1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
5.
Bergen County, New Jersey
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Bergen County is the most populous county in the U. S. state of New Jersey. Bergen Countys population resides among 70 municipalities, but no large cities and its most populous place, with 43,010 residents at the time of the 2010 census, is Hackensack, also its county seat. In 2010, Mahwah covered the largest area of any municipality, the county hosts an extensive park system totaling nearly 9,000 acres. The origin of the name of Bergen County is a matter of debate and it is believed that the county is named for one of the earliest settlements, Bergen, in modern-day Hudson County. However, the origin of the name is debated. Several sources attribute the name to Bergen, Norway, while others attribute it to Bergen, some sources say that the name is derived from one of the earliest settlers of New Amsterdam, Hans Hansen Bergen, a native of Norway, who arrived in New Netherland in 1633. Some of their descendants are included among the Ramapough Mountain Indians and their ancestors had moved into the mountains to escape encroachment by Dutch and English colonists. Over the years, they absorbed other ethnicities by intermarriage, in the 17th century, the Dutch considered the area comprising todays Bergen and Hudson counties as part of New Netherland, their colonial province of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch claimed it after Henry Hudson explored Newark Bay and anchored his ship at Weehawken Cove in 1609, from an early date, the Dutch began to import African slaves to fill their labor needs. Bergen County eventually was the largest slaveholding county in the state, the African slaves were used for labor at the ports to support shipping, as well as for domestic servants, trades, and farm labor. Early settlement attempts by the Dutch included Pavonia, Vriessendael, and Achter Col, but the Native Americans repelled these settlements in Kiefts War, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, on August 27,1664, New Amsterdams governor Peter Stuyvesant surrendered to the English Navy. The English organized the Province of New Jersey in 1665, later splitting the territory into East Jersey, on November 30,1675, the settlement Bergen and surrounding plantations and settlements were called Bergen County in an act passed by the provinces General Assembly. In 1683, Bergen was officially recognized as an independent county by the Provincial Assembly, initially, Bergen County consisted of only the land between the Hudson River and the Hackensack River, extending north to the border between East Jersey and New York. In January 1709, the boundaries were extended to all of the current territory of Hudson County. † The line between East and West Jersey here referred to is not the line finally adopted and known as the Lawrence line and this line being afterward objected to by the East Jersey proprietors, the latter procured the running of the Lawrence line. Bergen was the location of battles and troop movements during the American Revolutionary War. Fort Lees location on the bluffs of the New Jersey Palisades, opposite Fort Washington in Manhattan and they destroyed the bridge to delay the British assault on Washingtons headquarters in village of Hackensack. The next day, George Washington retreated to Newark and left Hackensack via Polifly Road, British forces pursued, and Washington continued to retreat across New Jersey
6.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
7.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
8.
City manager
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A city manager is an official appointed as the administrative manager of a city, in a council–manager form of city government. Local officials serving in this position are sometimes referred to as the executive officer or chief administrative officer in some municipalities. Other small or middle sized American cities, especially in the West, in Europe, smaller cities in the Netherlands were specially attracted by the plan. Most sources trace the first city manager to Staunton, Virginia in 1908, some of the other cities that were among the first to employ a manager were Sumter, South Carolina and Dayton, Ohio, Dayton was featured in the national media, and became a national standard. The first City Managers Association meeting of eight city managers was in December 1914, by 1930200 American cities used a city manager form of government. In addition, many states, such as the states of New Hampshire, the City Manager position focuses on efficiency and providing a certain level of service for the lowest possible cost. The competence of a city manager can be assessed using composite indicators, Manager members of the ICMA are bound by a rather rigid and strongly enforced code of ethics that was originally established in 1924. Since that time the code had been up-dated/revised on seven occasions, in the early years of the profession, most managers came from the ranks of the engineering professions. As of 2005 more than 60% of those in the profession had a MPA, MBA, the average tenure of a manager is now 7–8 years and has risen gradually over the years. Tenures tend to be less in smaller communities and higher in larger ones, educational Level of Local Government Managers, Local government Local government in the United States council-manager government Clerk Kemp, Roger L. Managing Americas Cities, A Handbook for Local Government Productivity, McFarland, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. UK1998. _______, Model Government Charters, A City, County, Regional, State, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. UK,2003 _______, Forms of Local Government, A Handbook on City, County and Regional Options, McFarland, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. The rise of the city manager, A public professional in local government, organized business and the city commission and manager movements. In JSTOR White, Leonard D. Staunton, Virginia, Birthplace Of City Manager Form Of Government, a history on the city manager system of government
9.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
10.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
11.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
12.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
13.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
14.
Area codes 201 and 551
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Area codes 201 and 551 are telephone area codes in the North American Numbering Plan in the U. S. state of New Jersey. Area code 201 was the code assigned to the entire state of New Jersey in 1947. After splits in 1958 and 1991, it covers the area of most of Hudson, major cities in the numbering plan area include Bayonne, Jersey City, Hoboken, Hackensack, Secaucus and Englewood. Area code 551 is a code to the same numbering plan area that was installed in 2001. Area code 201 was the first-assigned numbering plan area code of the original NPAs when AT&T devised the North American Numbering Plan in 1947. It was also the first area code with Direct Distance Dialing service, Area code 201 originally covered the entire state of New Jersey, despite the states dense population. The bulk of New Jerseys population is concentrated in the metropolitan suburbs of New York City in the northeast. The creation of numbering plan areas was based on the number of central offices needed in each area. On June 8,1991, area code 908 was split from 201, within four years,201 was close to exhaustion once again due to the proliferation of cell phones, pagers and fax machines. The supply of numbers was limited because the entire northern half of the state is a single LATA. This left Hudson and Bergen counties, the two most densely populated counties in the state and the closest to New York City, as the counties in the 201 plan area. The 1997 split was intended as a long-term solution, however, demand for new numbers continued in Hudson and Bergen counties, and it was apparent the area would need another area code. Verizon, the dominant telephone company in New Jersey, lobbied for an rather than a split. Overlays were a new concept at the time, and were controversial because they required implementation of ten-digit dialing, however, Verizon wanted to spare its customers the burden of changing telephone numbers. Area code 551 was created in 2001 to overlay 201, along with area codes 862 and 848, with the implementation of the overlay area codes on December 1,2001, ten-digit dialing became mandatory in Northern New Jersey. List of North American Numbering Plan area codes List of original NANP area codes NANPA Area Code Map of New Jersey
15.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
16.
2000 United States Census
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This was the twenty-second federal census and was at the time the largest civilly administered peacetime effort in the United States. Approximately 16 percent of households received a form of the 2000 census. Full documentation on the 2000 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 2000 census is available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2072. The U. S. resident population includes the number of people in the 50 states. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico, its population was 3,808,610, the 2000 Census was the first time survey options for multiracial Americans were provided. S. Households had access to computers, 42% have Internet access, regionally, the South and West experienced the bulk of the nations population increase,14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the center of U. S. population moved to Phelps County. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149, the Midwest by 4,724,144, the results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U. S. Code, each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S, since the first census in 1790, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. Article I, Section II specifies that The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, in 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House more than quadrupled in size, today, each member represents about 20 times as many constituents. This recommendation was followed by the Secretary of Commerce, after the census was tabulated, Utah challenged the results in two different ways. Utah was extremely close to gaining a fourth seat, falling 857 people short. The margin was later shortened to 80 people, after the government discovered that it overcounted the population of North Carolina by 2,673 residents. Utah claimed that individuals traveling abroad as religious missionaries should be counted as residents, almost half of all Mormon missionaries, more than 11,000 individuals, were from Utah, only 102 came from North Carolina
17.
1990 United States Census
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Approximately 16 percent of households received a long form of the 1990 census, which contained over 100 questions. Full documentation on the 1990 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. It was the first census to designate Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander as a group separate from Asians. To increase black participation in the 1990 United States Census, the bureau recruited Bill Cosby, Magic Johnson, Alfre Woodard, the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2062. The results of the 1990 census determined the number of seats that each state receives in the United States House of Representatives starting with the 1992 elections, consequently, this affected the number of votes each state has in the Electoral College for the 1992 presidential election. Because of population changes, twenty-one states had changes in their number of seats, eight states gained at least one seat, and thirteen states lost at least one seat. The final result involved 19 seats being switched
18.
New Jersey Legislature
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The New Jersey Legislature is the legislative branch of the government of the U. S. state of New Jersey. In its current form, as defined by the New Jersey Constitution of 1947, the Legislature meets in the New Jersey State House, in the state capital of Trenton. Democrats currently hold super majorities in both chambers of the legislature, the New Jersey Legislature was established in 1702 upon the surrender by the Proprietors of East Jersey and those of West Jersey of the right of government to Queen Anne. Annes government united the two colonies as the Province of New Jersey, a colony, establishing a new system of government. It provided for a legislature consisting of an appointed Council. The Provincial Council consisted of members, appointed by and serving at the pleasure of the British crown. With the exception of resignations and those being removed for cause, the former provinces of East and West Jersey were reorganized as the Eastern Division and the Western Division, respectively, of the Province of New Jersey. Councillors were apportioned that six would come from each of the two divisions, in practice, however, this was not always followed. The Assembly initially consisted of 24 members with two each elected in the Cities of Burlington and Perth Amboy, and ten at-large from each of the two divisions, the number of members remained at 24, with a total of twelve from each division. Membership continued at 24 until 1768, when it was expanded to 30 by the addition of two each from Morris, Cumberland and Sussex Counties. This apportionment remained until superseded by the Constitution of 1776, the Governor had the authority to summon the Legislature, and to dissolve the Assembly and call new elections. On December 6,1775, Governor William Franklin prorogued the New Jersey Legislature until January 3,1776, on May 30,1776, Franklin attempted to convene the legislature, but was met instead with an order by the New Jersey Provincial Congress for his arrest. On July 2,1776, the Provincial Congress approved a new constitution which ordered new elections, in 1775, representatives from New Jerseys 13 counties established a Provincial Congress to supersede the Royal Governor. In June 1776, this congress had authorized the preparation of a constitution, which was written five days, adopted by the Provincial Congress. The Constitution of 1776 provided for a legislature consisting of a General Assembly with three members from each county and a Legislative Council with one member from each county. All state officials, including the governor, were to be appointed by the Legislature under this constitution, the Vice-President of Council would succeed the Governor if a vacancy occurred in that office. Accordingly, the first session of the Legislature convened on August 27,1776, Legislative politics was defined in the following years by an intense rivalry between the Federalists, and later the Whigs, and the Democratic Party. The New Jersey Constitution of 1844 provided for a popular election of the governor
19.
Hackensack people
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Hackensack was the exonym given by the Dutch colonists to a band of the Lenape, a Native American tribe. The name is a Dutch derivation of the Lenape word for what is now the region of northeastern New Jersey along the Hudson and Hackensack rivers. While the Lenape people occupied much of the area, Europeans referred to small groups of native people by the names associated with the places where they lived. A phratry of the Lenape, the Hackensack spoke the Unami dialect, Unami meant the people down river, and they identified themselves with the totem of the turtle. Their territory has been variously spelled Ack-kinkas-hacky, Achkinhenhcky, Achinigeu-hach, Ackingsah-sack and it included the areas around the Upper New York Bay, Newark Bay, Bergen Neck, the Meadowlands, and the Palisades. Other bands of Unami speakers in the included, the Raritan on Staten Island/Raritan Bay, the Acquackanonk on the Passaic River. These groups, along with the Wappinger in the Hudson Valley, in the 17th century, the Hackensack numbered about one thousand, of whom 300 were warriors. He was likely also the sagamore of the Tappan, a distinct and it has also been written that the Tappan and the Hackensack were one tribe. The proof of this is the land deeds signed by men who were Sachems of both tribes at the same time. The Lenape practiced seasonal migration and agriculture, the Hackensack set up campsites and practiced companion planting to supplement foraging, hunting, fishing, trapping, and shellfishing. The terrain was quite diverse, wide tidal flats and oyster beds, forested mountains and they relocated Hackensack, their semi-permanent village, every several years to allow the land to renew itself. It was sited mostly between Tantaqua and the reaches of the Hackensack River. Their summer encampment and council fire was located at Gamoenpa, the big landing-place from the side of the river. At Hopoghan Hackingh, they collected soapstone from which to carve tobacco pipes, the society of the Hackensack was based on governance by consensus. A sagamore, though very influential, was obliged to follow decisions of the council and those with the totem of the turtle were held in great esteem by Lenape groups, particularly as peacemakers. The word caucus may come from the Algonquian caucauasu meaning counselor, the Dutch claimed Hackensack lands as part of the colonial province of New Netherland after Henry Hudson first explored the area. He sailed up the now named for him, anchoring at Weehawken Cove in September 1609. Living close to what became the capital, New Amsterdam
20.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds
21.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
22.
The Palisades (Hudson River)
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The cliffs stretch north from Jersey City about 20 miles to near Nyack, New York. They rise nearly vertically from near the edge of the river, north of Fort Lee, the Palisades are part of Palisades Interstate Park and are a National Natural Landmark. They sit in the Newark Basin, a basin located mostly in New Jersey. Palisade is derived from the root as the word pale, ultimately from the Latin word palus. A palisade is, in general, a fence or wall made up of wooden stakes or tree trunks. The Lenape called the cliffs rocks that look like rows of trees, a phrase that became Weehawken, the name of a town in New Jersey that sits at the top of the cliffs across from Midtown Manhattan. The basalt cliffs are the margin of a sill, formed about 200 million years ago. The molten material cooled and solidified before reaching the surface, water erosion of the softer sandstone left behind the columnar structure of harder rock that exists today. The cliffs are about 300 ft thick in sections and originally may have reached 1,000 ft. Franklyn Van Houten did trailblazing research on a formation known as the Newark Basin. His discovery of a consistent geological pattern in which lake levels rose, during the early stages of the American Revolution, British military Commander Lord Cornwallis landed a force of between 2,500 and 5,000 at the Closter Dock Landing on Nov.20,1776. The Palisades were the site of 18 documented duels and probably many unrecorded ones in the years 1798–1845, the most famous is the Burr–Hamilton duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, which took place in a spot known as the Heights of Weehawken on July 11,1804. After the Civil War, signs advertising patent medicines and other covered the rock face in letters 20 feet high. In the 19th century, the cliffs were heavily quarried for railroad ballast, beginning in the 1890s, several unsuccessful efforts were made to turn much of the Highlands into a forest preserve. In 1908, the State of New York announced plans to move Sing Sing Prison to Bear Mountain, work was begun in the area near Highland Lake and in January 1909, the state purchased the 740-acre Bear Mountain tract. Conservationists, inspired by the work of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, however, the prison project was continued. New York state appropriated a matching $2.5 million and the state of New Jersey appropriated $500,000 to build the Henry Hudson Drive, ultimately, the Sing Sing relocation was discontinued. In the 1910s, when Fort Lee was a center of film production, the most notable of these films was The Perils of Pauline, a serial which helped popularize the term cliffhanger. In October 1931, after four years of construction, the George Washington Bridge opened between Upper Manhattan and Fort Lee
23.
New Jersey Meadowlands
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The area was forested with Atlantic White Cedar before the early Dutch settlers cleared the cedar forests and used dikes to drain the land. The Dutch farmers used the drained tidal lands to create meadows of salt hay, in more recent times the Meadowlands became known for being the site of large landfills and decades of environmental abuse. Before European settlement, the area consisted of diverse ecosystems based on freshwater, brackish water. Large areas were covered by forests, considered by residents of the area through the centuries as wastelands, the Meadowlands were systematically subject to various kinds of human intervention. The four major categories are, Extraction of natural resources, farmers also harvested salt hay for feed. Over time, the forest resources were depleted, dike systems broke down, farming ceased. In addition to landfill from garbage, landmass generated from dredging was used to create new land. Some material came from building the World Trade Center, pollution by sewage, refuse, and hazardous waste. Various types of waste have been dumped legally and illegally in the Meadowlands, during World War II, military refuse was dumped in the Meadowlands, including rubble from London created by the Blitz and used as ballast in returning ships. After the war, the Meadowlands continued to be used for waste disposal. The Meadowlands Sports Complex, with stadia and a racetrack, is also in the Meadowlands, the location of the New Jersey Meadowlands near the New York metropolitan area and its outgrowth into New Jersey makes conservation of the vast wetland a difficult proposition. Even under grave circumstances, the Meadowlands contain many species of fish, crustaceans. Money from the United States Congress has been allocated to protect and preserve the Meadowlands and establish organizations to research the unique animals, the ecosystem is a fragile environment that waterfowl and other species of animals need. Richard W. DeKorte Park in the Meadowlands is known for bird watching, a Meadowlands photo essay Brooks, John, The Meadows-I, The New Yorker, retrieved 2011-01-25 Brooks, John, The Meadows-II, The New Yorker, retrieved 2011-01-25
24.
