner for Greenblatt, the newfound firm was named LISP Machine, Inc. and was funded by CDC orders, via Jacobson. Around this time Symbolics began operating and it had been hindered by Noftskers promise to give Greenblatt a year’s head start, and by severe delays in procuring venture capital
Lisp machine
–
A Knight machine preserved in the
MIT Museum.
Lisp machine
–
Symbolics 3640 Lisp machine
45.
Symbolics
–
The symbolics. com domain was originally registered on March 15,1985, making it the first. com-domain in the world. In August 2009, it was sold to XF. com Investments, Symbolics, Inc. was a computer manufacturer headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and later in Concord, Massachusetts, with manufacturing facilities in Chatsworth, California. Its first CEO, chairman, and founder was Russell Noftsker, Symbolics designed and manufactured a line of Lisp machines, single-user computers optimized to run the Lisp programming language. The Lisp Machine was the first commercially available workstation, Symbolics was a spinoff from the MIT AI Lab, one of two companies to be founded by AI Lab staffers and associated hackers for the purpose of manufacturing Lisp machines. The other was Lisp Machines, Inc. although Symbolics attracted most of the hackers, Symbolics initial product, the LM-2, was a repackaged version of the MIT CADR Lisp machine design. The operating system and software development environment, over 500,000 lines, was written in Lisp from the microcode up, the software bundle was later renamed ZetaLisp, to distinguish the Symbolics product from other vendors who had also licensed the MIT software. Symbolics Zmacs text editor, a variant of Emacs, was implemented in a package named ZWEI. Both are recursive acronyms and puns on the German words for One, the Lisp Machine system software was then copyrighted by MIT, and was licensed to Symbolics. Until 1981, they shared all the code with MIT. Symbolics felt that no longer had sufficient control over their product. From that base, Symbolics made extensive improvements to every part of the software, however, the policy prohibited MIT staff from distributing the Symbolics version of the software to others. With the end of collaboration came the end of the MIT hacker community. As a reaction to this, Stallman initiated the GNU project to make a new community, eventually, Copyleft and the GNU General Public License would ensure that a hackers software could remain free software. In this way Symbolics played a key, albeit adversarial, role in instigating the free software movement, in 1983, a year later than planned, Symbolics introduced the 3600 family of Lisp machines. Code-named the L-machine internally, the 3600 family was a new design, inspired by the CADR architecture. The main processor had a 36 bit word, memory words were 44 bits, the additional 8 bits being used for error-correcting code. The instruction set was that of a stack machine, Hardware support was provided for virtual memory, which was common for machines in its class, and for garbage collection, which was unique. CPU clock speed varied depending on the instruction being executed
Symbolics
–
Symbolics 3600
Symbolics
–
A view of running processes in a Symbolics machine
Symbolics
–
Symbolics 3640
Symbolics
–
Symbolics 3600 Front Panel
46.
DARPA
–
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
DARPA
–
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DARPA
–
DARPA's former headquarters in the
Virginia Square neighborhood of Arlington. This agency recently moved to 675 North Randolph Street, near the Ballston Common Mall.
47.
Project MAC
–
Housed within the Stata Center, CSAIL is the largest on-campus laboratory as measured by research scope and membership. CSAILs research activities are organized around a number of research groups. Research at MIT in the field of artificial intelligence began in 1959, on July 1,1963, Project MAC was launched with a $2 million grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Project MACs original director was Robert Fano of MITs Research Laboratory of Electronics, the program manager responsible for the DARPA grant was J. C. R. Licklider, who had previously been at MIT conducting research in RLE, Project MAC would become famous for groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. Its contemporaries included Project Genie at Berkeley, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, an AI Group including Marvin Minsky, John McCarthy and a talented community of computer programmers was incorporated into the newly formed Project MAC. It was interested principally in the problems of vision, mechanical motion and manipulation, and language, in the 1960s - 1970s the AI Group shared a computer room with a computer for which they built a time-sharing operating system called ITS. These founders envisioned the creation of a utility whose computational power would be as reliable as an electric utility. To this end, Corbató brought the first computer time-sharing system, CTSS, with him from the MIT Computation Center, in 1966, Scientific American featured Project MAC in the September thematic issue devoted to computer science, that was later published in book form. At the time, the system was described as having approximately 100 TTY terminals, mostly on campus, only 30 users could be logged in at the same time. In the late 1960s, Minskys artificial intelligence group was seeking more space, talented programmers such as Richard Stallman, who used TECO to write EMACS, flourished in the AI Lab during this time. Two professors, Hal Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, chose to remain neutral – their group was referred to variously as Switzerland, the AI Lab led to the invention of Lisp machines and their attempted commercialization by two companies in the 1980s, Symbolics and Lisp Machines Inc. This divided the AI lab into camps and resulted in a hiring away of many employees, the experience was influential on Stallmans later work on the GNU project. Nobody had envisioned that the AI labs hacker group would be wiped out, on the fortieth anniversary of Project MACs establishment, July 1,2003, LCS re-merged with the AI Lab to form the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, or CSAIL. This merger created the largest laboratory on the MIT campus and was regarded as a reuniting of the elements of Project MAC. The IMARA group sponsors a variety of programs which bridge the Global Digital Divide. Its aim is to find and implement long-term, sustainable solutions which increase the availability of educational technology and resources to domestic. Rus, 2012– A Marriage of Convenience, The Founding of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Chious et al. - includes important information on the Incompatible Timesharing System Weizenbaum
Project MAC
Project MAC
–
MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
48.
Hacker culture
–
The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
Hacker culture
–
A
DIY musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for
"bends" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips
Hacker culture
–
The
Glider, proposed as an
emblem of the "hacker community" by
Eric S. Raymond.
_(10).jpg)
.svg){kind=logo}
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News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata
