1.
Icklingham
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Icklingham is a village in the Forest Heath district of the English county of Suffolk. It is about 7 miles north-west of Bury St Edmunds,4 miles south-east of Mildenhall and 9 miles south-west of Thetford in Norfolk, the village is on the A1101 road between Bury St Edmunds and Mildenhall in the north-west of the county. The area around the village, characterised by a sandy soil, is known as Breckland. The village straddles the River Lark, a tributary to the Great Ouse and it was once navigable up to Bury St Edmunds, with locks installed, these are now redundant, the remains of at least one lock being visible near Icklingham. The river is the reason for the siting of Icklinghams most promient industry, the village church, All Saints Church, Icklingham, is Norman in origin and a Grade I listed building. The village is characterised by flint and pale brick cottages, there were two thriving public houses, including the magnificent thatched Red Lion, in the village, but they both closed. A village shop no longer exists, and the village hall, the village contains 11 Listed Buildings or structures. The village takes its name from an Iron Age tribe, the Iceni, a Roman Christian graveyard exists in Icklingham, and a lead receptacle, reputed to be a baptismal font was found on the same site. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and is visible in the British Museum and it was also one of the largest Anglo-Saxon settlements in the area and can demonstrate nearby occupation to Neolithic times, through research carried out by Liverpool University over many years. The Black Ditches boundary ditch runs to the south of the village and is believed to be the most easterly of a series of early Anglo-Saxon defensive earthworks built across the Icknield Way. From 1808 to 1814 Icklingham was the site of a station in the shutter telegraph chain which connected the Admiralty in London to its ships in the port of Great Yarmouth. It has been said that on a day, a message could reach Great Yarmouth from The Admiralty in London. The horse-borne messenger would take three days, at best, Icklingham is within the area known as Breckland, an area of sandy heaths and forests. This area has a number of important natural habitats, including for the stone curlew. The Icknield Way Path passes through the village on its 110-mile journey from Ivinghoe Beacon in Buckinghamshire to Knettishall Heath in Suffolk, the Icknield Way Trail, a multi-user route for walkers, horse riders and off-road cyclists also passes through the village. A number of smaller SSSI areas are found in the Icklingham area. These include Berners Heath, the largest area of heathland in Breckland at 149.6 hectares, and Deadmans Grave. Cavenham-Icklingham Heaths, to the south-east of the village, is 418.8 hectares in area, All contain rare species such as Rossers sac spider and the soldier-fly as well as stone curlew and plant species such as Breckland wild thyme and spring speedwell
2.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
Whepstead
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Whepstead is a village in Suffolk, United Kingdom, located south of Bury St Edmunds. Once the property of Bury Abbey it became a possession of the Drury family at the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, Whepstead Church is dedicated to St Petronilla the only such dedication in England. In 1870-72, John Marius Wilson described Whepsted in his Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales like this, WHEPSTEAD and it has a post-office under Bury-St. Plumpton House is the seat of W. R. Bevan, the living is a rectory in the diocese of Ely. Value, £600. * Patron, A. R. Steele, the church is good, and there are an endowed school with £35 a year, and charities £50 Hamlets in the parish of Whepstead include Melon Green, Mickley Green and Stone Cross Green. There is one pub in Whepstead called The White Horse, which is a house built in the 17th century. A community centre is located on the B1066 Bury St Edmunds to Hartest road and it is managed by the local community and is regularly used for activities including Keep Fit, Carpet Bowls, and the Cricket Club. According to the Office for National Statistics, at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001, media related to Whepstead at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Bradfield Combust
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Bradfield Combust is a village in Suffolk, England, located on the A134 between Windsor Green and Great Whelnetham. The population is included in the parish of Bradfield Combust with Stanningfield. According to Swedish Professor of English at Lund University, Eilert Ekwall, Combust is derived from Combusta Latin fem. = burnt or burned, medieval syn. Before the Conquest, the manor was owned by Ulfketel, Saxon King of the East Angles. The Domesday Book records the population of Bradefelda manor, including Bradfield St Clare, the book states that then, as in 1086, there were fifteen villans and eighteen bordars, then one slave, and in 1086 six slaves, and three free men. Over these men St. Edmund had sake and soke with regard to every customary due and they were not allowed to sell their lands without the Abbots say so. The Book also records that the church of this vill owned ten, however, it is reliably asserted that a Bradfield Hall inside the Abbey at Bury St Edmunds was burnt down during that insurrection. Thus there were two Bradfield Halls and there arose a debate as to the naming of the village, the settlement is certainly known to have been called Bradefeld Combusta in 1302/03. Thus the naming of the village cannot originally have been associated with the 1327 insurrection and it is reasonable however, to deduce that the name of Bradfield Combust does derive from some conflagration – but of what, when prior to 1302, and exactly where, is unknown. Bradfield Hall at Bradfield Combust is perhaps best known from the 17C as the seat of the Young family, spanning several generations, the most eminent member was Arthur Young, an agriculturalist and great socio-political writer and campaigner for the rights of agricultural workers. According to Matilda Betham-Edwards, never perhaps had been seen in Suffolk such distinguished international gatherings, the present flint and brick Hall was built in 1857 on the exact site of its predecessor, by his son Arthur John Young. It lies adjacent to a square moated area, possibly modified to make it more impressive when the 1857 Hall was built beside it, but of antiquity. The current village sits astride the on the A134, originally a Roman Road just here, Bradfield Combust Methodist Church was founded in 1867. The village is the site of commercial fruit orchards and strawberry fields. Suffolk Scouts operate the Bradfield Park Campsite for the benefit of Scouting, Guiding, Educational, the Manger public house is a 15th-century Grade II listed building with 16th- and 17th-century alterations. It was referred to as Bradfield Manger in the will of Thomas Roberson dated 16 July 1660 and it is a popular pub and restaurant and a handy meeting place for clubs and special-interest groups. The church, All Saints, is officially dated 1066–1539, with a late 12th-century Norman font and it is a Grade II* listed building. Two wall paintings appear in the nave, one representing St. George and the Dragon, the tomb of Arthur Young, in the form of a sarcophagus, lies in the churchyard and is designated a National Monument
5.
Littleport, Cambridgeshire
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Littleport is the largest village by area in East Cambridgeshire, England. It lies about 6 miles north of Ely and 6 miles south-east of Welney, on the Bedford Level South section of the River Great Ouse, close to Burnt Fen, there are two primary schools, Millfield Primary and Littleport Community School. The Littleport riots of 1816 were a factor in Parliament passing the Vagrancy Act of 1824, with an Old English name of Litelport, the village was worth 17,000 eels a year to the Abbots of Ely in 1086. The legendary founder of Littleport was King Canute, a fisherman gave the king shelter one night, after drunken monks had denied him hospitality. After punishing the monks, the made his host the mayor of a newly founded village. They took to the streets and smashed shops and other buildings until troops were brought in, St Georges church registers were destroyed during the riots. The remaining registers start from 1754,1756, and 1783, some original documents relating to the riots are held in Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office, Cambridge. In 2003, a Harley-Davidson statue was unveiled in Littleport to commemorate the centenary of the motorcycle company, William Harley, father of the companys co-founder William Sylvester Harley, had been born in Victoria Street, Littleport, in 1835 and emigrated to the United States in 1859. Littleport is a parish with an elected council. Parish council meetings are held in the Barn, the second layer of local government in Littleport was Ely Rural District from 1894 to 1974, when East Cambridgeshire District Council was formed based in Ely. The third layer is Cambridgeshire County Council based in Cambridge, the parish belongs to the Parliamentary constituency of North East Cambridgeshire. For the European Parliament, it is part of the East of England constituency, thomas Peacock, who founded the gentlemens tailoring chain Hope Brothers, was born in Littleport in 1829. The first Hope Brothers shirt-making factory was opened in the village in 1882, for a period in the 1940s and 1950s, Hope Brothers were also manufacturers of the England football kit. The factory was taken over by Burberry. From 1979–83, Jim Burns guitars were based in Padnal Road in Littleport and they produced guitars such as the Steer, popularized by guitarist Billy Bragg. The Littleport Ice Stadium Project is under way in Littleport and this will become a speed skating oval and the only indoors full-size bandy rink in England. Littleport covers the hamlet of Little Ouse which comes under the Littleport East ward, Little Ouse is now entirely residential, the former pub, the Watermans Arms and church of St John the Evangelist have been converted into private dwellings. The lowest trig point in Britain is near Little Ouse, it sits at 3 ft below sea level, with an average annual rainfall of 24 inches, Cambridgeshire is one of the driest counties in the British Isles
6.
River Great Ouse
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The River Great Ouse is a river in the United Kingdom, the longest of several British rivers called Ouse. From Syresham in central England, the Great Ouse flows into East Anglia before entering the Wash, with a course of 143 miles, mostly flowing north and east, it is the one of the longest rivers in the United Kingdom. Its lower course passes through drained wetlands and fens and has been modified, or channelised, to relieve flooding. Though the unmodified river probably changed course regularly after floods, it now enters the Wash after passing through the port of Kings Lynn, the name Ouse is from the Celtic or pre-Celtic *Udso-s, and probably means simply water or slow flowing river. The lower reaches of the Great Ouse are also known as Old West River and the Ely Ouse, the river has several sources close to the village of Syresham in Northamptonshire. It flows through Brackley and into Buckinghamshire, through Buckingham, Milton Keynes at Stony Stratford, Newport Pagnell, Olney and Kempston in Bedfordshire, passing through Bedford, in to Cambridgeshire through St Neots, Godmanchester, Huntingdon, Hemingford Grey and St Ives, it reaches Earith. Here, the river enters a tidal section before branching in two. The artificial, very straight Old Bedford River and New Bedford River, the old course of the river passes through Hermitage Lock into the Old West River. After joining the Cam near Little Thetford, north of Cambridge, below Denver the river is tidal and passes Downham Market to enter The Wash at Kings Lynn. The river is navigable from the Wash to Kempston Mill, just beyond Bedford and this section includes 17 locks which are maintained by the Environment Agency, which is the navigation authority and who attempt to attract more boaters to the river. It has a catchment area of 3,240 square miles and its course has been modified several times, with the first recorded being in 1236, as a result of flooding. During the 1600s, the Old Bedford and New Bedford Rivers were built to provide a route for the water to reach the sea. In the 20th century, construction of the Cut-Off Channel and the Great Ouse Relief Channel have further altered water flows in the region, improvements to assist navigation began in 1618, with the construction of sluices and locks. Bedford could be reached by river from 1689, a major feature was the sluice at Denver, which failed in 1713, but was rebuilt by 1750 after the problem of flooding returned. Kings Lynn, at the mouth of the river, developed as a port, with the coming of the railways the state of the river declined so that it was unsuitable either for navigation or for drainage. The navigation was declared to be derelict in the 1870s, a repeated problem was the number of authorities responsible for different aspects of the river. The Drainage Board created in 1918 had no powers to address navigation issues, when the Great Ouse Catchment Board was created under the powers of the Land Drainage Act in 1930, effective action could at last be taken. There was significant sugar beet traffic on the river between 1925 and 1959, with the last known commercial traffic occurring in 1974
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
A10 road (England)
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The A10 is a major road in England. Its southern end is at London Bridge in the London Borough of Southwark, from London to Royston it chiefly follows the line of Roman Ermine Street. Within the City of London, the route of the A10 comprises King William Street, Gracechurch Street, Bishopsgate and it then becomes Shoreditch High Street, Kingsland Road, Kingsland High Street and Stoke Newington Road. It runs through Stoke Newington as Stoke Newington High Street and then becomes Stamford Hill, in July 2013, the Tottenham Hale gyratory was removed and the A10 now follows the route of Tottenham High Road in both directions. North of Tottenham, the A10 leaves its historical route of Tottenham High Road/Hertford Road to join the Great Cambridge Road via Bruce Grove, the Roundway is the southern end of a long dual carriageway section of the A10, which extends to just south of Buntingford. This dual carriageway section bisects the London Borough of Enfield, skirting the Enfield fringes of Enfield Town before crossing the M25 motorway at junction 25, near Waltham Cross. Until the late 1970s, the Great Cambridge Road passed through the towns of Broxbourne, Hoddesdon, since then, an all-purpose road from Cheshunt by-passes these towns. The Kingsmead Viaduct takes the A10 high over the Lea Valley between Hertford and Ware and the Hertford East Branch Line railway. North of Ware, a further scheme was opened in late 2004, taking the A10 around the Hertfordshire villages of Wadesmill, Thundridge, High Cross. The bypass would have opened sooner, but the lime-stabilised subsoil heaved, a substantial portion of the road surface had to be relaid. Further north, there is another section of 1970s dual carriageway road between Puckeridge and Buntingford, the contract for which was awarded to Meres Construction Ltd in April 1972, Buntingford was by-passed in the 1980s, however this is only single carriageway. From Buntingford, the runs through the villages of Chipping, Buckland. A10 traffic is signposted to travel north on the M11, skirting round the top of Cambridge on the A14, however, the former course of the A10 turns into the A1309 and heads for the city centre. The A10 reappears to the north of Cambridge at the Milton Interchange of the A14 and heads north, bypassing Ely and its northern section runs along the valley of the River Great Ouse. Where the A10 bisects Cheshunt as a dual carriageway, it is prone to traffic congestion. However, in the wake of protests against a scheme in Wanstead, this was dropped. Society for All British Road Enthusiasts entry for the A10 Road to Nowhere – A10
9.
Isleham
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Isleham is a small village and civil parish in the English county of Cambridgeshire. Isleham is located in the Fens of south-east Cambridgeshire, the western parish boundary is formed by the Crooked Ditch or Crooked Drain, the eastern boundary largely by the Lea Brook and the north by the River Lark. The village lies on the B1104 from Prickwillow to Chippenham, Isleham is twinned with Nesles in France and Magdala in Germany and recently with Maltov in Russia. The village shops, a Co-op supermarket Post Office, there are also three public houses - The Griffin, The Merry Monk and the Rising Sun - and three churches - the High Street Church, plfc and St Andrews Church of England parish church. The region between Devils Dyke and the line between Littleport and Shippea Hill shows an amount of archaeological findings of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age. Following a landscaping project, plfc have made listings and photographs of the graveyard headstones available via an on-line library and its name seems to come from Anglo-Saxon Gísla hám = the home of the hostages. On May 3,1850, preacher Charles Spurgeon was baptised in the river Lark, to this day, a stone marks the location. The Priory of St Margaret of Antioch was founded in the village in 1090 and it was always an alien priory run directly from France and, as such, was dissolved in 1414. It was later used as a barn and is now looked after by English Heritage, St Andrews parish church is the burial site for important ancestors of the Peyton family. Many visitors who have Peyton ancestors visit the church throughout the year, the church continues to be restored with the help of donations from Peyton families in the UK and USA. In 2015, United Kingdom Hip-Hop MC Dirty Dike released his fourth album which included a track entitled Isleham Swamp. The song makes the listener want to experience the beauty of the Fens, Dirty Dike has referenced Cambridgeshire and the Fenland in several of his tracks. 2001 Census Isleham Village Website Isleham Informer The Griffin Isleham Website The Rising Sun Isleham Website The Old Vicarage B&B Isleham Website Isleham FC Website plfc genealogy library
10.
Mildenhall, Suffolk
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Mildenhall is a small market town and civil parish in Suffolk, England. It is part of the district of Forest Heath and has a population of 9,906 people. The town is near the A11 and is located 60 km north-west of county town, the large Royal Air Force base, RAF Mildenhall as well as RAF Lakenheath, are located north of the town. The former is used by the United States Air Force, as the headquarters of its 100th Air Refueling Wing, Mildenhall centres on a market place with a 16th-century hexagonal market cross and town pump. The towns market is here on every Friday and originated as a weekly chartered market in, it is believed. In 1934, Mildenhall was the point of the MacRobertson Air Race to Melbourne. Due to the airbase, Mildenhall currently has the highest concentration of American residents in the country, the town has a bus station which was completed in 2005. Regular bus services run to the towns of Brandon, Bury St. Edmunds, Newmarket. National Express operate daily services to Norwich, London, Heathrow, Gatwick. Mildenhall railway station was the terminus of the Cambridge to Mildenhall railway until its closure in 1962, Mildenhall has three schools, two primary schools, St. Marys and Great Heath and one secondary school, Mildenhall College Academy. The secondary school also contains a sixth form, Mildenhall has a Non-League football club who play at Recreation Way. It also has one of the leading cricket clubs, Mildenhall Cricket Club. In 2016 the 1XI won the Two Counties Championship and was promoted to the East Anglian Premier Cricket League, notable players have included England international Tymal Mills, England Lions Tom Westley and Essex Womens Lilly Reynolds. There is a centre on Bury Road which is about 5–10 minutes away from the town square. Mildenhall is perhaps most famous for the discovery in 1942 of the Mildenhall Treasure, now at the British Museum, the treasure is a hoard of Roman silver objects buried in the 4th century. The Mildenhall Museum in the centre of the town contains displays of history and wildlife, the history of the RAF base. Entrance is free, opening times vary throughout the year, the region between Devils Dyke and the line between Littleport and Shippea Hill shows a remarkable amount of archaeological findings of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Mildenhall parish council website Mildenhall and area community and information website Poor parishioners in 16th century Mildenhall
11.
A11 road (England)
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The A11 is a major trunk road in England. It also multiplexes/overlaps with the A14 on the Newmarket bypass, All this part has been declassified and is now a minor road. Thus the A11 now starts at Aldgate, just inside the boundary of the City of London. The first stretch is Aldgate High Street, passing south of Aldgate tube station, traffic is one way round the Aldgate one-way system. East of Aldgate station, the A11 enters the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and it becomes Whitechapel High Street, again part of the Aldgate one-way system. The A11 passes through Whitechapel, past Whitechapel tube station and the Royal London Hospital, next, it becomes Bow Road, passing Bow Road tube station and Bow Church DLR station. There is a dual carriageway flyover over the Bow Interchange roundabout, however, at the end of the flyover, the A11 crosses into the London Borough of Newham and becomes a western extension to the A118. Following the opening of the A12 extension in 1999, the A11 was re-numbered to make it seem an important road. This is the limit of the downgraded section. The A11 number wont reappear until Stump Cross in deepest Essex, the road enters Cambridgeshire, with the road number A11 finally re-appearing at M11 Junction 9A, and the A11 is now a trunk road. It roughly follows the route of a Roman road for the remainder of its length, the A11 formerly went through Newmarket, that stretch is now the A1304. The Newmarket bypass, opened to traffic in July 1975, is a dual carriageway, the western end is the A11, but most of its length is a multiplex/overlap with the A14. The A11 re-appears north-east of Newmarket, and remained a dual carriageway until Barton Mills, the road bypasses Barton Mills before entering Norfolk in the Thetford Forest, passing the 113-foot-tall Elveden War Memorial. This section of the road opened as a carriageway on 12 December 2014. This completes the dualling of the road between Norwich and London. The upgrading of the section of single carriageway between Barton Mills and Thetford means the road is dual carriageway all the way to Norwich. The road continues northeast bypassing Thetford, Attleborough and Wymondham, the A11 originally ran through the centre of all three towns giving rise to congestion which frequently became the focus of delays on the route. It also passes the Snetterton Circuit motor racing venue, on entering Norwich, it becomes single carriageway again and is called Newmarket Road
12.
Icknield Way Path
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The Icknield Way Path or Icknield Way Trail is a long distance footpath in East Anglia, England. The ancient Icknield Way itself is unique among long-distance trails because it can claim to be ‘the oldest road in Britain’ and it consists of prehistoric pathways, ancient when the Romans came, the route is dotted with archaeological remains. It survives today in splendid tracks and green lanes along the ‘chalk spine’ of southern England, the Icknield Way Path runs for 110 miles from the end of the Ridgeway at Ivinghoe Beacon in Buckinghamshire, to the start of the Peddars Way at Knettishall Heath in Suffolk. The Icknield Way Association has aimed to find the most pleasant route for walking, the Path connects with, Angles Way, Bunyan Trail, Chiltern Way, Harcamlow Way, Hertfordshire Chain Walk, Hertfordshire Way, Peddars Way, Ridgeway, Stour Valley Path and Swans Way. The path was devised by the Icknield Way Association and supported by the Ramblers Association and it was part of a plan to achieve National Trail status for the whole length of the ancient trackways linking the South Coast and The Wash. The path was recognised by local authorities in 1992, walkers can pass over footpaths and therefore can access more direct and/or scenic routes
13.
West Stow
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West Stow is a small village and civil parish in West Suffolk, England. The village lies north of Bury St. Edmunds, south of Mildenhall and Thetford and west of the villages of Culford and this area is located near the Lark River Valley and was settled from around AD 420-650. Its name may come from Anglo-Saxon wēste stōw = deserted place, West Stow is home to the West Stow Anglo-Saxon village where visitors may see reconstructed Anglo-Saxon houses, and often living history re-enactments of Dark Ages life. Fullers Mill Garden run by Perennial is open to the public, a major archaeological dig from 1965-1972 headed by Dr. Stanley West of West Suffolk Archaeology Unit revealed a well preserved Anglo-Saxon site saved beneath the sands of the Breckland. The findings of Dr. West contributed to much of the knowledge that is now known about this area, the layout of the area tells us much about the way of life in this time period. This area is set up with a hall in the middle of the village. This suggests that this was a very tight-knit community, with the using the large hall for events such as feasts. During the excavation 69 houses,7 halls and 7 other structures were found and this community lived with their extended families in their houses, with each house usually containing around 10 family members. The people of this area still traded with their homeland, which is evidenced by the glass in the necklaces and other metals that were found at the site, the Anglo-Saxon community that was found here was not the first to settle in the area. The remains of huts with ditched enclosures suggest occupation by Iron Age farmers. There were also found that suggest that Mesolithic warriors had hunted in this area. A pagan Anglo-Saxon burial ground was also excavated, the archaeologists revealed that the village has moved the mile or so east to its current location following Christianisation. Alongside the actual recreated village are the Archaeological collections formerly housed at Moyses Hall Museum Bury St Edmunds. These are collections of archaeological findings that were made in the region between Devils Dyke and the line between Littleport and Shippea Hill from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, the swords show holes where rivets or studs held the wooden hilt in place. One of the more interesting findings with regards to what was found is that which deals with the aspect of this culture. This village, and others like it, replaced Roman farms after the administration left Britain. The Anglo-Saxons settled in villages that were generally self-sustaining. Within these self-sustaining communities there is evidence that peoples were more likely to provide for themselves through a farming lifestyle than a foraging one
14.
Bury St Edmunds
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Bury St Edmunds is a market town in Suffolk, England. Bury St Edmunds Abbey is near the town centre, Bury is the seat of the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich, with the episcopal see at St Edmundsbury Cathedral. The town, originally called Beodericsworth, was built on a pattern by Abbot Baldwin around 1080. It is known for brewing and malting and for a British Sugar processing factory, the town is the cultural and retail centre for West Suffolk and tourism is a major part of the economy. They all derive from Proto-Germanic *burgs meaning fortress and this in turn derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhrgh meaning fortified elevation, with cognates including Welsh bera and Sanskrit bhrant-. There is thus no justification for the folk etymology stating that the Cathedral Town was so called because St Edmund was buried there, the second section of the name refers to Edmund King of the East Angles, who was killed by the Vikings in the year 869. He became venerated as a saint and a martyr, and his shrine made Bury St Edmunds an important place of pilgrimage, the formal name of both the borough and the diocese is St Edmundsbury. Local residents often refer to Bury St Edmunds simply as Bury, Bury St Edmunds, supposed by some to have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns of the Saxons. The town grew around Bury St Edmunds Abbey, a site of pilgrimage, by 925 the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was changed to St Edmunds Bury. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent jurisdiction over the town, free from all secular services. Edward the Confessor made the lord of the franchise. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the monastery and ejected the secular priests. Count Alan Rufus is said to have been interred at Bury St Edmunds Abbey in 1093, in the 12th and 13th centuries the head of the de Hastings family, who held the Lordship of the Manor of Ashill in Norfolk, was hereditary Steward of this abbey. On 18 March 1190, two days after the more well-known massacre of Jews at Clifford Tower in York, the people of Bury St Edmunds massacred 57 Jews. Later that year, Abbot Samson successfully petitioned King Richard I for permission to evict the towns remaining Jewish inhabitants on the grounds that everything in the town. Belonged by right to St Edmund, therefore, either the Jews should be St Edmund’s men or they should be banished from the town and this expulsion predates the Edict of Expulsion by 100 years. In 1198, a burned the shrine of St Edmund, leading to the inspection of his corpse by Abbot Samson. The town is associated with Magna Carta, by various grants from the abbots, the town gradually attained the rank of a borough
15.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
16.
Suffolk
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Suffolk is an East Anglian county of historic origin in England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west, the North Sea lies to the east. The county town is Ipswich, other important towns include Lowestoft, Bury St Edmunds, Newmarket and Felixstowe, the county is low-lying with very few hills, and is largely arable land with the wetlands of the Broads in the north. The Suffolk Coast and Heaths are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, by the fifth century, the Angles had established control of the region. The Angles later became the folk and the south folk. Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, Suffolk was originally divided into four separate Quarter Sessions divisions. In 1860, the number of divisions was reduced to two, the eastern division was administered from Ipswich and the western from Bury St Edmunds. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions were made the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, Ipswich became a county borough. A few Essex parishes were added to Suffolk, Ballingdon-with-Brundon and parts of Haverhill. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, East Suffolk, West Suffolk, the county was divided into several local government districts, Babergh, Forest Heath, Ipswich, Mid Suffolk, St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk Coastal, and Waveney. This act also transferred some land near Great Yarmouth to Norfolk, in 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Ipswich Borough Councils bid to become a new unitary authority to the Boundary Committee. The Boundary Committee consulted local bodies and reported in favour of the proposal and it was not, however, approved by the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. Beginning in February 2008, the Boundary Committee again reviewed local government in the county, West Suffolk, like nearby East Cambridgeshire, is renowned for archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Bronze Age artefacts have been found in the area between Mildenhall and West Row, in Eriswell and in Lakenheath, other finds include traces of cremations and barrows. The majority of agriculture in Suffolk is either arable or mixed, Farm sizes vary from anything around 80 acres to over 8,000. Soil types vary from clays to light sands. The continuing importance of agriculture in the county is reflected in the Suffolk Show, although latterly somewhat changed in nature, this remains primarily an agricultural show. Below is a chart of regional gross value added of Suffolk at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling, well-known companies in Suffolk include Greene King and Branston Pickle in Bury St Edmunds
17.
Cambridgeshire
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The city of Cambridge is the county town. It contains most of the known as Silicon Fen. Local government is divided between Cambridgeshire County Council and Peterborough City Council, which is a unitary authority. Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of Flag Fen in Fengate, one of the earliest-known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, compared in importance to Balbridie in Aberdeen, Scotland. A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, most items were found in Isleham. Cambridgeshire was recorded in the Domesday Book as Grantbridgeshire, covering a large part of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire today is the result of several local government unifications. In 1965, these two counties were merged to form Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely. Under the Local Government Act 1972 this merged with the county to the west, Huntingdon, the resulting county was called simply Cambridgeshire. Since 1998, the City of Peterborough has been a separately administered area and it is associated with Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes such as Lieutenancy, and joint functions such as policing and the fire service. In 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife unofficially designated Cambridgeshires county flower as the Pasqueflower, the Cambridgeshire Regiment, the county-based army unit, fought in the Boer War of South Africa, the First World War and Second World War. Due to the flat terrain and proximity to the continent, during the Second World War the military built many airfields here for RAF Bomber Command, RAF Fighter Command. In recognition of this collaboration, the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial is located in Madingley and it is the only WWII burial ground in England for American servicemen who died during that event. Most English counties have nicknames for their people, such as a Tyke from Yorkshire, the traditional nicknames for people from Cambridgeshire are Cambridgeshire Camel or Cambridgeshire Crane, referring to the wildfowl that were once abundant in the fens. The term Fenners was often applied to those who come from the country to the north of Cambridge. Since the late 20th century, this term is considered to be derogatory and has been discouraged in use, original historical documents relating to Cambridgeshire are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. See also Geology of Cambridgeshire Large areas of the county are extremely low-lying, the highest point is in the village of Great Chishill at 146 m above sea level. Other prominent hills are Little Trees Hill and Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs, Rivey Hill above Linton, Rowleys Hill, AWG plc is based in Huntingdon. The RAF has several stations in the Huntingdon and St Ives area, RAF Waterbeach,6 miles north of Cambridge, is a former RAF airfield, now used as an army barracks
18.
Tributary
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A tributary or affluent is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean, tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater, leading the water out into an ocean. A confluence, where two or more bodies of water together, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary, a river or stream that branches off from, distributaries are most often found in river deltas. Right tributary and left tributary are terms stating the orientation of the relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, where tributaries have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks. These are typically designated by compass direction, for example, the American River receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago Rivers North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork, the South Branch has its South Fork, forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream, for instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river, the Strahler Stream Order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third, and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary, another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure, stored as a tree data structure
19.
Eastern Union Railway
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The Eastern Union Railway was an early English railway, initially sanctioned by Act of Parliament on 19 July 1844, with authorised capital of £200,000 to build a railway from Ipswich to Colchester. Further Acts of 21 July 1845 and 26 June 1846 authorised further increases in capital of £50,000, one of the main protagonists was John Chevallier Cobbold and the engineer was Peter Bruff. The first railway scheme for East Anglia was proposed in 1825 when a known as the Norfolk and Suffolk railroad was being promoted by the swindler John Wilks. This venture failed to attract much interest as did a second scheme mooted that year aiming to join Ipswich, however with no mineral deposits to carry and being a sparsely populated area the railway also died a natural death. Eight years later in 1833 businessmen in the Lavenham area consulted engineer James Walker about building a railway from Bury St Edmunds to Ipswich with branches to Hadleigh, two prominent members of this committee were John Cobbold and his son John Chevalier Cobbold. The first prospectus for a railway through Ipswich came from the Eastern Counties Railway in 1834, in Suffolk the Cobbolds both attended a number of meetings. The ECR acquired its parliamentary bill on 4 July 1836 with the line proposed to run from London to Great Yarmouth, the Cobbolds, whilst the ECR bill was undergoing its passage through parliament, had the 1833 scheme revisited by engineer John Braithwaite. Construction of the ECR began from the London end in spring 1837 but progress was slow and it was however Peter Bruff, an engineer recently dismissed by the Eastern Counties Railway, who formed the Eastern Union Railway and approached John Chevallier Cobbold. Bruff had surveyed and proposed a different route via Manningtree to Ipswich, the first public meeting took place on 8 August 1843 and by November the EUR were advertising their intentions of building the railway. The Eastern Union Bill received its first reading on 14 March 1844, construction of the line commenced on 1 October 1844 near Bentley. Plant and materials were landed at Cattawade on the River Stour, the main contractor was Thomas Brassey who subsequently, as was the practice, let parcels of work to sub-contractors. Seven men were killed in the construction of the line between Colchester and Ipswich with a further three killed during the construction of Ipswich tunnel. The first train to operate over the line ran on 2 May 1846, from Ipswich to Colchester took one hour, the inspection of the line was delayed – the inspector was elsewhere – but goods services commenced on 1 June 1846. A few days later the inspector duly arrived and the line was passed for public service, on return to Ipswich lavish celebrations took place for all involved in the railway and in the evening a balloon ascent over the town was made by Charles Green. The line opened for service on 15 June 1846 from an end-on junction with the ECR at its Colchester station to a terminus at Ipswich. The distance was 17 miles with three stations, Ardleigh, Manningtree and Bentley. This now forms part of the Great Eastern Main Line, another company, the Ipswich and Bury Railway Company, was formed to build a line to Bury St Edmunds. Its Act of 21 July 1845 authorised capital of £400,000, the companies also shared the same head office location in Brook Street, Ipswich
20.
Environment Agency
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The Environment Agencys stated purpose is, to protect or enhance the environment, taken as a whole so as to promote the objective of achieving sustainable development. Protection of the environment relates to such as flood and pollution. The vision of the Agency is of a rich, healthy and diverse environment for present and it is organised into eight directorates that report to the chief executive. There are two policy and process directorates, one deals with Flood and Coastal Risk Management and the other with Environment and Business. These are backed up by the Evidence directorate, the fourth directorate is a single Operations delivery unit, responsible for national services, and line management of all the Regional and Area staff. The remaining directorates are central shared service groups for Finance, Legal Services, Resources, in support of its aims, the Agency acts as an operating authority, a regulatory authority and a licence authority. The agency is funded in part from the UK government Department for Environment, Food, funding for asset management and improvement and acquisition of flood risk management assets has traditionally come from local authorities via Flood Defence Committees. This was then effectively repaid by central Government in later years as part of the Formula Spending Share, in 2005 this was simplified by making a direct transfer from Treasury to the Environment Agency in the form of Flood Defence Grant in Aid. The Environment Agencys total funding in 2007–08 was £1,025 million, of that total, £628 million was provided in the form of flood defence grant-in-aid from government. In addition, £347 million was raised through statutory charging schemes and flood defence levies, in 2007–08 had an operational budget of £1.025 billion, of which £628m was grant from the Agencys sponsoring Government Departments. Approximately half the Agencys expenditure is on flood risk management, of the remainder, 12% goes to water resources, and 6% to other water functions including navigation and wildlife. Its chief executive is Sir James Bevan, Sir Philip Dilley resigned as chairman on 11 January 2016, with Emma Howard Boyd becoming acting chair. The Environment Agency was created by the Environment Act 1995, and it had responsibility for the whole of England and Wales but with specifically designated border arrangements with Scotland covering the catchment of the River Tweed. All of the bodies were disbanded and the local authorities relinquished their waste regulatory role. At the same time, the Agency took responsibility for issuing warnings to the public. On 1 April 2013, that part of the Environment Agency covering Wales was merged into Natural Resources Wales, the Environment Agency is the principal flood risk management operating authority. It has the power to flood risk from designated main rivers. These functions in relation to other rivers in England are undertaken by Local Authorities or internal drainage boards, the Environment Agency is also responsible for increasing public awareness of flood risk, flood forecasting and warning and has a general supervisory duty for flood risk management
21.
Signal crayfish
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The signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus, is a North American species of crayfish. The signal crayfish is now considered a species across Europe and Japan. Members of this species are typically 6–9 centimetres long, although sizes up to 16–18 cm are possible and they are bluish-brown to reddish-brown in colour with robust, large, smooth claws. They have a white to pale blue-green patch near the claw hinge, the life cycle of the signal crayfish is typical for the family Astacidae. Around 200–400 eggs are laid after mating in the autumn, and are carried under the tail until they are ready to hatch the following spring. The eggs hatch into juveniles, which pass through three moults before leaving their mother, sexual maturity is reached after two to three years, and the life span can be up to 20 years. The signal crayfish is an omnivore, with most of its dietary intake being detritus. The signal crayfish is native to North America west of the Rocky Mountains, including the Canadian province of British Columbia, and the U. S. states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It was introduced to California in 1912 into the San Lorenzo River watershed, the only native crayfish remaining in California is the Shasta crayfish, where efforts are being made to create a barrier to Signal crayfish invasion. Within North America, it has also introduced to Nevada. It has also found in Alaska, specifically Kodiak Island, in the Buskin River. It is listed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, from 1907, crayfish plague, an infectious disease caused by the water mould Aphanomyces astaci, damaged stocks of the native European crayfish Astacus astacus. Since the signal crayfish occupied a similar niche in its native range, it was imported in the 1960s to Sweden. It was not realised at the time that the crayfish was a carrier of the crayfish plague. All American species carry the infection, but it is lethal to individuals that are already stressed, to European species. The signal crayfish is now the most widespread alien crayfish in Europe, occurring in 25 countries, from Finland to Great Britain and it was first introduced to Great Britain in 1976, and is now widespread across the British mainland as far north as the Moray Firth. It has also observed on the Isle of Man. In both Sweden and Finland the catch of signal crayfish exceeds that of the noble crayfish, the signal crayfish is sold at roughly half the price compared to the noble crayfish
22.
Prickwillow
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It lies in the south of the Fens,4 miles east of the city of Ely in Cambridgeshire, England, and is home to Prickwillow Museum, which tells the story of the changing face of Fenland. Prickwillow Museum is housed in the old pumping station and contains a collection of working pumping engines. The village is home to the Ely Group of Internal Drainage Boards. Evidence for very early settlements near Prickwillow was unearthed in the 1930s and this provided evidence for Roman and three levels of prehistoric settlements just to the east of the village. The modern parish of Prickwillow was formed in 1878, the name is said to be a reference to the prickets of willow—long thin skewers used to make thatch—that grew in the surrounding marshy land. Prior to the century, the River Great Ouse flowed east of Ely as far as Prickwillow. In 1829-30, however, the river was diverted north from Ely, todays village lies on the site of the old riverbank, with evidence of the original course remaining in the name of the roads and the meandering edges of the neighbouring fields. Astbury terms such old watercourses rodhams and another East Anglian village, the first of these was the steam side-lever engine, installed in 1831. This was replaced in the 1880s by the beam engine, itself replaced in 1924 by the powerful Mirrlees, Bickerton. With a weight of 25 tonnes and a power output of 250bhp at 250rpm, this engine ran until the 1970s. The Mirrlees diesel engine remains the centrepiece of the Prickwillow Museum, the museum also contains other diesel engines, dating from 1919, recovered from other local pumping stations, and restored by volunteers. The Diesel pumping engines are demonstrated to interested visitors on several days throughout the year, Prickwillow is the current office and workshop base for the Ely Group of Internal Drainage Boards who maintain the current electric pumping station in Prickwillow and surrounding watercourses. The group consists of ten internal drainage boards whose boundaries extend to the New Bedford River and Welney to the west and Mildenhall, the IDBs provide water level and flood risk management within their districts. In the 1920s, it was reported that the constant draining of the resulted in the peaty soil sinking by 2 inches every year. The local school buildings and St. Peters Church, built in 1862 and 1866 respectively, two steps were built up to the front door of the vicarage, but many more had to be added as the land gradually sank. In addition, owing to the water table, church burials take place in the more elevated settlement of Ely. Prickwillow had broadband fibre provision installed within the village in 2015, a local company, 4SG Telecom also provides broadband in the village - 4SG Telecom. To the east of the village are two large houses - the Vicarage and Sindalthorpe House, Sindalthorpe was built in 1849, and was the scene of some scandal
23.
Cursus
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Cursus monuments are Neolithic structures which represent some of the oldest prehistoric monumental structures of the British Isles. Relics found within them show that they were built between 3400 and 3000 BC and they range in length from 50 yards to almost 6 miles and the distance between the parallel earthworks can be up to 100 yards. Banks at the terminal ends enclose the cursus, over fifty have been identified via aerial photography while many others have doubtless been obliterated by farming and other subsequent landscaping activities. Examples include the four cursuses at Rudston in Yorkshire, that at Fornham All Saints in Suffolk, the Cleaven Dyke in Perthshire, a notable example is the Stonehenge Cursus, within sight of the more famous stone circle, on land belonging to The National Trusts Stonehenge Landscape. More recent studies have reassessed the original interpretation and argued that they were used for ceremonial competitions, anthropological parallels exist for this interpretation. Contemporary internal features are rare and it has been thought that the cursuses were used as processional routes. They are often aligned on and respect the position of pre-existing long barrows and bank barrows, the Dorset Cursus, the longest known example, crosses a river and three valleys along its course across Cranborne Chase and is close to the henge monuments at Knowlton. Larger scale modern ceremonial analogs might include the National Mall in Washington, avenue Cursus publicus Jim Champion, The Enigmatic Cursus, Megalithic Portal,23 April 2005, ed. A. Burnham C
24.
Culford School
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Culford School is a coeducational independent day and boarding school for pupils age 3–18 in the village of Culford, four miles north of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk, England. The headmaster is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, the school was founded as the East Anglian School for Boys, incorporating an institution founded in 1873 by Congregationalist minister, Dr John H. L. Christien. The original school was in Northgate Street in Bury St Edmunds, in 1935 the school moved to Culford Park, former home of the 7th Earl Cadogan, and thereafter became known as Culford School. It is at the centre of East Anglia, c.90 minutes from London,60 from Norwich,40 from Ipswich, the school sits in 480 acres of Repton parkland with grazing, formal gardens, lake, and the 16th-18th Century Culford Hall. Originally the Hall became dormitories and classrooms, the laundry the sanatorium, the forge the art and woodwork studios, the first new building to be added was Cadogan House, for junior boys, in 1938. The Leigh Memorial Swimming Pool was built in the same year, the Skinner and Hastings buildings were added in the 1960s, followed during the 1970s-1990s by an auditorium, pre-prep school, medical centre and biology laboratories. Purpose-built boarding houses and the Ashby Dining Hall were constructed in 1972,1972 was the year in which Culford amalgamated with its sister school, the East Anglian School for Girls, becoming one of the first fully co-educational HMC schools. New Houses were formed as follows, Culford is a selective school accepting pupils from a broad ability range, half of the senior pupils are boarders. Three schools are housed within the Park, Pre-Prep is for day boys, founded in 1984, it is set on the village side of Culford Park. The current headmistress is Mrs Sarah Preston, the Preparatory School is a boarding and day school for pupils aged 7 –13. It occupies the north of the Park, surrounded by its own pitches, the present headmaster is Mr Mike Schofield, formerly a Senior housemaster. Upper 3 entry to the Senior School is by Common Entrance, the Senior School is also a mixed boarding and day school, for ages 13 –18. The houses overlook parkland and pitches, with academic pursuits centred upon Culford Hall, Pupils join from UK and overseas prep and maintained schools, scholarships, exhibitions, bursaries, Forces allowances and Methodist Schools assistance are offered. The ten thousand volume Library was previously located in an oak panelled room overlooking Culford Hall’s south front, a new library in a separate modern building was formally opened on 8 September 2015, and its previous location is now the Senior Common Room. The Centenary Hall, containing a Studio Theatre opened in 2006 by HRH the Duke of Gloucester, is also within the main building. The Culford Foundation has raised funds for a new Pre-Prep nursery and dining hall, an astro-turf, the William Miller Science Centre, the Foundation also maintains the Old Culfordians association. Culford is a Christian Methodist foundation, and the Church supports the school whilst accepting pupils of all faiths, there are nine acts of weekday worship plus Sunday services at St Marys church - pupils who so wish are confirmed jointly as Methodists and Anglicans. The Chaplaincy provides compulsory chaplaincy studies until the Fifth Form, a new Chaplaincy Centre opened in 2008, a parallel Ofsted report rated boarding provision as outstanding, and the Nursery, for children aged 3–4, was rated outstanding in every area by Ofsted inspectors in June 2008
25.
Punt (boat)
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This article concentrates on the history and development of punts and punting in England, for other usages see Norfolk punt and the general disambiguation pages at punt and punter. A punt is a boat with a square-cut bow, designed for use in small rivers or other shallow water. Punting refers to boating in a punt, the punter generally propels the punt by pushing against the river bed with a pole. A punt should not be confused with a gondola, a shallow draft vessel that is different. Punts were originally built as boats or platforms for fowling and angling. The term punt has also used to indicate a smaller version of a regional type of long shore working boat. This derives from the usage in coastal communities of the name punt for any small clinker-built open-stem general purpose boat. In Canada, the punt can also refer to any small flat-bottomed boat with a square-cut bow, regardless of purpose, building material. In Australia, cable ferries are commonly referred to as punts, a traditional river punt differs from many other types of wooden boat in that it has no keel, stem, or sternpost. Instead, it is rather like a ladder with the main structure being two side panels connected by a series of 4 in cross planks, known as treads. The first punts are traditionally associated with the River Thames in England and were built as cargo boats or platforms for fishermen. Pleasure punts – specifically built for recreation – became popular on the Thames between 1860 and 1880, since a punt has no keel, it draws only a few inches even when fully laden, this makes it very manoeuvrable and suitable for shallow water. A punt can be punted with equal facility in either direction, the square-cut bow gives greater carrying capacity for a given length than a boat of the same beam with a narrow or pointed bow, it also makes the boat very stable, and suitable for passengers. Punts are still made in England to supply the tourist trade in Oxford, the construction material of choice for most punts is wood. Fibreglass is used for very light and narrow racing punts. The sides, the ends, and the till are normally made of such as mahogany. The treads are made from teak. The bottom is made of softwood and may be replaced several times during the life of a particular boat, a traditional punt is about 24 feet long and 3 feet wide
26.
Rowing
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Rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of oars in the water, displacing water, and propelling the boat forward. The difference between paddling and rowing is that rowing requires oars to have a connection with the boat. In some localities, rear-facing systems prevail, in other localities, forward-facing systems prevail, especially in crowded areas such as in Venice, Italy and in Asian and Indonesian rivers and harbors. This is not strictly an either-or, because in different situations its useful to be able to row a boat facing either way. The current emphasis on the aspects of rowing has resulted in some new mechanical systems being developed. Rearward-facing systems, This is probably the oldest system used in Europe, a seated rower pulls on one or two oars, which lever the boat through the water. The pivot point of the oars is the fulcrum, the motive force is applied through the rowers feet. In traditional rowing craft, the point of the oars is generally located on the boats gunwale. The actual fitting that holds the oar may be as simple as one or two pegs or a metal oarlock, in performance rowing craft, the rowlock is usually extended outboard on a rigger to allow the use of a longer oar for increased power. Sculling involves a seated rower who pulls on two oars or sculls, attached to the boat, thereby moving the boat in the direction opposite that which the rower faces, in some multiple-seat boats seated rowers each pull on a single sweep oar, usually with both hands. Boats in which the rowers are coordinated by a coxswain are referred to as a coxed pair/four/eight, sometimes sliding seats are used to enable the rower to use the leg muscles, substantially increasing the power available. An alternative to the seat, called a sliding rigger, uses a stationary seat. On a craft used in Italy, the catamaran moscone, the rower stands and this is a convenient method of manoeuvring in a narrow waterway or through a busy harbour. The Rantilla system of frontrowing oars uses inboard mounted oarlocks rather than a reversing transmission to achieve forward motion of the boat with a motion on the oars. In ancient times, rowing vessels, especially galleys, were used in naval warfare and trade. Galleys had advantages over sailing ships, they were easier to maneuver, capable of bursts of speed. Galleys continued in use in the Mediterranean until the advent of steam propulsion and their use in northern Atlantic waters was less successful, finishing with their poor performance with the Spanish Armada. The Classical trireme used 170 rowers, later galleys included even larger crews, trireme oarsmen used leather cushions to slide over the seats, which allowed them to use their leg strength as a modern oarsman does with a sliding seat
27.
River Wissey
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The River Wissey is a river in Norfolk, eastern England. It rises near Bradenham, and flows for nearly 31 miles to join the River Great Ouse at Fordham, the lower 11.2 miles are navigable. The upper reaches are notable for a number of buildings of historic interest, the water provided power for at least two mills, at Hilborough and Northwold. At Whittington, the river navigable, and is surrounded by fenland. A number of pumping stations pump water from drainage ditches into the river channel. All use of the river is now by pleasure craft and its course has altered, as it originally flowed to Wisbech, which derives its name from the river, and historically, it has also been known as the River Stoke or Stoke River. The source, to the north of Shipdham, is close to the 260-foot contour, and is close to the source of the River Yare, which flows in the opposite direction. To the south of the stream is Manor Farm, a Grade II listed building dating from the sixteenth century, much of the original timber frame has been replaced by brick. Associated with the farm are some ancient fishponds, the parish church is separated from the main centre of population by the river. It is a building, constructed of flint, ashlar masonry and brick, much of it dating from the fourteenth century. To the west of the village is a sewage treatment plant, located on the south bank, after which it passes to the north of Holme Hale. It turns to the south to pass under Station Road at Erneford Bridge, close to Erneford House, at South Pickenham, the river passes through the parkland of Pickenham Hall, which covers an area of 139 acres. It is marked on Fadens county map of 1797, and was extended in the mid-nineteenth century, much of it is grassland with ancient oaks. 11 acres are laid out as gardens and pleasure grounds, leading down to the river, a rustic oak bridge dating from the early 1900s links the gardens to the park. The hall itself was built between 1902 and 1905 by the Arts and Crafts architect Robert Weir Schultz for the banker G W Taylor, the previous house, dating from around 1830, could not be preserved, as it was found to be unstable during the rebuild. At Great Cressingham, the manor house sits on the east bank. It is Grade I listed, and includes moulded brick monograms belonging to John and Elizabeth Jenny, turning briefly to the south-west, Home Lane crosses the river by a ford at Hilborough. To the south of the hamlet is Hilborough Mill and the millers house, most of the machinery is still in place, although the paddles are missing from the cast iron waterwheel
28.
River Little Ouse
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The River Little Ouse is a river in the east of England, a tributary of the River Great Ouse. For much of its length it defines the boundary between Norfolk and Suffolk and it rises east of Thelnetham, very close to the source of the River Waveney - which flows eastwards while the Little Ouse flows west. The village with the name of Blo Norton owes this name to the river - it was earlier known as Norton Bell-eau. In this area the river creates a number of important wetland areas such as at Blo Norton and Thelnetham Fen, the course continues through Rushford, Thetford, Brandon, and Hockwold before the river joins the Great Ouse north of Littleport in Cambridgeshire. The total length is about 37 miles, the river is currently navigable from the Great Ouse to a point 2 miles above Brandon. The most distinctive feature of the headwaters of the Little Ouse and the Waveney is the valley in which they flow, the Little Ouse westwards and the Waveney, eastwards. It has a broad, fenny bottom, lies at an altitude of up to 85 feet, the explanation of this oddity is that the valley was formed, not by these rivers but by water spilling from Lake Fenland. This was a lake of the Devensian glacial, fifteen or twenty thousand years ago. This valley was its spillway into the southern North Sea basin, thence to the English Channel basin, the downstream end of the Little Ouse has changed much over the centuries. The modern lower Great Ouse was then the part of the Little Ouse. On this occasion, the change was artificial, the 17th century drainers under Cornelius Vermuyden dug the Old Bedford River between the Great Ouse at Earith and what had hitherto been the Little Ouse at Denver. A link was made for the Great Ouse between Littleport 1 and the Little Ouse at Brandon Creek and both the drainage and the navigation were directed towards Kings Lynn rather than Wisbech. The Environment Agency has designated the section from Thetford to Brandon, the lower part of the river crosses over the Cut-off Channel in a concrete aqueduct. The Channel is a 25-mile drain which runs from Barton Mills to Denver along the edge of the Fens. During times of flood it carries the waters of the River Lark, the River Wissey. On its south side are two sluices, so that water from the upper river can be diverted into the cut-off channel. The flood banks on this section are up to half a mile wide so that the meandering river will form a large lake. Nearer the mouth of the river, the Brandon Engine was the outlet for the drainage of the northern half of Burnt Fen from 1830 until 1958
29.
Mildenhall Treasure
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The Mildenhall Treasure is a large hoard of masterpieces of Roman silver tableware from the 4th century AD, and by far the most valuable Roman objects artistically and by weight of bullion in Britain. It was found at West Row, near Mildenhall, Suffolk and it consists of over thirty items and includes the Great Dish weighing over 8kg alone. The collection is on view in the British Museum because of its importance and value. The hoard was discovered while ploughing in January 1942 by Gordon Butcher, many details of the discovery remained uncertain, not least because it took place in wartime. Apparently they did not at first recognise the objects for what they were, Ford cleaned the pieces and displayed them in his house, using some of them as daily utensils and some, such as the Great Dish, on special occasions with the family. Ford declared the hoard to the authorities in 1946 after a friend had seen them in his home. An inquest was held in the summer of year, when the find was legally declared treasure trove. The numerous well documented discoveries of high-quality Roman material in recent decades, more recently, Richard Hobbs drew the attention of the academic world to the importance of the part-fictional account by Roald Dahl, and has addressed the issues surrounding the actual finding. In Dahls version of events, subsequently confirmed by Fords grandson, Ford was fully aware of the significance of the find, but could not bear to part with the treasure. He kept it and restored it in secret, but two of the left out on display were seen by an unexpected visitor, Dr. Hugh Fawcett. Ford and Butcher were awarded each as finders, although not necessarily the full ex gratia reward since the find had not been correctly reported. John W. Brailsford promptly published the first brief, summary catalogue of the find, a somewhat fuller, though still brief, study by Kenneth S. Painter came out in 1977. The most striking object in the treasure, the Great Dish has been illustrated and mentioned in countless publications, however, the treasure still awaits full and detailed scholarly publication. The treasure consists of silver tableware of types current in the 4th century, most of the objects are comparatively large, and all are of very high-quality workmanship. The decoration, which was worked by chasing from the front, is in three concentric zones. In the centre, the head of a deity, probably Oceanus. More specifically, the triumph of Bacchus over Hercules is depicted, Hercules is shown staggering drunkenly and supported by two helpful satyrs. The god Pan also appears in the composition, dancing and brandishing his pan-pipes, as do several dancing Maenads, the devotees of Bacchus
30.
Treasure trove
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The legal definition of what constitutes treasure trove and its treatment under law vary considerably from country to country, and from era to era. The term is often used metaphorically. Collections of articles published as a book are often titled Treasure Trove and this was especially fashionable for titles of childrens books in the early- and mid-20th century. Treasure trove, sometimes rendered treasure-trove, literally means treasure that has been found, the English term treasure trove was derived from tresor trové, the Anglo-French equivalent of the Latin legal term thesaurus inventus. The term wealth deposit has been proposed as a more accurate alternative, the term treasure trove is often used metaphorically to mean a valuable find, and hence a source of treasure, or a reserve or repository of valuable things. Trove is often used alone to refer to the concept, the word having been reanalysed as a noun via folk etymology from an original Anglo-French adjective trové, phrases of this form are often used either with the etymologically correct plural form or as fully rederived plural forms. In the case of treasure trove, the plural form is almost always treasure troves. In Roman law treasure trove was called thesaurus, and defined by the Roman jurist Paulus as vetus quædam depositio pecuniæ, cujus non extat memoria, ut jam dominum non habeat. R. W. Lee, in his book The Elements of Roman Law, commented that this definition was not quite satisfactory as treasure was not confined to money, nor was there any abandonment of ownership. Under the emperors, if treasure was found on a persons own land or on sacred or religious land, an interpretation of Roman law regarding treasure troves makes an appearance in the 13th chapter of the Gospel of Matthew. The Parable of the Hidden Treasure is told by Jesus of Nazareth to the crowds surrounding him, in the parable, the treasure trove is hidden in a field, which is open country and anyone could conceivably discover something hidden in that location. Its also assumed that the present owner has no knowledge or memory of the treasure, the finder of the treasure kept the trove secret until he could raise capital to purchase the land holding the trove. Selling all he had, the finder purchased the land and then unearthed the trove and, as the finder and owner, he was legally entitled to the entire trove. Jesus compared the kingdom of Heaven to the trove, being of value than all a persons earthly wealth. It has been said that the concept of treasure trove in English law dates back to the time of Edward the Confessor. If the person who had hidden the treasure was known or discovered later, to be treasure trove, an object had to be substantially – that is, more than 50% – gold or silver. Treasure trove had to be hidden with animus revocandi, that is, the Crown could grant its right to treasure trove to any person in the form of a franchise. It was the duty of the finder, and indeed of anyone who had acquired knowledge of the matter, concealing a find was a misdemeanour punishable with fine and imprisonment
31.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
32.