Hackensack River
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The Hackensack River is a river, approximately 45 miles long, in the U. S. states of New York and New Jersey, emptying into Newark Bay, a back chamber of New York Harbor. The watershed of the river includes part of the area outside New York City just west of the lower Hudson River. It also flows through and drains the New Jersey Meadowlands, the lower river, which is navigable as far as the city of Hackensack, is heavily industrialized and forms a commercial extension of Newark Bay. Once believed to be among the most polluted water courses in the United States, the Hackensack River rises in southeastern New York, in Rockland County, in the Sweet Swamp, just west of the Hudson River and approximately 1 mi south of West Haverstraw. It flows briefly southeast, into the Lake DeForest reservoir, separated from the Hudson by less than 3 mi, south of the dam, it then flows south, diverging from the Hudson. Just across the New Jersey state line, in northern Bergen County, south of Lake Tappan, it flows in a meandering course southward through the suburban communities of New Jersey. Near Oradell, it is impounded to form Oradell Reservoir, where it is joined by several streams, including the Dwars Kill, van Buskirk Island, a man-made island and site of the New Milford Plant of the Hackensack Water Company, lies in this area. At Little Ferry, it is joined by the broad Overpeck Creek, then southward, widening in a broad meandering tidal estuary through the Meadowlands, forming extensive side streams. South of North Bergen, it forms the boundary between Bergen County to the west and Hudson County to the east, as it flows through the Meadowlands it is traversed by numerous rail and road bridges. The name of the river comes from the Lenape word Achinigeu-hach, or Ackingsah-sack, conflicts with the Lenape prevented the early Dutch settlers of the New Netherland colony from expanding westward into the valley into late in the 17th century. The river furnished both the Native Americans and the European settlers with abundant runs of herring, shad and striped bass, in the colonial era, the river and the surrounding Meadowlands presented a formidable difficulty in transportation and communication. The wetlands helped allow the escape of the Continental Army under George Washington in 1776 after several defeats at the hands of the British army on the east side of the Hudson. It later served as a barrier that allowed Washingtons army to encamp in the nearby hills near Morristown. For two centuries, the river suffered from severe pollution. The construction of the Oradell Reservoir dam in 1921 essentially changed the river from a free-flowing stream into a brackish estuary. By the 1960s, much of the river was essentially a turbid hypoxic dead zone. Berrys Creek was once thought to be the most polluted stream in the United States, recreational fishing has staged a modest comeback, although catch and release may be advisable, as there are continuing health advisories against the consumption of fish caught in the river. Urban runoff pollution, municipal sewage discharges from sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows, the future of the wetlands around the lower river has been an ongoing controversy between development and preservation groups in recent decades
25.
Patroon
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In the United States, a patroon was a landholder with manorial rights to large tracts of land in the 17th century Dutch colony of New Netherland on the east coast of North America. Through the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions of 1629, the Dutch West India Company first started to grant this title and these inducements to foster colonization and settlement are the basis for the patroon system. In 1775, at the outbreak of the American Revolution, primogeniture and feudal tenure were abolished and thus patroons and manors evolved into simply large estates subject to division and leases. The deeded tracts were called patroonships and could span 16 miles in length on one side of a major river, in 1640 the charter was revised to cut new plot sizes in half, and to allow any Dutch American in good standing to purchase an estate. The title of patroon came with powerful rights and privileges, a patroon could create civil and criminal courts, appoint local officials and hold land in perpetuity. As tenants working for the patroon, these first settlers were relieved of the duty of public taxes for ten years, a patroonship sometimes had its own village and other infrastructure, including churches. After the English takeover of New Netherland in 1664, the system continued with the granting of large tracts known as manors, the largest and most successful patroonship in New Netherland was the Manor of Rensselaerswijck, established by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Rensselaerswijck covered almost all of present-day Albany and Rensselaer counties and parts of present-day Columbia, Manor of Rensselaerswyck and Lower Manor at Claverack. Zwaanendael - Samuel Blommaert and Samuel Godyn, abandoned after being decimated by indigenous population, pavonia - Michael Reyniersz Pauw, re-sold to the West India Company becoming a company-managed holding. Staaten Eylandt - Cornelis Melyn, mired in conflict with Raritan tribe, achter Col, aborted at the outset of Kiefts War. Colen Donck - Adriaen van der Donck Bronx - Jonas Bronck Vriessendael - David Pietersen de Vries Bentley Manor - Christopher Billopp, ethnic Dutch, who were still a substantial part of the population, resented the change and moved mostly toward the cause of the Independence movement. After the war, the newly recognized New York State government refused to overturn the law, Rensselaerswijck was dismantled in the early 19th century after its last sole proprietor died. Two sons split the property and, after tenant farmers gained the right to refuse to pay rent, the land was organized as different counties and towns in New Yorks Capital District
26.
New Netherland
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New Netherland was a 17th-century colonial province of the Seven United Netherlands that was located on the East Coast of North America. The colony was conceived as a business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. The settlement of New Sweden encroached on its flank, while its northern border was re-drawn to accommodate an expanding New England. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a port for trade in the North Atlantic. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, in 1673, the Dutch re-took the area but relinquished it under the Second Treaty of Westminster ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War the next year. The inhabitants of New Netherland were Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in colonial America. For two centuries, New Netherland Dutch culture characterized the region, during the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of trade routes around the globe. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the continent, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt and he ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the vlieboot Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod, Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage and this effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the narrows into the Upper New York Bay, Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river which later bore his name, the Hudson. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of present-day Troy and his report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, an Antwerp émigré and the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Flemish Lutheran émigré merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610. In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat. The results of explorations, surveys, and charts made from 1609 through 1614 were consolidated in Block’s map
27.
Passaic River
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The Passaic River is a mature surface river, approximately 80 mi long, in northern New Jersey in the United States. In its lower portion, it flows through the most urbanized and industrialized areas of the state, the lower river suffered from severe pollution and industrial abandonment in the 20th century. In April 2014, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency announced a $1.7 billion plan to remove 4.3 million cubic yards of mud from the bottom of lower eight miles of the river. It is considered one of the most polluted stretches of water in the nation, the Passaic rises in the center of Mendham, in southern Morris County. It begins between Spring Hill and Hardscrabble Road, travelling northeast and crossing Corey Lane before entering the Buck Hill Tract Natural Area, at this point the river begins to generally flow south, through Morristown National Historical Park, and forms the boundary between Morris and Somerset counties. The river passes through a gorge in Millington and then turns abruptly northeast and it forms the boundary between Morris and Union counties as it passes Berkeley Heights, New Providence, and Summit. Near Chatham it turns north, forming the boundary between Morris and Essex counties and it passes Livingston and Fairfield, where it flows through the Hatfield Swamp and is joined by the Rockaway River just after the Whippany River runs into it. The river flows northeast into the city of Paterson, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Passaic. On the north end of Paterson, it turns south, flowing between Paterson and Clifton on the west and Hawthorne, Fair Lawn, Elmwood Park, Garfield on the east. At Elmwood Park it begins to form Dundee Lake, created by the Dundee Dam built in 1845, the river becomes navigable two and a half miles downstream of the Dundee Dam at the Eighth Street/Locust Ave Bridge in Wallington where the dredged Wallington Reach channel begins. Proceeding beyond the Wallington Reach, the river remains navigable via a series of maintained channels to its final destination and it passes Passaic, Clifton again, then Nutley and Belleville on the west, it flows past Rutherford, Lyndhurst and North Arlington to the east. In its lowest reaches, it flows along the northeast portion of the city of Newark on the west, passing Kearny, East Newark, and Harrison, New Jersey on the eastern bank. Near downtown Newark it makes an abrupt easterly bend, then south around Ironbound, joining the Hackensack River at the end of Newark Bay. The Passaic River formed as a result of drainage from a massive lake that formed in Northern New Jersey at the end of the last ice age. That prehistoric lake is now known as Glacial Lake Passaic and was centered in the present lowland swamps of Morris County, eventually the lake level rose high enough that the water flowed out of a new outlet. The Passaic River found a new path to the ocean via the Millington Gorge and the Paterson Falls as the glacier covered the area retreated northward. As a result, the river as we now know it was born, to that end they built weirs, or overflow dams, to create pools and where the fish could be trapped. Many of these sites are still present and, in some cases
28.
Achter Kol, New Netherland
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At the time of their arrival, the area was inhabited by the Hackensack and Raritan groups of Lenape. Placenaming by Dutch explorers and settlers during the era referred to a location in reference to other places, its shape, its topography. Today Newark Bay is connected to Upper New York Bay by the Kill Van Kull, the names of the channels reflect the period of Dutch colonialization. The area around the bay was called Achter Kol, which translates as behind or beyond the ridge, the emergence of the Hudson Palisades begins on Bergen Neck, the peninsula between the bay and the Hudson River. Kille in Dutch means stream or channel, during the British colonial era the bay was known as Cull bay. Kill van Kull literally translates as channel from the ridge, Arthur Kill is an anglicisation of achter kill meaning back channel, which would speak to it location behind Staten Island. Achter Kol was nearby the patroonship called Pavonia, patented in 1630, homesteads of Pavonia where clustered at Communipaw and Harsimus on the North River. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey, in 1642, Myndert Myndertsen received a patroonship for much the land north of the Newark Bay. An absentee landlord, Myndertsen hired a superintendent Johannes Winckelman to construct a farmhouse, the homestead was at present day Bogota near the Hackensack tribes encampment at Tantanqua, todays Overpeck Creek. Perceived as an act of war by the Hackensack it was plundered and destroyed. The Achter Col Colony was not replaced The area was later settled, after some time, relations with Hackensack Lenape improved. Oratam, the sachem, or sagamore, of the Hackensack engaged peacefully and shrewdly with representatives of the Dutch West India Company, both parties were helped considerably by Sarah Kiersted, who had mastered the Algonquian language and acted as translator and scribe. For her help Oratam, in 1666, gave her a large tract of at Achinigeu-hach between the Hackensack River and Overpeck Creek in gratitude for her work as emissary and interpreter. In late 1654 a series of grants were made for land achter Kol, eventually, Oratam, deeded the land to the Dutch in 1665. A representation of Chief Oratam of the Achkinhenhcky appears on the Hackensack municipal seal, by that time the lands west of the Hudson River was called Bergen. Its administrative headquarters at the village at todays Bergen Square were later established in 1660. When area was taken by the English it kept its Dutch name and in 1675, Bergen Bergen Township Elizabethtown Tract Pavonia Patroon Vriessendael English Neighborhood
29.
Pavonia, New Netherland
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The first European to record exploration of the area was Robert Juet, first mate of Henry Hudson, an English sea captain commissioned by the Dutch East India Company. Their ship, the Halve Maen, ventured in the Kill van Kull and Newark Bay and anchored at Weehawken Cove during 1609, while exploring the Upper New York Bay, by 1617 a factorij, or trading post, was established at Communipaw. Others may have established at Arresick or Hobokan Hackingh. Initially, these posts were set up for fur trade with the indigenous population, at that time the area was inhabited by bands of Algonquian language speaking peoples, known collectively as Lenni Lenape and later called the Delawares. Early maps show it to be the territory of the Sangicans, later, the group of seasonally migrational people who circulated in the region were to become known by the exonym, Hackensack. They, along with the Tappan, the Wappinger, the Raritan, the Manhattan, the Canarsee, further explorations and settlement led to the establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan in 1625. In 1629, with the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions, the Dutch West India Company started to grant the title of patroon, the deeded tracts spanned 16 miles in length on one side of a major river, or 8 miles if spanning both sides. The title came with powerful rights and privileges, including creating civil and criminal courts, appointing local officials, in return, a patroon was expected to establish a settlement of at least fifty families within four years of the original grant. These first settlers were relieved of the duty of public taxes for ten years, a patent for the west bank of the North River was given to Michael Pauw, a burgermeester of Amsterdam and a director of the Dutch West India Company. Pavonia is the Latinized form of Pauws surname, which means peacock, as was required, Pauw purchased the land from the indigenous population, although the concept of ownership differed significantly for the parties involved. Three Lenape sold the land for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, dated July 12,1630, and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. It is said that the three were part of the band who had sold Manhattan Island to Peter Minuit then sold this land. On August 10,1630, Pauw obtained a deed for Staten Island, the area encompassed by Pauws holdings on Bergen Neck likely included the eight miles of shore line on each of the Hudson and Hackensack Rivers from Bergen Point to todays Bergen County line. His agent set up a small factorij and ferry slip at Arresick on the island that stills bears his anglicized name. He operated an intermittent ferry and traded with the local Lenape population, by 1630 a plantation worked by African slaves had been set up. Pauw, however, failed to fulfill the condition of establishing a community of at least 50 permanent settlers and was required to re-sell his speculative acquisition back to the company and they commissioned construction of a homestead at Gemoenepaen for their representative Jan Evertsen Bout during 1633. During 1634 a homestead was built at Ahasimus for Cornelis Hendriksen Van Vorst, abraham Isaac Planck, also known as Verplank, received a land patent for Paulus Hook on May 1,1638. A small farm went up at Kewan Punt, the leasehold of Aert Van Putten at Hobuk was the site of North Americas first brewery
30.
North River (Hudson River)
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North River is an alternate name for the southernmost portion of the Hudson River in the vicinity of New York City and northeastern New Jersey in the United States. The colonial name for the entire Hudson was given to it by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. However it still retains currency as an alternate or additional name among local mariners and others as well as appearing on some nautical charts and maps. The term is used for infrastructure on and under the river, such as the North River piers, North River Tunnels, the names for the lower portion of the river appear to have remained interchangeable for centuries. In 1909, construction of two projects was under way, one was called the North River Tunnels, the other. The origin of the name North River is generally attributed to the Dutch, in describing the major rivers in the New Netherland colony, they called what is now the Hudson the North River, the Connecticut the Fresh River, and the Delaware the South River. Another theory is that the North River and East River were so named for the direction of travel they permitted once having entered the Upper New York Bay. In 1808 the Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, issued his report of proposed locations for transportation and communication internal improvements of national importance and this peculiarity distinguishes the North River from all the other bays and rivers of the United States. The tide in no other ascends higher than the ridge or comes within thirty miles of the Blue Ridge or eastern chain of mountains. In the North River it breaks through the Blue Ridge at West Point, a few miles above Troy, and the head of the tide, the Hudson from the north and the Mohawk from the west unite their waters and form the North River. The Hudson in its course upwards approaches the waters of Lake Champlain, hagstrom Maps, formerly the leading mapmaker in the New York metropolitan area, has labeled all or part of the Hudson adjacent to Manhattan as North River on several of its maps. On a 2000 map of Northern Approaches to New York City, Piers along the Hudson shore of Manhattan were formerly used for shipping and berthing ocean-going ships. In shipping notices, they were designated as, for example, Pier 14, most of the piers that once existed in lower Manhattan fell into disuse or were destroyed in the last half of the 20th century, although a number have been adapted to new uses. As with the river, the name North River piers has largely supplanted by Hudson River piers, or just by a pier and number. The remaining piers are Pier A at the Battery and piers ranging from Pier 25 at North Moore Street to Pier 99 at 59th Street, many of these piers and the waterfront between them are part of the Hudson River Park which stretches from 59th Street to the Battery. Several piers are being rebuilt as part of the park project, Piers above Pier 40 have addresses approximately that of Manhattans numbered streets plus 40 – thus, for example North River Pier 86 is at West 46th Street. Pier A is a national and New York City landmark. The building on the dates to 1886, and was used by the citys Department of Docks, Harbor Police
31.
English Neighborhood
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The region had been part of the Dutch New Netherland colony of Bergen, whose main town was located at Bergen Square in todays Jersey City. The name speaks to the geography of the region, bergen being the Dutch word for hills, in order to encourage settlement the land was quickly divided and flurry of land titles were given or confirmed by the new government. On June 10,1669, Samuel Edsall, received a patent for land betw, Hudson R. and Overpecks, which encompassed much of the area. By 1675 it was being called the English Neighborhood, born in Reading, England about 1630, Edsall had come to New Amsterdam at the age of eighteen, where he was listed among the new arrivals as a bever maker, or hatter. His industry, and possibly his marriage with Jannetje Wessels, qualified him as a small burgher and he took up residence on Bergen Neck, learned the Lenape language, and acted as interpreter for Robert Treats purchase of the Newark Tract. From time to time he sold or leased other parts of the estate, in 1693, the county was divided into two townships, separated at the current Hudson-Bergen line, with Hackensack Township to the north and Bergen Township to the south. In 1710, the village of Hackensack became the county seat. The Continental Army maintained a presence in the area to observe the movement of the British in New York. Its position between the two led to many foraging parties and skirmishes. On March 22,1871, Hackensack Township was subdivided into three new Townships, each stretching from the Hudson River on the east to the Hackensack River in the west, the southernmost portion, the English Neighborhood, became Ridgefield Township. In 1878, the New Jersey Legislature provided for the formation of a borough within a township not exceeding four square miles, the passage of a revised Borough Act resulted in a series of subdivisions creating new boroughs. Municipalities created from Ridgefield Township were Bogota, Leonia, Undercliff, Fairview, Teaneck, Cliffside Park, Englewood, the creation of Fort Lee, New Jersey on April 18,1904 put an end to Ridgefield Township. The area underwent significant growth as its villages expanded and agricultural land was developed as suburbs, the Erie Railroad ran trains to its Hudson waterfront Pavonia Terminal. The last train on the Northern Branch from the terminal to the area was #1205 at 6,35 p. m. on Friday, there are proposals to restore service with extension of a Hudson Bergen Light Rail line known as the Northern Branch Corridor Project. Though the term English Neighborhood is no widely used there are still places which continue to bear the name. The Dutch Reformed Church in the English Neighborhood in Ridgefield was built in 1793 by an established in 1770. In Fairview, the English Neighborhood Park and the English Neighborhood Public School are still used describe places in part of the borough, the Union School of the English Neighborhood, moved from its original location, is a landmark in Englewood. The name also survives in the names of Englewood and Englewood Cliffs themselves, which derive from a corruption of English Neighborhood
32.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
33.
New Jersey Meadowlands Commission
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In February 2015, the Hackensack Meadowlands Agency Consolidation Act consolidated the New Jersey Meadowlands Commission into the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority. The New Jersey Meadowlands Commission is a zoning, planning. Its founding mandates are to protect the balance of nature, provide for orderly development. The commission merged with the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority through legislative action, the merger was made effective in February 2015. The District is composed of 19,730 acres, approximately 31 mi², of 14 municipalities in Bergen, the Meadowlands District stretches mainly along the delta of the Hackensack and Passaic Rivers as they flow into Newark Bay, tributaries of the Hackensack include Berrys Creek and Overpeck Creek. These policies are backed by MAGNET, a five-year, $32 million funding plan, the NJMC has also advanced the sharing of services between the 14 Meadowlands municipalities to lighten the municipalities’ individual tax burdens. The agency is also leading efforts to improve stormwater management. In order to back its land use management and other policies with scientific data, MERI functions as a center for scientific investigations of the urban wetlands, their functioning, restoration, and sustainable management. In the Kearny Marsh, MERI is currently conducting a study utilizing Aquablok to trap contaminated sediments in the floor while allowing plants. The NJMC has acquired more than 1,800 acres of the wetlands in the Meadowlands District for preservation. The Skeetkill Creek Marsh in Ridgefield, Harrier Meadow in North Arlington, goals of restorations include increased tidal flow, the reduction of phragmites, and greater use of the site by estuarine species of fish, waterfowl, and shorebirds. According to a report by the New Jersey Audubon Society, the Meadowlands is a part of the Atlantic Flyway migration route. The NJMCs Flyway Gallery, located within the MEC, fosters a cultural identity unique to the Meadowlands District by hosting public contests and exhibits by local and environmental artists. Other NJMC Parks include Laurel Hill County Park in Secaucus, Kearny Marsh in Kearny, and it will be the first public marina on the lower Hackensack River
34.
West Shore Railroad
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This article is about the line of the New York Central Railroad system. For the current short line railroad near Milton, Pennsylvania, see West Shore Railroad and it was organized as a competitor to the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, but was soon taken over by that company. The first part of the line was built as the Saratoga and Hudson River Railroad, incorporated April 16,1864, early plans included acquiring the Saratoga and Schenectady Railroad as a northern extension. The Saratoga and Hudson River was bought and merged into the New York Central as their Athens Branch on September 9,1867, the terminal at Athens was destroyed by fire in 1876. The line ran intermittently from then into the 1880s, with its tracks being torn up for good in 1888 and it had been called the White Elephant Railroad for most of its existence because it quickly outlived whatever usefulness it may have had. At the south end of the route, the Ridgefield Park Railroad was incorporated April 4,1867, the line first opened in 1872 as a spur of the New Jersey Midland Railway, which had built the section south of Ridgefield Park. At that time, the terminus was at Tappan, the extension north to Haverstraw. Bankruptcy struck soon, and the New York section of the line was sold on September 28,1877 and reorganized October 12,1878 as the Jersey City and Albany Railway. The part in New Jersey was sold August 17,1878 and reorganized with the name. The North River Railway was consolidated with the Jersey City and Albany on May 5,1881 to form the North River Railroad and this was a second proposed line on the west shore of the river from New Jersey to Albany. In 1883, the newly formed company inaugurated service from Newburgh and Jersey City at the Pennsylvania Railroad Depot, a new alignment was built along the east side of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway to North Bergen. By 1886, service operated to Weehawken Terminal through a tunnel under Bergen Hill that had built in the three preceding years. At Ravena, along the Athens Branch, the line turned northwest towards Schenectady, while a new branch continued north to Kenwood Junction on the Albany. This full line formed a threat to the NYC monopoly. After the New York Central took over the West Shore, this was useless, as the New York Central had a parallel line, the Buffalo and Niagara Falls Railroad. The West Shore also had relations with the Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western Railway, instead the BHT&W built only to Rotterdam Junction west of Schenectady, it was later taken over by the Fitchburg Railroad. However, William Henry Vanderbilt of the NYC had bought the Nickel Plate in 1882, the NYC then proceeded to drive the New York, West Shore and Buffalo into bankruptcy. The Pennsylvania Railroad realized that the WS would make an addition to their system
35.
Northern Branch
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The Northern Branch is a railroad line that runs from Jersey City to Northvale in northeastern New Jersey. The line was extended to Nyack, New York in 1870. Ownership of the line passed into the hands of Conrail upon the formation in 1976. It survives as two separate but connected pieces of railroad, the Northern Running Track is an approximately two-mile-long freight railroad line in Hudson County, New Jersey. North of the yard the Northern Branch diverges from the CSX River Subdivision. The Northern Railroad of New Jersey was chartered in 1854, when it opened on May 28,1859, it was the second railroad in modern Bergen County with stage connections to Hackensack and other points. The northern terminal was Piermont, New York on the New York and Erie Rail Road, which had opened in 1841. After running on the Erie for one mile, trains reached the Northerns own line at Sparkill, New York and ran for 21 miles to another junction with the Erie at Croxton in Jersey City, New Jersey. From there trains ran on the Erie and the New Jersey Railroad for two and a half miles to the later called Exchange Place. Passengers could continue by ferry to Chambers St in Manhattan, because of its running over the Erie, the Northern was built to the same 6-foot broad gauge. By September 1859, there were three trains in each direction, with one express running from Piermont to Jersey City in 70 minutes. Sometime in the 1860s the Northern began running service westward from Sparkill on the Eries Piermont Branch as far as Monsey, the southern terminal was moved to the Eries Jersey City Terminal late in 1868, about six months before the Northern Railroads formal lease to the Erie. At that time the company had six locomotives,21 passenger and baggage cars, the Northern track was changed to standard gauge along with the rest of the Erie system in 1878. For five miles in Hudson County, Croxton to Granton, the New York, Susquehanna, joint stations were constructed between the railroads with platforms on each side. Although the Erie lease ended in 1940, the continued to the late 1950s. The Northern Railroad was mainly a commuter and local line, with significant freight business only near its southern end, business dropped off in the 1930s, and in 1942 the companys property was sold off to its long-term lessor, the Erie. From that time it was the Northern Branch, by 1954, the Northern Branch had only three rush hour passenger trains each way. Between 1956 and 1958, the allied Erie and Delaware, Lackawanna, during transition Erie trains continued to use the Erie Pavonia Terminal for about an hour in each rush hour, to distribute the heaviest crowds
36.
Man Ray
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Man Ray was an American visual artist who spent most of his career in France. He was a significant contributor to the Dada and Surrealist movements and he produced major works in a variety of media but considered himself a painter above all. He was best known for his photography, and he was a renowned fashion, Man Ray is also noted for his work with photograms, which he called rayographs in reference to himself. During his career as an artist, Man Ray allowed few details of his life or family background to be known to the public. He even refused to acknowledge that he ever had an other than Man Ray. Man Ray was born as Emmanuel Radnitzky in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and he was the eldest child of Russian Jewish immigrants. He had a brother and two sisters, the youngest born in 1897 shortly after settled in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn. In early 1912, the Radnitzky family changed their surname to Ray, Man Rays brother chose the surname in reaction to the ethnic discrimination and antisemitism prevalent at the time. Emmanuel, who was called Manny as a nickname, changed his first name to Man, Man Rays father worked in a garment factory and ran a small tailoring business out of the family home. He enlisted his children to assist him from an early age, Man Rays mother enjoyed designing the familys clothes and inventing patchwork items from scraps of fabric. Man Ray wished to disassociate himself from his background. Mannequins, flat irons, sewing machines, needles, pins, threads, swatches of fabric, Art historians have noted similarities between Rays collage and painting techniques and styles used for tailoring. Mason Klein, curator of a Man Ray exhibition at the Jewish Museum, titled Alias Man Ray, The Art of Reinvention, Man Ray was the uncle of the photographer Naomi Savage, who learned some of his techniques and incorporated them into her own work. Man Ray displayed artistic and mechanical abilities during childhood and his education at Brooklyns Boys High School from 1904 to 1909 provided him with solid grounding in drafting and other basic art techniques. While he attended school, he educated himself with frequent visits to the art museums. After his graduation, Ray was offered a scholarship to study architecture, Man Rays parents were disappointed by their sons decision to pursue art, but they agreed to rearrange the familys modest living quarters so that Rays room could be his studio. The artist remained in the home over the next four years. During this time, he worked steadily towards becoming a professional painter, Man Ray earned money as a commercial artist and was a technical illustrator at several Manhattan companies
37.
Alfred Kreymborg
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Alfred Francis Kreymborg was an American poet, novelist, playwright, literary editor and anthologist. He was born in New York City to Hermann and Louisa Kreymborg, who ran a cigar store. He was a figure in Greenwich Village and frequented the Liberal Club. He was the first literary figure to be included in Alfred Stieglitzs 291 circle, from 1913 to 1914, Kreymborg and Man Ray worked together to bring out ten issues of the first of Kreymborgs prominent modernist magazines, The Glebe. This colony was also referred to as Grantwood and comprised a number of clapboard shacks on a bluff on the Hudson Palisades opposite Grants Tomb. Kreymborg moved to Ridgefield and launched Others, A Magazine of the New Verse with Skipwith Cannell, Wallace Stevens, pound had, along with the Des Imagistes poems, written to Kreymborg suggesting that he contact old Bull Williams, that is William Carlos Williams. Williams did not live far from Ridgefield, and he involved in the magazine. Soon there was a group of associated with the magazine. Marianne Moore came to Ridgefield for picnics, and from 1915 Marcel Duchamp occasionally visited. Regarding Marianne Moore, she was asked in an interview whether Alfred Kreymborg was her American discoverer, to which she replied, It could be said, perhaps, miss Monroe and the Aldingtons had asked me simultaneously to contribute to Poetry and The Egoist in 1915. I was a different from the others. He thought that I might pass as a novelty, I guess,1915 also saw the publication of a story in part based on a personal experience. The story was titled Edna and published as Edna, The Girl of the Street, by the Greenwich Village entrepreneur Guido Bruno, the subtitle was Brunos idea, added without the consent of the author. John S. Sumner of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice raised a stir, the attendant morals row drew in George Bernard Shaw and Frank Harris, Harris made an impassioned statement in court defending the publisher. Kreymborg was lifelong friends with Carl Sandburg, each independently choosing to write in free verse, Kreymborg spent a year touring the United States, mostly visiting universities, reading his poetry while accompanying himself on a mandolute. Kreymborg continued to edit Others somewhat erratically until 1919, he then in June 1921 sailed to Europe to act as co-editor of Broom, contributors included Malcolm Cowley, E. E. Cummings, Amy Lowell and Walter de la Mare. Kreymborg soon resigned and the magazine ceased publication in 1924, an ironic anecdote on the status of modernism, Kreymborg arranged for an aspiring artist Fernand Léger to create the artwork for the cover of volume 2, number 4 of Broom. When Broom ceased publication, the painting was left behind for its next tenants
United States
New Jersey
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