1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
5.
Dauphin, Manitoba
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Dauphin is Manitobas 9th largest community and serves as a hub to the provinces Parkland Region. The nearby lake was given the name Dauphin by the explorer Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, settlers began arriving in the area in 1883 and two early settlements, Gartmore and Old Dauphin were established. With the coming of the railway in 1896 – the line ran roughly halfway between the two villages – settlement shifted to the present site and this coincided with the beginning of Ukrainian settlement in the area, previously most arrivals had been of British extraction. Incorporated as a village in 1898 and as a town in 1901, farming still plays a central role in the economy of the area, but its role has been greatly reduced. The current mayor of Dauphin is Eric Irwin, a lawyer, Conservative Robert Sopuck has been the Member of Parliament for the Dauphin—Swan River—Marquette riding since November 2010. Progressive Conservative Brad Michaleski is the current Member of the Legislative Assembly, Dauphin plays host to several summer festivals, including Dauphins Countryfest and Canadas National Ukrainian Festival. Dauphin is known as the Garden Capital of Manitoba, according to the 1996 Canadian census, Ukrainians constitute the largest ethnic group in the City of Dauphin, with 41. 04% of the population. Almost 26% of the population can speak Ukrainian,24. 17% of the residents have English ancestry,17. 61% Scottish ancestry, and 12. 3% Irish ancestry, and approximately 10% are of Aboriginal origin. Dauphin is near Riding Mountain National Park south of the city, from 1974-1979, a federally funded pilot project called Mincome provided a Basic income guarantee to residents of Dauphin. As the largest city within the Parkland, Dauphin has an area of over 50,000 people. A large part of Dauphins economy is based on agriculture, with farms in area of the province producing grains, oilseeds, honey. Dauphin is the home to industries including manufacturing, health care, education, recreation/tourism. The Canadian distribution centre for Norwex is also located in the city, Dauphin railway station is served by Via Rails Winnipeg–Churchill train. The rail line is owned by Canadian National which also operates freight trains through the town, the Credit Union Place recreation complex was built in 2006. It is the home of the Dauphin Kings, an MJHL Junior A hockey team, Turnbull Memorial Trophy winners in 1969,1970,1972,1977,1983,1993, and 2010 and Anavet Cup winners of 2010. Formerly, the played in the Dauphin Memorial Community Centre arena that was built after the Second World War. Dauphin and the Kings hosted the Royal Bank Cup in 2010, Dauphin has a history of title-winning baseball teams. Both the Dauphin Redbirds and later the Dauphin Brewers have claimed numerous provincial titles, Dauphin high schoolers play a big part of the athletics of Dauphin
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Man and the Biosphere Programme
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As of March 2016,669 biosphere reserves in 120 countries, including 16 transboundary sites, have been included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Biosphere reserves are areas comprising terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems, each reserve promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. Biosphere reserves are nominated by governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Their status is internationally recognized. The buffer zone surrounds or adjoins the core areas, and is used for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that can reinforce scientific research, monitoring, training and education. The transition area is the part of the reserve where the greatest activity is allowed, fostering economic, participating countries establish MAB National Committees that ensure maximum national participation in the international programme, defining and implementing each country’s activities. MAB currently operates through 158 National Committees established among the 195 Members States, the agenda of the MAB Programme is defined by its main governing body, the International Coordinating Council. The MAB Council consists of 34 member states elected by UNESCO’s General Conference, the council elects a chair and five vice-chairpersons from each of UNESCO’s geopolitical regions, one of which functions as a rapporteur. Its staff members draw on expertise in many and varied disciplines, the programme can grant seed funding to assist countries in developing projects and/or to secure appropriate partnership contributions. The latest World Congress of Biosphere Reserves took place in Lima, Peru and this will be the 4th World Congress of Biosphere Reserves and it shall develop a new vision for the decade 2016–2025. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves is supported by different regional, sub-regional or thematic networks and these are as follows, The African Biosphere Reserves Network was created in 1996 and comprises 33 African countries. The ArabMAB Network was officially launched in 1997 and represents 18 Arab countries, the East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network was launched in 1994. Today, it consists of China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Republic of Korea, euroMAB is the network of biosphere reserves in Europe and North America. Created in 1987, it is the largest MAB Regional Network with 53 countries, the Ibero-American MAB Network was created in 1992. It comprises 22 countries from Latin American and the Caribbean, Spain, the Pacific Man and the Biosphere Network was created in 2006 and comprises the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Tonga. The South and Central Asia MAB Network was created in 2002 and comprises Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, the Southeast Asian Biosphere Reserve Network was created in 1998. Today, it comprises Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, the East Atlantic Biosphere Reserve Network was created in 1994. It comprises the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Madeira and Azores, Mauritania, Morocco, Sao Tomé and Principe, the World Network of Island and Coastal Biosphere Reserves was established in 2012 and comprises 22 countries. Agenda 21 Searchable list of UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves Frequently Asked Questions on Biosphere Reserve A-Z of Areas of Biodiverity Importance, Biosphere Reserves
8.