British hardened field defences of World War II
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British hardened field defences of World War II were small fortified structures constructed as a part of British anti-invasion preparations. They were popularly known as pillboxes, a reference to their shape, in May 1940, the directorate of Fortifications and Works was set up at the War Office under the direction of Major-General G. B. O. Taylor. Its purpose was to provide a number of basic but effective pillbox designs that could be constructed by soldiers, in the following June and July FW3 issued six basic designs for rifle and light machine gun, designated Type 22 to Type 27. In addition, there were designs for gun emplacements suitable for either the Ordnance QF2 pounder or the Hotchkiss 6pdr gun, there were also designs for pillbox-like structures for various purposes including light anti-aircraft positions, observation posts and searchlight positions to illuminate the shoreline. In addition, the Air Ministry provided designs of fortifications intended to protect airfields from troops landing or parachuting and these would not be expected to face heavy weapons so that the degree of protection was less and there was more emphasis on all-round visibility and sweeping fields of fire. Many of these were later reinforced, embrasures were available precast and factory produced to standard designs, but as these were in short supply some embrasures were improvised from brick or concrete paving. Embrasures were frequently fitted with a steel or concrete-asbestos shutter, from March 1941, some pillbox embrasures were fitted with a Turnbull mount, this was a metal frame that supported a medium machine gun. In March 1940, General Brooke carried out trials and recorded that a 25 mm anti-tank gun could easily penetrate up to 2 feet of reinforced concrete. Despite such results the thick-walled pillboxes were designated as shell-proof, whereas the thinner-walled pillboxes were designated as bulletproof, internally, pillboxes are generally cramped and spartan. Some internal concrete shelves and tables were provided to support weapons, only the Type 28s provided a little space — sufficient for a few home comforts. The basic designs were adapted to circumstances and available building materials such that, outwardly. Appearance also varied due to the materials used, although all the FW3 designs are formed from reinforced concrete. Where brick was used as a shuttering, the bricks essentially formed a mould into which concrete was poured, otherwise, the pillbox was formed using shuttering of wood and/or corrugated iron. Wood shuttering was removed, whereas corrugated iron was sometimes left in place, Construction often took advantage of whatever materials were available locally and this expedient use of local materials had the added advantage of aiding camouflage. The reinforced concrete used in construction was generally conventional making use of steel rebars with floor, walls. However, several instances are known where scrap metal had been used such as parts of an old bed or park railings, other designs were produced as commercial ventures. Finally, there were a number of pillboxes that had been constructed in the first world war. The approximate numbers of extant pillboxes of each type are based on data from the Defence of Britain database, records from County HERs
33.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
34.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
35.
Charles Spurgeon
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Charles Haddon Spurgeon was an English Particular Baptist preacher. Spurgeon remains highly influential among Christians of various denominations, among whom he is known as the Prince of Preachers and he also famously denied being a Protestant, and held to the view of Baptist Successionism. Spurgeon was the pastor of the congregation of the New Park Street Chapel in London for 38 years and he was part of several controversies with the Baptist Union of Great Britain and later he left the denomination over doctrinal convictions. In 1867, he started a charity organisation which is now called Spurgeons and he also founded Spurgeons College, which was named after him posthumously. Spurgeon was an author of many types of works including sermons, an autobiography, commentaries, books on prayer, devotionals, magazines, poetry, hymns. Many sermons were transcribed as he spoke and were translated into many languages during his lifetime, Spurgeon produced powerful sermons of penetrating thought and precise exposition. His oratory skills held his listeners spellbound in the Metropolitan Tabernacle, born in Kelvedon, Essex, Spurgeons conversion from nominal Anglicanism came on 6 January 1850, at age 15. The text that moved him was Isaiah 45,22 – Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth, for I am God, later that year on 4 April 1850, he was admitted to the church at Newmarket. His baptism followed on 3 May in the river Lark, at Isleham, later that same year he moved to Cambridge, where he later became a Sunday school teacher. He preached his first sermon in the winter of 1850–51 in a cottage at Teversham while filling in for a friend, from the beginning of his ministry his style and ability were considered to be far above average. In the same year, he was installed as pastor of the small Baptist church at Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, where he published his first literary work and this was the largest Baptist congregation in London at the time, although it had dwindled in numbers for several years. Within a few months of Spurgeons arrival at Park Street, his ability as a preacher made him famous, the following year the first of his sermons in the New Park Street Pulpit was published. Spurgeons sermons were published in printed form every week and had a high circulation, by the time of his death in 1892, he had preached nearly 3,600 sermons and published 49 volumes of commentaries, sayings, anecdotes, illustrations and devotions. Immediately following his fame was criticism, the first attack in the press appeared in the Earthen Vessel in January 1855. His preaching, although not revolutionary in substance, was a plain-spoken and direct appeal to the people, critical attacks from the media persisted throughout his life. The congregation quickly outgrew their building, and moved to Exeter Hall, in these venues Spurgeon frequently preached to audiences numbering more than 10,000. At 22, Spurgeon was the most popular preacher of the day, on 8 January 1856, Spurgeon married Susannah, daughter of Robert Thompson of Falcon Square, London, by whom he had twin sons, Charles and Thomas born on 20 September 1856. At the end of year, tragedy struck on 19 October 1856
36.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
37.
Burnt Fen
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Burnt Fen is an area of low-lying land crossed by the A1101 road between Littleport in Cambridgeshire and Mildenhall in Suffolk, England. It is surrounded on three sides by rivers, and consists of agricultural land, with sparse settlement. It is dependent on pumped drainage to prevent it from flooding, funding for the drainage works is collected by a system of rates, paid by those whose property would be threatened by flooding without the works. Burnt Fen is located near the borders of Cambridgeshire, although parts of it are also located in Suffolk and Norfolk. It is an area of agricultural land, which is mostly below sea level. These comprise the River Great Ouse on the western edge, the River Little Ouse on the north eastern edge. The area is crossed by the A1101 Littleport to Mildenhall road, which runs north west to south east, and the Ely to Norwich Railway. There are four hamlets within this area, Little Ouse, Shippea Hill, Sedge Fen, Shippea Hill railway station was called Burnt Fen between 1885 and 1904. Because of the nature of the terrain, the area is entirely dependent on pumped drainage to prevent it from being flooded. They are responsible for 17,140 acres of land, which includes 42.3 miles of drainage ditches, water flows along the drainage channels by gravity, and is then lifted by up to 16 feet to enter the high level rivers. The name Burnt Fen is believed to originate from the practice of levelling the land, large tufts of rushes, which made the land surface rough, were cut and dried. Once dried, they could be burnt, and the used as fertiliser. This practice, known as paring and burning, was used widely in the Fens, the area shows a remarkable amount of archaeological findings of the Mesolithic period. One of the largest hoards of Bronze-Age artifacts ever unearthed in western Europe was found near Isleham, many of the 6,000 pieces are on show at the Moyses Hall Museum, located in Bury St Edmunds. The courses of a number of rivers had been altered to improve drainage and reclaim land for agriculture, Burnt Fen was a low-lying region surrounded on three sides by the River Great Ouse, the River Little Ouse, and the River Lark. Water could no longer flow by gravity from the land into the rivers, although the Bedford Level Corporation was responsible for the main rivers in the region, they did not have control of the smaller tributaries. Against this background, a private Act of Parliament was obtained in 1759, each had its own set of Commissioners, and the boards were called the Burnt Fen First District and the Burnt Fen Second District. The area controlled by the First District broadly covers the known as Burnt Fen today
38.
Sicklesmere
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Sicklesmere is a village in Suffolk, England. Located on the A134 around a mile south of Bury St Edmunds, recorded in 1272 as Sykolvesmere, that is, Sigolfrs mere, the village is named after a mere or lake that used to be present near the River Lark. In truth it is no more than a cluster of properties besides the River Lark. Many of these are flint built cottages, a circular shaped building known as the Toll House is located on the main road. In the days of travel there was a regular service between Norwich and London via Sudbury which ran four times a day through Sicklesmere. The village was previously served by Welnetham railway station until the Beeching Axe. The village has a pub, the Rushbrooke Arms, media related to Sicklesmere at Wikimedia Commons
39.
Fornham St Martin
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Fornham St Martin is a village and civil parish in the St Edmundsbury district of Suffolk in eastern England. Located on the outskirts of Bury St Edmunds off east and west from the A134. Its parish council is shared with neighbouring Fornham St Genevieve, and is known as Fornham St Martin cum St Genevieve Parish Council, near the current Lark Valley Drive, a smock windmill used to stand. The village has one house, the Woolpack, but no shops. Its school closed in the early 1950s, the name Fornham is thought to be Saxon meaning The homestead by the trout stream and the village is well documented in the Domesday Book. The Battle of Fornham, one of the most significant battles in English history took place in Fornham Park, scribes of the time variously estimated that between 3000 and 10,000 Flemish mercenaries were slaughtered and lie beneath the fields, woodland and ditches. Fornham once had a reputation for pie-ladies – women who walked to the abbey in Bury St Edmunds to feed the monks, architect Robert Abraham was involved with the expansion of Fornham Hall in the 19th century. Major General Sir Harry Ord GCMG CB - Colonial Governor of several posts including Bermuda, Straits Settlements, - Prominent maltster and philanthropist who endowed the Gilstrap library in Newark, Nottinghamshire. Fornham St Genevieve Fornham All Saints Fornham Hall
40.
Clunch
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Clunch is a traditional building material of chalky limestone rock used mainly in eastern England and Normandy. Clunch distinguishes itself from archetypal forms of limestone by being softer in character when cut, such as resembling chalk in lower density, if in the first form it can be bedded in a ramshackle manner, if in the second then laid in courses. In either case, mortar is used between stones to form walls. The stone is a chalk from the Lower Chalk of the Cretaceous age and it is greyish-white to light beige in colour, often with a greenish tinge. The latter is due to the presence of glauconite, the potassium, the stone has a gritty texture due to the frequent presence of shell fossils. This stone has been quarried at Totternhoe Quarry in Dunstable, Bedfordshire by H. G. Clarke & Son since 1920. It is a particularly soft when quarried and subject to chemical and wind erosion as exposed material, i. e. when unrendered in paint, stucco or cement. It can be cut by a saw when in its softer state, when the stone dries out it becomes harder, and is not as easy to cut. Clunch is generically a soft limestone and it can be rich in iron-bearing clays or be very fine and white — in effect just chalk. In Ely Cathedral it can be seen in some interior locations, the nearby village of Burwell has its civil parish magazine named after the building material. It is found in the village of Seale in Surrey and in Farnham, bath stone Caen stone Bargate stone Portland stone Limestone
41.
Lock (water navigation)
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A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
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Master of the Rolls
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The position dates from at least 1286, although it is believed that the office probably existed earlier than that. The Master of the Rolls was initially a clerk responsible for keeping the Rolls, or records, of the Court of Chancery, the Keeper was the most senior of the dozen Chancery clerks, and as such occasionally acted as keeper of the Great Seal of the Realm. The post evolved into a one as the Court of Chancery did. He retained his functions as the nominal head of the Public Record Office until the Public Records Act 1958 transferred responsibility for it to the Lord Chancellor. One residual reminder of this role is the fact that the Master of the Rolls of the day continues to serve, ex officio, the Master of the Rolls was also previously responsible for registering solicitors, the officers of the Senior Courts. One of the most prominent people to hold the position was Thomas Cromwell, on 3 October 2016, Sir Terence Etherton succeeded Lord Dyson as Master of the Rolls. Category, Masters of the Rolls Hanworth, Lord, some Notes on the Office of Master of the Rolls. The Judges of England 1272–1990, a list of judges of the superior courts
43.
River Orwell
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The River Orwell flows through the county of Suffolk in England. Its source river, above the limit at Stoke Bridge, is known as the River Gipping. It broadens into an estuary at Ipswich where the Ipswich dock has operated since the 7th century, the large Orwell Bridge carries the A14 trunk road over the estuary to the south of Ipswich. In the name Orwell, Or- comes from an ancient river-name — probably pre-Celtic, in A tour through England and Wales written in 1722, Daniel Defoe calls the river Orwel. The writer Eric Blair chose the pen name under which he would become famous, George Orwell. The Orwell provides a venue for sailing. Interest originally centred on the hamlet of Pin Mill, which is home to the Pin Mill Sailing Club, ransome had kept his yacht Selina King at the Pin Mill anchorage in 1937-39. Since the 1970s marinas have opened at Levington, Woolverstone, Foxs and it now hosts a broad range of sailing events, such as the annual Junior Race Week. The 1957 film Yangtse Incident, The Story of HMS Amethyst was filmed on the river, the naval shore establishment at HMS Ganges also featured in the film being used as a site for Chinese gun batteries
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John Rennie the Elder
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John Rennie FRSE FRS was a Scottish civil engineer who designed many bridges, canals, and docks. His older brother George remained to assist in the agricultural business. He seems to have employed his vacations in working as a millwright, at this early date the originality of his mind was exhibited by the introduction of cast iron pinions instead of wooden trundles. In 1784 he took a journey south for the purpose of enlarging his knowledge, visiting James Watt at Soho, the machinery was all designed by Rennie, a distinguishing feature being the use of iron instead of wood for the shafting and framing. About 1791 he started in business as an engineer on his own account in Holland Street, Blackfriars, whence he. In 1791, he moved to London and set up his own engineering business, having by then begun to expand into civil engineering, the Kennet and Avon Canal including the Dundas Aqueduct, Caen Hill Locks and Crofton Pumping Station occupied him between 1794 and 1810. In 1802 he revised the plans for the Royal Canal of Ireland from Dublin to the Shannon near Longford, for many years he was engaged in extensive drainage operations in the Lincolnshire and Norfolk fens, and in the improvement of the River Witham. The Eau Brink Cut, a new channel for the River Ouse, was completed just before his death and his later efforts in this line also show that he was a skilful architect, endowed with a keen sense of beauty of design. Waterloo Bridge was considered his masterpiece and was the most prestigious bridge project in England, the Italian sculptor Canova called it ‘the noblest bridge in the world’ and said that ‘it is worth going to England solely to see Rennie’s bridge. Southwark Bridge was built as three cast-iron spans over the river and he also designed the Old Vauxhall Bridge. He devoted much time to the preparation of plans for a government dockyard at Northfleet, Rennies last project was London Bridge, still under construction when he died in 1821 but completed by his son, also John Rennie. Dunleary harbour of Asylum was a difficult and important project. Rennie was responsible for the construction of Howth Harbour on the North side of Dublin bay a decade earlier and this was originally planned as the landing for the Holyhead packets, but it silted up to such an extent that it became unfit for purpose. An Act of Parliament of 1816 authorised the building of Dunleary harbour and he was correct as the sand has built up behind the west pier. The harbour once built was renamed The Royal Harbour of Kingstown in 1821 on the occasion of the visit of George IV, the material for the harbour is Dalkey Hill granite. The granite was provided by Richard Toucher at no cost to the construction team, the foundations of the piers are 300-0 wide and 24-0 below low water level. Many options were considered for the width of the space between the two pier heads, Rennie wrote to the Harbour Commissioners that the opening should be 430-0 wide with the pier heads turned into the harbour to control swells within the harbour. His demands were never met and the opening was built at 1
45.
Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
46.
King's Lynn
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Kings Lynn /ˌkɪŋz ˈlɪn/, known until 1537 as Bishops Lynn, is a seaport and market town in Norfolk, England,97 miles north of London and 44 miles west of Norwich. The population of the town is 42,800, the town has two theatres, museums and other cultural and sporting venues. There are three schools and one college. The service sector, information and communication technologies and creative industries, provide employment for the population of Kings Lynn, the etymology of Kings Lynn is uncertain. As the Domesday Book mentions many saltings at Lena, an area of partitioned pools or small lakes may have existed here at that time, the salt may even have contributed to Herbert de Losingas interest in this modest parish. In the Domesday Book, it is known as Lun, and Lenn, and is described as the property of the Bishop of Elmham, the town is and has been for generations generally known by its inhabitants and local people simply as Lynn. The city of Lynn, Massachusetts, just north of Boston, was named in 1637 in honour of its first official minister of religion, Samuel Whiting, Lynn originated as a settlement on a constricted site to the south of where the River Great Ouse exits to the Wash. Development began in the early 10th century, but the place was not recorded until the early–11th century, until the early–13th century, the Great Ouse emptied via the Wellstream at Wisbech. After the redirection of the Great Ouse in the 13th century, Lynn and its port became significant, in 1101, Bishop Herbert de Losinga of Thetford began to construct the first mediaeval town between two rivers, the Purfleet to the north and Mill Fleet to the south. He commissioned St Margarets Church and authorised a market, in the same year, the bishop granted the people of Lynn the right to hold a market on Saturday. Trade built up along the waterways that stretched inland and the town expanded between the two rivers, during the 14th century, Lynn ranked as Englands most important port. It was considered as vital to England during the Middle Ages as Liverpool was during the Industrial Revolution, Sea trade with Europe was dominated by the Hanseatic League of ports, the transatlantic trade and the rise of Englands western ports did not begin until the 17th century. The Trinity Guildhall was rebuilt in 1421 after a fire and it is possible that the Guildhall of St George is the largest and oldest in England. Walls entered by the South Gate and East Gate were erected to protect the town, the town retains two former Hanseatic League warehouses, Hanse House built in 1475 and Marriotts Warehouse, in use between the 15th and 17th centuries. They are the remaining buildings from the Hanseatic League in England. In the first decade of the 16th century, Thoresby College was built by Thomas Thoresby to house priests of the Guild of The Holy Trinity in Lynn, the guild had been incorporated in 1453 on the petition of its alderman, chaplain, four brethren and four sisters. The guildsmen were licensed to found a chantry of chaplains to celebrate at the altar of Holy Trinity in Wisbech, in 1524 Lynn acquired a mayor and corporation. In 1537 the king control of the town from the bishop
47.
Ipswich
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Ipswich is the county town of Suffolk, England, located on the estuary of the River Orwell, about 60 miles north east of London. The town has been occupied since the Saxon period. It has also known as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. Ipswich is one of Englands oldest towns, if not the oldest, the claim has also been made of the Essex town of Colchester, but that town was abandoned for some time, leaving Ipswich to claim to be the oldest continuously inhabited town in England. Under the Roman empire, the area around Ipswich formed an important route inland to towns and settlements via the rivers Orwell. A large Roman fort, part of the defences of Britain, stood at Walton near Felixstowe. The modern town took shape in Anglo-Saxon times around Ipswich dock, gipeswic ) arose as the equivalent to these, serving the Kingdom of East Anglia, its early imported wares dating to the time of King Rædwald, supreme ruler of the English. The famous ship-burial and treasure at Sutton Hoo nearby is probably his grave, the Ipswich Museum houses replicas of the Roman Mildenhall and Sutton Hoo treasures. A gallery devoted to the towns origins includes Anglo-Saxon weapons, jewellery, the 7th-century town was centred near the quay. Towards 700 AD, Frisian potters from the Netherlands area settled in Ipswich and their wares were traded far across England, and the industry was unique to Ipswich for 200 years. With growing prosperity, in about 720 AD a large new part of the town was out in the Buttermarket area. Ipswich was becoming a place of national and international importance, parts of the ancient road plan still survive in its modern streets. After the invasion of 869 Ipswich fell under Viking rule, the earth ramparts circling the town centre were probably raised by Vikings in Ipswich around 900 to prevent its recapture by the English. The town operated a mint under royal licence from King Edgar in the 970s, the abbreviation Gipes appears on the coins. King John granted the town its first charter in 1200, laying the foundations of its modern civil government. In the next four centuries it made the most of its wealth, Five large religious houses, including two Augustinian Priories, and those of the Greyfriars, Ipswich Whitefriars and Ipswich Blackfriars, stood in medieval Ipswich. The last Carmelite Prior of Ipswich was the celebrated John Bale, there were also several hospitals, including the leper hospital of St Mary Magdalene, founded before 1199. During the Middle Ages the Marian Shrine of Our Lady of Grace was a pilgrimage destination