Parks Canada
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Parks Canada, also known as the Parks Canada Agency, is an agency of the Government of Canada run by a chief executive who answers to the Minister of the Environment. Parks Canada manages 38 National Parks, three National Marine Conservation Areas,171 National Historic Sites, and one National Landmark, the agency also administers lands and waters set aside as potential national parklands, including eight National Park Reserves and one National Marine Conservation Area Reserve. The Canadian Register of Historic Places is supported and managed by Parks Canada, in collaboration with provincial and territorial governments, the agency is also the working arm of the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board, which recommends National Historic Sites, Events, and Persons. Parks Canada was established on May 19,1911, as the Dominion Parks Branch under the Department of the Interior, the services activities are regulated under the provisions of the Canada National Parks Act, which was enacted in 1930, and amended in 2000. To mark the 150th anniversary of Confederation in 2017, Parks Canada is offering free passes to national parks, the Parks Canada Agency was established as a separate service entity in 1998, and falls under the responsibility of Environment Canada. Before 2003, Parks Canada fell under the jurisdiction of the Department of Canadian Heritage, from 1979 to 1994, Parks Canada was part of the Department of Environment, and before it was part of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, and the Department of the Interior. With the organizational shifts and political leadership in Canada, the priorities of Parks Canada have shifted over the years more towards conservation, starting in the 1960s, Parks Canada has also moved to decentralize its operations. S. C. Marie Canal, Saint-Ours Canal, Chambly Canal, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue Canal, Carillon Canal, Lachine Canal, the Department of Canadian Heritage, which runs federal Museums and more cultural affairs, falls under the control of the Minister of Heritage. They are designated under section 18 of the Canada National Parks Act and have the authority of peace officers and they carry firearms and have access to other use of force options. The Minister may also designate provincial and local enforcement officers under section 19 of the Act for the purpose of enforcing laws within the specified parks and these officers have the power of peace officers only in relation to the Act. In May 2012, it was reported that Park Wardens may be designated to enforce certain wildlife acts administered by Environment Canada. Should the designations go ahead it would only be for Park Wardens that are stationed near existing migratory bird sanctuaries, historical Analysis of Parks Canada and Banff National Park, 1968–1995 List of legislation for which Parks Canada is responsible Lothian, W. F. A History of Canadas National Parks Volumes I-IV Lothian, W. F, a Brief History of Canadas National Parks Lothian, W. F. Histoire des parcs nationaux du Canada Volumes I-IV Lothian, W. F, a Century of Parks Canada, 1911–2011, Free eBook Parks Canada article in the Canadian Encyclopedia National Parks of Canada Electronic Library
9.
Pembina Escarpment
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The Pembina Escarpment is a scarp that marks the boundary of glacial Lake Agassiz. It rises up to 300–400 feet and occurs in South Dakota, North Dakota, the escarpment was originally formed by the undercutting of Cretaceous sandstones by the ancestral Red River. The escarpment was later steepened by glacial scouring, the escarpment is preserved due to a layer of erosion-resistant shale on top of the sandstone. The vista today, of wooded hills with small farms tucked into valleys, is reminiscent of pastoral sections of New England, streams flowing off the escarpment have high gradients and a cobble substrate. Native plants to the escarpment include burr oak, beaked hazel, high bush cranberry, saskatoon berry, in Manitoba, the scarp forms the eastern edge of Riding Mountain National Park, home of a large bison herd, and Duck Mountain Provincial Park. Turtle Mountain Provincial Park, Pembina Valley Provincial Park, and the Porcupine Hills are also part of the Manitoba Escarpment, the Pembina Escarpment is a distinct ecoregion, as defined by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. The ecoregion covers 274 square miles, and is part of the larger Northern Glaciated Plains ecoregion, map of key land features in Manitoba. Archived from the original on 2012-07-22
10.
Wasagaming, Manitoba
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Wasagaming is the main town-site in the popular tourist destination Riding Mountain National Park. It is located at the gate of Riding Mountain National Park along Highway 10. This town-site is 99 kilometres north of Brandon and it lies on the south shores of Clear Lake which is the largest lake in Riding Mountain National Park. Because it is located within a National Park, the population is seasonal, the only permanent year-round residents are mostly Parks Canada employees. In Wasagaming there are restaurants, hotels, and other businesses and services which cater to the high number of visitors. There is a large, full service campground as well as 525 private cabins and 254 private cottages, almost all of which are only used in the summer months. Including the many cottage and cabin areas located outside of the National Park directly adjacent to park boundaries, Wasagaming is the only commercial centre within the Riding Mountain National Park boundaries, and all Parks Canada offices are located there. Summers in Wasagaming are cooler than other locations in Southern Manitoba. The average annual temperature is 0. 1C, newspapers Wasagaming gets The Dauphin Herald, as well as papers from Brandon and Winnipeg. Radio CKDM AM730 CJBP-FM97.1 Television CKYD-TV channel 5 CBWST-TV channel 8 Riding Mountain National Park Clear Lake Chamber of Commerce Parks Canada Wasagaming Profile Park Theatre
11.
Whiteshell Provincial Park
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Whiteshell Provincial Park is a 2,729 km2 park centrally located in Canada in the province of Manitoba. It can be found in the southeast of the province along the Manitoba-Ontario boundary, the park is located in the Canadian Shield region and has many rivers, remote lakes, boreal forest and bare granite ridges. It provides a variety of opportunities as well as cottaging, camping and boating. The park has rare and interesting sites of petroforms on flat granite ridges. The Ojibway people and various groups before them initially populated the area. The Ojibway, or Anishinaabe, first mapped some of the area on birch bark, the name of the park is derived from the cowrie shells that were used in ceremonies by the Anishinaabe, including the Ojibway, and among them the Midewiwin practicioners. The historic Winnipeg River and the Whiteshell River are the rivers that run through this remote park. For thousands of aboriginal peoples used the area for harvesting wild rice, hunting, fishing, trade, ceremonies, teaching. In 1734, La Vérendrye was the first European to explore the area during his quest for a route to the Western Sea, First Nations, fur traders, and trappers used the Winnipeg River as the main travel route through this area, along with the Whiteshell River. Whiteshell Park has many pink granite ridges, cliffs, and flat granite areas used for petroform making by First Nation peoples, There is also archaeological evidence of ancient copper trading, prehistoric quartz mining, and stone tool making in the area. The copper trade, going east to Lake Superior, began approximately 6000 years ago, many artifacts and prehistoric camps were discovered in Whiteshell Provincial Park and are protected under the Heritage Act of Manitoba. Around 1920, the development of roads brought tourists into the Whiteshell area, the first summer cottages were close to the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway. In 1922 Brereton Lake Dominion Park was created, a decade later and in 1930 the park was transferred to the province of Manitoba and established the Whiteshell Forest Reserve. Further roadwork continued, linking the reserve to Ontario in the east and campgrounds, in 1961, Whiteshell was given Provincial Park status and was set aside for future generations to enjoy. A Manitoba Historical Plaque was erected at the Whiteshell Provincial Park by the province to commemorate Dawson Roads role in Manitobas heritage, the Whiteshell Natural History Museum, opened in 1960 and located in a log building, features mounted wildlife displays of local animals. Other displays include the boreal forest, Canadian Aboriginal peoples, petroforms, sturgeon, the museum is open during the summer season, and is located on PR307 at Nutimik Lake. The Alf Hole Goose Sanctuary and Interpretive Centre is located at PTH44, the Whiteshell Trappers Museum is located on the grounds of the Alf Hole Goose Sanctuary. Built in 1997, the museum is modeled after a fur trappers cabin, interpreters discuss the history of fur trapping, trapping techniques, and local wildlife
12.
Duck Mountain Provincial Park (Manitoba)
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Duck Mountain Provincial Park is a 1,424 square kilometre provincial park in western Manitoba. The park is located within the larger and similarly named Duck Mountain Provincial Forest and it is not to be confused with Saskatchewans Duck Mountain Provincial Park, located just across the Manitoba/Saskatchewan boundary. The Duck Mountains are a rise of forested land between the Saskatchewan prairie to the west and the Manitoba lowlands to the east and they are some 200m higher than the floor of the Assiniboine River valley to the west, and some 400m higher than the Manitoba lowlands. The highest point of the Duck Mountains is Baldy Mountain, which is also the highest point in Manitoba, geologically, the Duck Mountains are part of the Manitoba Escarpment, along with the Turtle Mountains, the Riding Mountains, and the Porcupine Hills. Their underlying rocks are Cretaceous shales and sandstone, which overlie deeper deposits of Devonian limestone, glacial scouring exaggerated the vertical relief of the mountains, and the glaciers deposited thick beds of glacial till that now overlay the bedrock. The post-ice age Duck Mountains then formed the shore of Lake Agassiz. The area represents the limit of the boreal forest in its transition zone to aspen parkland. The forest soils are stony and the landscape is rolling, with numerous ponds, the forest trees include white spruce, black spruce, tamarack larch, balsam fir, jack pine, quaking aspen, balsam poplar, and paper birch. The existence of a population of cougars is suspected but unconfirmed. It is likewise not known whether or not a population of wolverines is present in the park. The park is also within the range of grizzly bears. Other animals, such as the deer and coyote, are found in abundance in the park. Childs Lake, East Blue Lake, Glad Lake, and Wellman Lake all have tourist facilities and these facilities may include boat launches, campgrounds, rental cottages, and privately owned vacation homes
13.
John Bracken
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John Bracken, PC was an agronomist, the 11th Premier of Manitoba and leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. In 1909, he married Alice Wylie Bruce and he was professor of animal husbandry at the University of Saskatchewan from 1910 to 1920, when he became President of the Manitoba Agricultural College. In 1922, the United Farmers of Manitoba unexpectedly won the provincial election, the UFMs expectations had been so low going into the election that they had not even named a leader. They asked Bracken to become the leader and premier-designate. Bracken accepted the UFMs request, and won an election in the northern riding of The Pas. Bracken was an outsider, and gave the UFM the professional grounding it needed. The United Farmers generally rejected the partisanship of the Liberal and Conservative parties, the UFM governed as the Progressive Party of Manitoba, and Bracken served as Manitobas Premier for over twenty years. Brackens government was in most respects conservative and cautious and it was dominated by rural interests, who controlled the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba through an outmoded system of representation. During the twenties, Bracken oversaw an increase in taxation and created the provincial income tax and he lowered expenditures in health, education, and welfare but introduced a pension for all citizens over seventy years old in 1928. Under his administration, the created a censorship board that regulated motion pictures. In 1923, Manitoba voted to end the prohibition of alcohol, the restrictive Liquor Control Act, passed that same year, sold liquor at provincially controlled outlets, resulting in the generation of a substantial new income. Bracken worked to promote staple industries such as mining, timber cutting and he successfully had the Hudson Bay Railway create a branch line to Flin Flon, resulting in the opening of a copper and zinc mine there in 1926. Bracken was a proponent of the provincial control of natural resources and influenced Mackenzie Kings 1930 decision to give Manitoba, Alberta. In keeping with the UFMs anti-party philosophy, Bracken favoured non-partisan government, in 1931, his Progressives formed an alliance with the Manitoba Liberal Party, and the two parties eventually merged into one. In 1940, Bracken formed a coalition government that included the Conservative, Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. When Bracken left provincial politics in 1943, there were only 5 opposition Members of the Legislative Assembly in a 57-member parliament and his coalition remained intact until 1950, although the CCF left in 1943. He agreed to seek the leadership on the condition that it change its name to the Progressive Conservative Party. He was elected leader at the partys 1942 leadership convention, Bracken stepped down as Manitoba premier shortly thereafter, and was succeeded by Stuart S. Garson
14.
Winnipeg Tribune
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The Winnipeg Tribune was a metropolitan daily newspaper serving Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada from January 28,1890 to August 27,1980. The paper was founded by R. L. Richardson and D. L, mcIntyre who acquired the press and premises of the old Winnipeg Sun newspaper. It was often viewed as a newspaper focused on local news. The paper was owned by Southam Inc at the time of its demise and it was frequently referred to as The Trib. During the Winnipeg General Strike in 1919, the newspaper sided with the Citizens Committee of 1000, declaring, Southam Newspapers bought the paper in 1920. In 1922, Winnipeg Tribune launched a radio station, CJNC which closed down a later in 1923. On Friday, September 5,1969 the Trib replaced its small user-folded TV listings printed on paper with a glossy-covered 32-page booklet called TV Times. The TV magazine was featured in the Ottawa Citizen and the Montreal Gazette. On Sunday, June 21,1970 a new Centrex telephone system was installed for advertisers and subscribers to use when calling and this allowed direct dialing without requiring the person to first contact the switchboard operator. By the mid-1970s the Tribs daily circulation figures began to slip to 70,000, the Southam chain decided to totally redesign the paper. The new design made its debut on September 6,1975, although the offset press was capable of printing a 112-page newspaper, the September 6 edition was 124-pages, including the 48-page Trib Classifieds. This forced the operators to print the Trib Lifestyle section separately. Within a few months, The Tribs circulation gained 30,000 paid readers, a few days before the design change, on September 1, they made all private sale listings in the Trib Classified free in the form of a Want-Ad Free-for-All promotion. In response to competition between the Winnipeg Free Press and Winnipeg Tribune in the late 1970s, the Trib tried to attract more subscribers by offering Free Classified Ads. In March 1979, they had some space atop the Casa Loma building to hold Winnipegs largest billboard. The sign read With the Trib, its Winnipeg, the billboard was designed by the advertising firm Martel-Stewart Ltd. and was larger than any billboard seen in Winnipeg ever, and the largest in all of Western Canada. It measured 23 feet tall by 60 feet wide, and had 4,200 light bulbs, the billboard space had previously been used by Export A cigarettes as far back as 1959. In the late 1970s the Tribune started publishing the weekend color comics in booklet form, as collectible comics, the first issue, Vol.1 No.1, was published September 24,1977
15.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
16.
Grey Owl
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Grey Owl was the name British-born Archibald Belaney chose for himself when he took on a fraudulent First Nations identity for himself as an adult. While he achieved fame as a conservationist during his life, after his death the revelation of his non-Native origins and other autobiographical fabrications negatively affected his reputation. Born in England and migrating to Canada in the first decade of the 20th century, Belaney rose to prominence as an author, lecturer. In his studies of the Ojibwe, Belaney learned some native harvesting techniques, in working with the National Parks Branch Belaney became the subject of many films, and was established as the caretaker of park animals at Riding Mountain National Park in Manitoba in 1931. Recognition has included biographies, a plaque at his birthplace. Archibald Stansfeld Belaney was born in September 1888, near Hastings, Sussex, born to George Belaney and his wife Katherine Cox, he was mostly of English descent on both sides, his paternal grandfather had come from Scotland and married in England. Kittie was his fathers second wife, years before Archies birth, George Belaney had emigrated to the United States with his then-wife Elizabeth Cox and her younger sister Katherine. After Elizabeths early death, George persuaded Kittie, not yet 20, to marry him, within the year they returned to Britain in time for the birth of their son Archie. The family lived together near Hastings until Kittie became pregnant for a second time, George and Kittie Belaney left to return to the United States, where he abandoned her. Kittie visited him a few times, Belaney later told his publisher his father was Scottish. The Belaney name does have roots in Scotland, one of his biographers documented that Archies paternal grandfather had moved from Scotland to England, where he became a successful merchant. The Belaney boy attended Hastings Grammar School, where he excelled in such as English, French. While outside school, he spent much time reading, or exploring St Helens Wood near his home, as a boy, Belaney was known for pranks, such as using his grammar school chemistry to make small bombs. Fascinated by Native Americans, Belaney read about them and drew them in the margins of his books, Belaney left Hastings Grammar School and started work as a clerk with a timber company located behind St Helens Wood. There Belaney and his friend George McCormick perfected the arts of knife throwing, Belaney turned his creativity to pursuits other than work. His last event there was lowering fireworks down the chimney of the companys office. The fireworks exploded and nearly destroyed the building, after the timber yard fired him, Belaneys aunts let him move to Canada, where he sought adventure. On March 29,1906 Belaney boarded the SS and he emigrated ostensibly to study agriculture
17.
Prince Albert National Park
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Prince Albert National Park encompasses 3,874 square kilometres in central Saskatchewan, Canada and is located 200 kilometres north of Saskatoon. Though declared a national park March 24,1927, it had its opening ceremonies on August 10,1928 performed by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. The park is open all year but the most visited period is from May to September, although named for the city, the parks main entrance is actually 80 km north of Prince Albert via Highways 2 and 263 which enters the park at its southeast corner. Two additional secondary highways enter the park, No,264, which branches off Hwy.2 just east of the Waskesiu townside, and No. 240, which enters the park from the south and links with 263 just outside the entry fee-collection gates, the park ranges in elevation from 488 metres on the western side to 724 metres on the eastern side. Waskesiu is the town within the park, located on the southern shore of Waskesiu Lake. The facilities and services combine recreational and nature experiences, notably, the park contains the Waskesiu Golf Course designed by famed golf course architect Stanley Thompson who also designed the course in Banff National Park. The park also contains the cabin of naturalist and conservationist Grey Owl, until the establishment of Grasslands National Park in the 1980s, this was the provinces only national park. Prince Albert National Park represents the boreal forest region of Canada. It is a rolling, mostly forested landscape that takes in the divide between the North Saskatchewan and Churchill Rivers. The very southern part of the park is predominantly aspen forest with an understory of elderberry, honeysuckle, rose and other shrubs and openings and meadows of fescue grassland. The fescue grasslands are considered important because of their rarity, outside the park. Most of the park is dominated by forests, with the cover of jack pine. Boreal woodland caribou from a population that is declining due to loss of habitat to forest logging range sometimes into the park. White-tailed deer, elk and, locally, moose are the common ungulates, the park is noted for its numerous lakes including three very large lakes - Waskesiu, Kingsmere and Crean. Northern pike, walleye, suckers and lake whitefish are among the most common larger fish, otters are seen regularly, year round. Winter is a good time to find otters as they spend considerable time around patches of open water on the Waskesiu Lake Narrows. The boreal forest extends northerly into the Canadian Shield area from the zones of southern Canada
18.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
19.
Prisoners-of-war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
20.
Winnipeg
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Winnipeg is the capital and largest city of the province of Manitoba in Canada. It is located near the centre of North America and is 110 kilometres from the U. S. border. It is also the place of the confluence of the Red, the city is named after the nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name comes from the Western Cree words for muddy water. The region was a centre for aboriginal peoples long before the arrival of Europeans. French traders built the first fort on the site in 1738, a settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers of the Red River Colony in 1812, the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873. As of 2011, Winnipeg is the seventh most populated municipality in Canada, being located very far inland, the local climate is extremely seasonal even by Canadian standards with average January lows of around −21 °C and average July highs of 26 °C. Known as the Gateway to the West, Winnipeg is a railway, Winnipeg was the first Canadian host of the Pan American Games. It is home to professional sports franchises, including the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, the Winnipeg Jets, Manitoba Moose. Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine and the Red River of the North and this point was at the crossroads of canoe routes travelled by First Nations before European contact. Winnipeg is named after nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name is a transcription of the Western Cree words for muddy or brackish water. Estimates of the date of first settlement in this area are varied, in 1805, Canadian colonists observed First Nations peoples engaged in farming activity along the Red River. The practice quickly expanded, driven by the demand by traders for provisions, the rivers provided an extensive transportation network linking northern First Peoples with those to the south along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. The Ojibwe made some of the first maps on birch bark, sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site in 1738, called Fort Rouge. French trading continued at this site for decades before the arrival of the British Hudsons Bay Company after France ceded the territory following its defeat in the Seven Years War. Many French and later British men who were trappers married First Nations women, their mixed-race children hunted, traded and they gradually developed as an ethnicity known as the Métis because of sharing a traditional culture. Lord Selkirk was involved with the first permanent settlement, the purchase of land from the Hudsons Bay Company, the North West Company built Fort Gibraltar in 1809, and the Hudsons Bay Company built Fort Douglas in 1812, both in the area of present-day Winnipeg. The two companies competed fiercely over trade, the Métis and Lord Selkirks settlers fought at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816. In 1821, the Hudsons Bay and North West Companies merged, Fort Gibraltar was renamed Fort Garry in 1822 and became the leading post in the region for the Hudsons Bay Company
21.
Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve
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The RMBR, which encompasses Riding Mountain National Park and twelve surrounding municipalities in the province of Manitoba, is one of 16 Biosphere Reserves in Canada. Ecologically sensitive ecosystems include the grasslands, deciduous forest and boreal forest, the Biosphere Reserve extends the protection of these ecosystems outside of park boundaries. First Nations in the Biosphere Reserve include Rolling River First Nation, Keeseekoowenin First Nation, Waywayseecappo First Nation, asessippi Provincial Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Forest also border the Biosphere Reserve. Created in 1986, the Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve is a volunteer organization. A Biosphere Reserve Management Committee was created to oversee the area, Biosphere Reserve land situated outside of Riding Mountain National Park is both privately and publicly owned and managed. Local initiatives hosted by the Biosphere Reserve include a spring market, public workshops held by the Biosphere Reserve covered topics such as climate change, beaver problems, sustainable agriculture, and the potential of poplar. Other activities undertaken by the Biosphere Reserve include the rehabilitation of fish spawning areas on the Milk River, in December 1998 an elk in Riding Mountain National Park tested positive for bovine tuberculosis. Because beavers, elk and moose freely moved within the boundary of the park and surrounding region, some of the areas susceptible included agricultural farmland bordering the park. In 2012 a Water Stewardship Project was launched in association with the Centre for Sustainable Watershed, more recently funding issues have created a challenged for continued programming. Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve covers 15,000 square kilometers of land in South-western Manitoba, with the area, Riding Mountain National Park. It is some 300 km northwest of Winnipeg, Manitoba, the Park, established in 1933 and governed by Parks Canada, predates RMBR by fifty-three years. It has a site, Wasagaming, several trails. Significant geographic landmarks in Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve include the Shell River Valley in the west, Manitoba Escarpment in the East, the local climate is cool and moist due to a higher elevation than the surrounding area. Due to these conditions, several different ecosystems are present in the vicinity of the Biosphere Reserve, including the deciduous forest, boreal forest. Many small lakes and marshes dot the landscape in the transition zone, a total of 29,758 individuals reside in the transition zone of the Biosphere Reserve as of the 2011 census, with an average population of 2.8 persons per square kilometer. When the area under the jurisdiction of Riding Mountain National Park is taken into account, forests cover most of the area, dominated by aspen. Grasslands once occurred throughout southern Manitoba, but have been transformed since European settlement in the nineteenth century. The biosphere reserve also includes areas that used to be forests or grasslands
22.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
23.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
24.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
25.
Anne, Princess Royal
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Anne, Princess Royal, KG KT GCVO GCStJ QSO GCL CD is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At the time of her birth, she was third in the line of succession, behind her mother – then Princess Elizabeth – and elder brother and she rose to second after her mothers accession, but is currently 12th in line. Anne is known for her work, and is patron of over 200 organisations. Princess Anne has held the title of Princess Royal since 1987 and is its seventh holder, Anne was married to Captain Mark Phillips in 1973, they divorced in 1992. They have two children and three grandchildren, in 1992, within months of her divorce, Anne married Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, whom she had met while he served as her mothers equerry between 1986 and 1989. Anne was born at Clarence House on 15 August 1950 at 11,50 am, as the child and only daughter of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. She was the grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Anne was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950, by Archbishop of York, after the death of George VI, Annes mother ascended the throne as Queen Elizabeth II. Given her young age at the time, she did not attend the coronation, the Company was active until 1963, when Anne went to boarding school. Anne enrolled at Benenden School in 1963, in 1968 she left school with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels. In the next couple of years, Anne started dating, in 1970 her first boyfriend was Andrew Parker Bowles, who later became the first husband of Camilla Shand. Following the wedding, Anne and her husband lived at Gatcombe Park and he was made acting captain by the start of 1974 when he was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II. By 1989, however, Princess Anne and Mark Phillips announced their intention to separate, the couple divorced on 23 April 1992. The Queen had offered Phillips an earldom on his wedding day, the couple had two children, Peter Phillips and Zara Phillips. As female-line descendants of royalty, the children have no title despite being the grandchildren of a monarch, Anne became a grandmother on 29 December 2010 when Peter and his wife Autumn had a daughter, Savannah. On 29 March 2012, the couple had daughter, Isla. Annes third granddaughter, Mia Grace, was born on 17 January 2014 to Zara and her husband Mike Tindall. As Princess Anne and Mark Phillips were returning to Buckingham Palace on 20 March 1974, from a charity event on Pall Mall, the driver of the Escort, Ian Ball, jumped out and began firing a pistol
26.
Pleistocene
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The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the worlds most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period, the Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. In the ICS timescale, the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages, all of these stages were defined in southern Europe. In addition to this subdivision, various regional subdivisions are often used. Charles Lyell introduced the term pleistocene in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today and this distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588 million to 11,700 years before present and it covers most of the latest period of repeated glaciation, up to and including the Younger Dryas cold spell. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9640 BC, the IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75°06 N 42°18 W, the lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils, Discoaster pentaradiatus, the Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma. Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places and it is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earths surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C, during interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. The effects of glaciation were global, antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap, there were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one, the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest, the east was covered by the Laurentide
27.
Juniper
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Junipers are coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus /dʒuːˈnɪpərəs/ of the cypress family Cupressaceae. The highest-known Juniper forest occurs at an altitude of 16,000 feet in south-eastern Tibet, Junipers vary in size and shape from tall trees, 20–40 m tall, to columnar or low spreading shrubs with long trailing branches. They are evergreen with needle-like and/or scale-like leaves and they can be either monoecious or dioecious. The female seed cones are very distinctive, with fleshy, fruit-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form a structure, 4–27 mm long. In some species these berries are red-brown or orange but in most they are blue, they are often aromatic, the seed maturation time varies between species from 6–18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to those of other Cupressaceae, with 6–20 scales, in zones 7 through 10, junipers can bloom and release pollen several times each year. A few species of juniper bloom in autumn, while most species pollinate from early winter until late spring. Many junipers have two types of leaves, seedlings and some twigs of trees have needle-like leaves 5–25 mm long. When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, leaves on fast-growing whip shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult. In some species, all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, in some of these, the needles are jointed at the base, in others, the needles merge smoothly with the stem, not jointed. The needle-leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle and this can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses and other related genera is soft and not prickly. Duplicana feed on the bark around injuries or canker, the number of juniper species is in dispute, with two recent studies giving very different totals, Farjon accepting 52 species, and Adams accepting 67 species. The junipers are divided into sections, though which species belong to which sections is still far from clear. The section Juniperus is a monophyletic group though. The adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base, Juniperus, Cones with 3 separate seeds, needles with one stomatal band. Juniperus communis - Common Juniper Juniperus communis subsp, alpina - Alpine Juniper Juniperus conferta - Shore Juniper Juniperus rigida - Temple Juniper or Needle Juniper Juniperus sect. Oxycedrus, Cones with 3 separate seeds, needles with two stomatal bands, caryocedrus, Cones with 3 seeds fused together, needles with two stomatal bands. Juniperus drupacea - Syrian Juniper Juniperus sect, the adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of Cupressus species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base
28.
Cyperaceae
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The Cyperaceae are a family of monocotyledonous graminoid flowering plants known as sedges, which superficially resemble grasses and rushes. The family is large, with some 5,500 known species described in about 90 genera and these species are widely distributed, with the centers of diversity for the group occurring in tropical Asia and tropical South America. While sedges may be growing in almost all environments, many are associated with wetlands. Ecological communities dominated by sedges are known as sedgelands, features distinguishing members of the sedge family from grasses or rushes are stems with triangular cross-sections and leaves that are spirally arranged in three ranks. Some well-known sedges include the chestnut and the papyrus sedge. This family also includes cotton-grass, spike-rush, sawgrass, nutsedge or nutgrass, and white star sedge
29.
Shepherdia
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Shepherdia, commonly called buffaloberry or bullberry, is a genus of small shrubs in the Elaeagnaceae family. The plants are native to northern and western North America and they are rough to the touch, and are found on both trees and shrubs. The plants have rather bitter-tasting berries, the fruit are often eaten by bears, which by legend, prefer the berries to maintain fat stores during hibernation. Buffaloberries are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the engrailed moth and they are quite sour, and afterwards leave the mouth a little dry. A touch of frost sweetens the berries and they can be made into jelly, jam, or syrup, soups, or prepared like cranberry sauce from berries
30.
Populus tremuloides
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Populus tremuloides is a deciduous tree native to cooler areas of North America, one of several species referred to by the common name aspen. It is commonly called quaking aspen, trembling aspen, American aspen, Quakies, mountain or golden aspen, trembling poplar, white poplar, popple, the trees have tall trunks, up to 25 meters tall, with smooth pale bark, scarred with black. The glossy green leaves, dull beneath, become golden to yellow, rarely red, the species often propagates through its roots to form large groves originating from a shared system of rhizomes. Populus tremuloides is the most widely distributed tree in North America and it is the defining species of the aspen parkland biome in the Prairie Provinces of Canada and extreme northwest Minnesota. The quaking or trembling of the leaves that is referred to in the names is due to the flexible flattened petioles. The specific epithet, tremuloides, evokes this trembling behavior and can be translated as like tremula. Some species of Populus have petioles flattened partially along their length, while the aspens and some other poplars have them flattened from side to side along the entire length of the petiole. Quaking aspen is a tall, fast growing tree, usually 20–25 m at maturity, with a trunk 20 to 80 cm in diameter, the bark is relatively smooth, colored greenish-white to gray, and is marked by thick black horizontal scars and prominent black knots. Parallel vertical scars are tell-tale signs of elk, which strip off bark with their front teeth. The leaves on trees are nearly round, 4–8 centimeters in diameter with small rounded teeth. Young trees and root sprouts have much larger nearly triangular leaves, aspens are dioecious, with separate male and female clones. The quaking aspen is the State Tree of Utah, quaking aspen occurs across Canada in all provinces and territories, with the possible exception of Nunavut. It occurs at low elevations as far south as northern Nebraska, in the western United States, this tree rarely survives at elevations lower than 1,500 feet due to hot summers experienced below that elevation, and is generally found at 5, 000–12,000 feet. It grows at altitudes as far south as Guanajuato, Mexico. Quaking aspen grows in a variety of climatic conditions. January and July average temperatures range from −30 °C and 16 °C in the Alaska Interior to −3 °C and 23 °C in Fort Wayne, average annual precipitation ranges from 1,020 mm in Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador to as little as 180 mm in the Alaska Interior. The southern limit of the range roughly follows the 24 °C mean July isotherm. Shrub-like dwarf clones exist in environments too cold and dry to be hospitable to full-size trees
31.
Holocene climatic optimum
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The Holocene Climate Optimum was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP. This event has also known by many other names, including, Hypsithermal, Altithermal, Climatic Optimum, Holocene Optimum, Holocene Thermal Maximum. This warm period was followed by a decline until about two millennia ago. The northwest of Europe experienced warming, while there was cooling in the south, the average temperature change appears to have declined rapidly with latitude so that essentially no change in mean temperature is reported at low and middle latitudes. In terms of the average, temperatures were probably colder than present day. While temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were warmer than average during the summers, of 140 sites across the western Arctic, there is clear evidence for warmer-than-present conditions at 120 sites. At 16 sites where quantitative estimates have been obtained, local HTM temperatures were on average 1. 6±0.8 °C higher than present. Northwestern North America had peak warmth first, from 11,000 to 9,000 years ago, northeastern North America experienced peak warming 4,000 years later. Along the Arctic Coastal Plain in Alaska, there are indications of summer temperatures 2–3 °C warmer than present, research indicates that the Arctic had substantially less sea ice during this period compared to present. Current desert regions of Central Asia were extensively forested due to rainfall. During this period, the Green Sahara was dotted with numerous lakes containing typical African lake crocodile, a curious discovery from the marine sediments is that the transitions into and out of this wet period occurred within decades, not millennia as previously thought. In the far southern hemisphere, the warmest period during the Holocene appears to have been roughly 8,000 to 10,500 years ago, however, some authors have used the term Holocene Climatic Optimum to describe this earlier southern warm period as well. A comparison of the profiles at Byrd Station, West Antarctica and Camp Century, Northwest Greenland. Points of correlation indicate that in two locations the Holocene climatic optimum probably occurred at the same time. A similar comparison is evident between the Dye 31979 and Camp Century 1963 cores regarding this period, the Hans Tausen Iskappe in Peary Land was drilled in 1977 with a new deep drill to 325 m. The Renland ice core from East Greenland apparently covers a full cycle from the Holocene into the previous Eemian interglacial. The Renland ice core is 325 m long, although the depths are different, the GRIP and NGRIP cores also contain this climatic optimum at very similar times. This climatic event was probably a result of changes in the Earths orbit
32.
Corylus cornuta
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Corylus cornuta is a deciduous shrubby hazel found in most of North America, from southern Canada south to Georgia and California. It grows in dry woodlands and forest edges and can reach 4–8 metres tall with stems 10–25 centimetres thick with smooth gray bark, the leaves are rounded oval, coarsely double-toothed, 5–11 centimetres long and 3–8 centimetres broad, with hairy undersides. The flowers are catkins that form in the fall and pollinate in the following spring, Corylus cornuta is named from its fruit, which is a nut enclosed in a husk with a tubular extension 2–4 centimetres long that resembles a beak. Tiny filaments protrude from the husk and may stick into, and irritate, the spherical nuts, which are surrounded by a hard shell, are edible. There are two varieties, Corylus cornuta var. cornuta – Eastern Beaked Hazel, small shrub,4 to 6 m tall, beak longer,3 cm or more. Corylus cornuta var. californica – Western Beaked Hazel or California Hazelnut, large shrub,4 to 15 m tall, beak shorter, usually less than 3 cm. The Concow tribe called this variety gōm’-he’’-ni, the seeds are dispersed by jays and rodents such as red squirrels and least chipmunks. Although C. cornuta is somewhat shade tolerant, it is common in open forests than denser ones
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Quercus macrocarpa
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Quercus macrocarpa, the bur oak, sometimes spelled burr oak, is a species of oak in the white oak section Quercus sect. Quercus, native to North America in the eastern and central United States and eastern and this plant is also called mossycup oak and mossycup white oak. Quercus macrocarpa is widespread in the Atlantic coastal plain from New Brunswick to North Carolina, west as far as Alberta, eastern Montana, Wyoming, the vast majority of the populations are found in the eastern Great Plains, the Mississippi/Missouri/Ohio Valley, and the Great Lakes region. It is one of the oaks, with a growth rate of 1 ft per year when young. A 20-year-old tree will be about 20 ft tall if grown in full sun, naturally occurring saplings in forests will typically be older. It commonly lives to be 200 to 300 years old, the bark is a medium gray and somewhat rugged. The leaves are 3–6 in long and 2–5 in broad, variable in shape, most often, the basal 60% is narrower and deeply lobed, while the apical 40% is wider and has shallow lobes or large teeth. The flowers are catkins, produced in the spring. The acorns are large,0. 75–2 in long and 0. 75-1.5 in broad, having a large cup that wraps much of the way around the nut, with large overlapping scales. Bur oak is sometimes confused with oak and white oak. Acorns The acorns are the largest of any North American oak, however, heavy nut crops are borne only every few years. In this evolutionary strategy, known as masting, the seed crop every few years overwhelms the ability of seed predators to eat the acorns. Other wildlife, such as deer and porcupine, eat the leaves, twigs, cattle are heavy browsers in some areas. The bur oak is the only known foodplant of Bucculatrix recognita caterpillars, bur oak typically grows in the open, away from forest canopy. For this reason, it is an important tree on the prairies, often found near waterways in otherwise more forested areas. It is a fire-resistant tree, and possesses significant drought resistance by virtue of a long taproot, New trees, after two to three years of growth, may have a 1–2 m deep taproot. The West Virginia state champion bur oak has a diameter of almost 3 m. The bur oak is among the most fire-tolerant tree species, one of its most common habitats, especially in Midwestern United States, is the oak savanna, where fires often occurred in early spring or late fall, especially in hill country
34.
Larix laricina
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Larix laricina, commonly known as the tamarack, hackmatack, eastern larch, black larch, red larch, American larch or juniper. The word tamarack is the Algonquian name for the species and means wood used for snowshoes, larix laricina is a small to medium-size boreal coniferous and deciduous tree reaching 10–20 metres tall, with a trunk up to 60 centimetres diameter. Tamaracks and Larches are deciduous conifers, the bark is tight and flaky, pink, but under flaking bark it can appear reddish. The leaves are needle-like, 2–3 cm short, light blue-green, turning bright yellow before they fall in the autumn, the needles are produced spirally on long shoots and in dense clusters on long woody spur shoots. The cones are the smallest of any larch, only 1–2.3 cm long, with 12-25 seed scales, they are red, turning brown. Key characteristics, The needles are normally borne on a shoot in groups of 10–20 needles. The larch is deciduous and the needles turn yellow in autumn, the seed cones are small, less than 2 cm long, with lustrous brown scales. Larch are commonly found in swamps, fens, bogs, tamaracks are very cold tolerant, able to survive temperatures down to at least −65 °C, and commonly occurs at the Arctic tree line at the edge of the tundra. Trees in these severe climatic conditions are smaller than farther south and they can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions but grow most commonly in swamps, bogs, or muskeg in wet to moist organic soils such as sphagnum peat and woody peat. They are also found on soils that range from heavy clay to coarse sand. Although tamarack can grow well on calcareous soils, it is not abundant on the areas of eastern Ontario. Tamarack is commonly an early invader, Tamarack is generally the first forest tree to invade filled-lake bogs. In the lake states, tamarack may appear first in the mat, sphagnum moss. Farther north, it is the tree in the bog shrub stage. Tamarack is fairly well adapted to reproduce successfully on burns, so it is one of the pioneers on sites in the boreal forest immediately after a fire. Tamarack forms extensive pure stands in the region of Canada. In the rest of its United States range and in the Maritime Provinces and it is a major component in the Society of American Foresters forest cover types Tamarack and black spruce–tamarack. Black spruce is usually tamaracks main associate in mixed stands on all sites, the other most common associates include balsam fir, white spruce, and quaking aspen in the boreal region
35.
Fir
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Firs are a genus of 48–56 species of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Pinaceae. They are found much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia. Firs are most closely related to the genus Cedrus, douglas firs are not true firs, being of the genus Pseudotsuga. They are large trees, reaching heights of 10–80 m tall, firs can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves and by their different cones. Firs can be distinguished from members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves to the twig by a base that resembles a small suction cup. The leaves are flattened, sometimes even looking like they are pressed. The leaves have two lines on the bottom, each of which is formed by wax-covered stomatal bands. In most species, the surface of the leaves is uniformly green and shiny, without stomata or with a few on the tip. Other species have the surface of leaves dull, gray-green or bluish-gray to silvery, coated by wax with variable number of stomatal bands. An example species with shiny green leaves is A. alba, the tips of leaves are usually more or less notched, but sometimes rounded or dull or sharp and prickly. The leaves of plants are usually sharper. In contrast to spruces, even large fir cones do not hang, Section Abies is found in central, south, and eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Abies alba—silver fir Abies nebrodensis—Sicilian fir Abies borisii-regis—Bulgarian fir Abies cephalonica—Greek fir Abies nordmanniana—Nordmann fir or Caucasian fir Abies nordmanniana subsp, equi-trojani—Kazdağı fir, Turkish fir Abies nordmanniana subsp. Abies grandis—grand fir or giant fir Abies grandis var. grandis—Coast grand fir Abies grandis var. idahoensis—interior grand fir Abies concolor—white fir Abies concolor subsp, concolor—Rocky Mountain white fir or Colorado white fir Abies concolor subsp. Salouenensis—Salween fir Abies pindrow—Pindrow fir Abies ziyuanensis—Ziyuan fir Section Amabilis is found in the Pacific Coast mountains in North America and Japan, Abies amabilis—Pacific silver fir Abies mariesii—Maries fir Section Pseudopicea is found in the Sino-Himalayan mountains at high altitudes. Abies delavayi—Delavays fir Abies delavayi var. nukiangensis— Abies delavayi var. motuoensis— Abies delavayi subsp, fansipanensis— Abies fabri—Fabers fir Abies fabri subsp. Abies religiosa—sacred fir Abies hickelii—Hickels fir Abies hickelii var. oaxacana—Oaxaca fir Section Nobilis Abies procera—noble fir Abies magnifica—red fir Abies magnifica var, because this genus has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only. This wood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12 to 18 months and it is commonly referred to by several different names, including North American timber, SPF and whitewood
36.
Alder
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Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The common name alder evolved from Old English alor, which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root aliso, the generic name Alnus is the equivalent Latin name. With a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple and these trees differ from the birches in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones. The largest species are red alder on the west coast of North America, by contrast, the widespread Alnus viridis is rarely more than a 5-m-tall shrub. Alders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands, Alder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths. A. glutinosa and A. viridis are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand, Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients. Alder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with Frankia alni and this bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree, Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. Because of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils, red alder stands have been found to supply between 120 and 290 pounds of nitrogen per acre annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, Sitka alder characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers, alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves themselves often serve as natural firebreaks since these trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, in addition, the light weight of alder seeds allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is shade intolerant. Red alder is the Pacific Northwests largest alder and the most plentiful, alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them. Alder root nodules Alder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone, the catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon. Most of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees, Alder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body
37.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
38.
Spruce
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A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea /paɪˈsiːə/, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from about 20–60 m tall when mature, the needles, or leaves, of spruce trees are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion, each needle on a small, peg-like structure. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs, spruces are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids, the word spruce entered the English language from the Polish Prusy, Prussia. DNA analyses have shown that traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle, Spruce has been found in the fossil record from the early Cretaceous,136 million years ago. Thirty-five named species of spruce exist in the world, the Plant List has 59 accepted spruce names. Beyond that, determination can become more difficult, intensive sampling in the Smithers/Hazelton/Houston area of British Columbia showed Douglas, according to Coates et al. Daubenmire, after sampling, had already recognized the importance of the 2 latter characters. Without cones, morphological differentiation among spruce species and their hybrids is more difficult, but, if an extended photoperiod is provided for Sitka spruce, seedlings become unacceptably tall by the end of the first growing season. g. Growth rhythm, shoot and root weight, and needle serration, or some combination of, Spruce seedlings are most susceptible immediately following germination, and remain highly susceptible through to the following spring. Seedlings that germinate late in the season are particularly vulnerable because they are tiny and have not had time to harden off fully. Mortality rates generally decrease sharply thereafter, but losses often remain high for some years, establishment is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development. Growth remains very slow for several to many years, Spruce is useful as a building wood, commonly referred to by several different names including North American timber, SPF and whitewood. Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from construction work. The Wright brothers first aircraft, the Flyer, was built of spruce, because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only. Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to, Spruce is one of the most important woods for paper uses, as it has long wood fibres which bind together to make strong paper. The fibres are thin walled and collapse to thin bands upon drying, spruces are commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily bleached. Together with northern pines, northern spruces are commonly used to make NBSK, spruces are cultivated over vast areas as pulpwood
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