1.
Clausthal
–
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the part of the Harz mountains. Clausthal-Zellerfeld was the seat of the former Samtgemeinde Oberharz, altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz Buntenbock Clausthal-Zellerfeld Wildemann Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers, Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge. Mining in the began in the 16th century. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914, the large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. Mining activity halted in 1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted, today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976, the former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today. The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers, today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering. Tower dating from 1637. de Clausthal-Zellerfeld at DMOZ Clausthal
Clausthal
–
Church in 2005
Clausthal
–
Former railway station
Clausthal
–
Dietzel House dating from 1674, which now also houses the tourist information office
Clausthal
–
House where Robert Koch was born
2.
Kingdom of Hanover
–
The Kingdom of Hanover was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and joined with 38 other sovereign states in the German Confederation in June 1815, along with the rest of Prussia, Hanover became part of the German Empire upon unification in January 1871. Briefly revived as the State of Hanover in 1946, the state was merged with some smaller states to form the current state of Lower Saxony in West Germany. After his accession in 1714, George Louis of the House of Hanover ascended the throne of Great Britain as George I, descendants of Hanoverians who fought alongside the British in the War of 1812 remain in Canada. In 1803, however, it fell to French and Prussian armies during the Napoleonic Wars, the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807 joined it to territories from Prussia and created the Kingdom of Westphalia, rule of which was allocated to Napoleons youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte. French control lasted until October 1813 when the territory was overrun by Russian Cossack troops, the terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 not only restored Hanover, but elevated it to an independent kingdom with its Prince-Elector, George III of Great Britain, as King of Hanover. The new kingdom was also expanded, becoming the fourth-largest state in the German Confederation. During the British Regency and the reigns of kings George IV and William IV from 1816 to 1837, their younger brother Adolph Frederick officiated as Viceroy of Hanover, when Queen Victoria succeeded to the British throne in 1837, the 123-year personal union of Great Britain and Hanover ended. During the Austro-Prussian War, Hanover attempted to maintain a neutral position, hanovers vote in favor of the mobilisation of Confederation troops against Prussia on 14 June 1866 prompted Prussia to declare war. The outcome of the war led to the dissolution of Hanover as an independent kingdom and it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, along with the rest of Prussia, it became part of the German Empire in 1871. After George V fled Hanover in 1866, he raised forces loyal to him in the Netherlands and they were eventually disbanded in 1870. Nevertheless, George refused to accept the Prussian takeover of his realm and his only son, Prince Ernest Augustus, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, inherited this claim upon Georges death in 1878. Ernest Augustus was also first in line to the throne of the Duchy of Brunswick, in 1884, that branch became extinct with the death of William, a distant cousin of Ernest Augustus. The Duke then renounced his claim to Brunswick in favor of his son, the German-Hanoverian Party, which at times supported secession from the Reich, demanded a separate status for the province in the Reichstag. The party existed until banned by the Nazi government, the state saw itself in the tradition of the kingdom. The former territory of Hanover makes up 85 percent of Lower Saxonys territory, the Lutheran church was the state church of the Kingdom of Hanover with the King being summus episcopus. Regional consistories supervised church and clergy and these were in Aurich, a simultaneously Lutheran and Calvinist consistory dominated by Lutherans and the Lutheran consistories in Hanover, in Ilfeld, in Osnabrück, in Otterndorf as well as in Stade. A general superintendent chaired each consistory and this introduction of presbyteries was somewhat revolutionary in the rather hierarchically structured Lutheran church
Kingdom of Hanover
–
100 thaler banknote from 1857.
Kingdom of Hanover
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Flag
Kingdom of Hanover
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George III German: Georg III.
Kingdom of Hanover
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George IV German: Georg IV.
3.
Baden-Baden
–
Baden-Baden is a spa town, located in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwestern Germany. The springs at Baden-Baden were known to the Romans as Aquae, in modern German, Baden is a gerund meaning bathing but Baden, the original name of the town, derives from an earlier plural form of Bad. As with the English placename Bath, there are various other Badens at hot springs throughout Central Europe, the current doubled name arose to distinguish it from the others, particularly Baden near Vienna in Austria and Baden near Zürich in Switzerland. It is a reference to the Margraviate of Baden-Baden, a subdivision of the Margraviate of Baden, Baden-Baden became its formal name in 1931. Baden-Baden lies in a valley of the Northern Black Forest in southwestern Germany, the western districts lie within the Upper Rhine Plain. The highest mountain of Baden-Baden is the Badener Höhe, which is part of the Black Forest National Park, the old town lies on the side of a hill on the right bank of the Oos. Since the 19th century, the resorts have been located on the other side of the river. There are 29 natural springs in the area, varying in temperature from 46 to 67 °C. The water is rich in salt and flows from artesian wells 1,800 m under Florentine Hill at a rate of 341 litre per minute and is conveyed through pipes to the towns baths. Roman settlement at Baden-Baden has been dated as far back as the emperor Hadrian, the known ruins of the Roman bath were rediscovered just below the New Castle in 1847 and date to the reign of Caracalla, who visited the area to relieve his arthritic aches. The facilities were used by the Roman garrison in Strasbourg, the town fell into ruin but its church was first constructed in the 7th century. By 1112, it was the seat of the Margraviate of Baden, the Lichtenthal Convent was founded in 1254. The margraves initially used Hohenbaden Castle, whose ruins still occupy the summit above the town, Baden suffered severely during the Thirty Years War, particularly at the hands of the French, who plundered it in 1643. They returned to occupy the city in 1688 at the onset of the Nine Years War, the margravine Sibylla rebuilt the New Castle in 1697, but the margrave Louis William removed his seat to Rastatt in 1706. The Stiftskirche was rebuilt in 1753 and houses the tombs of several of the margraves, the town began its recovery in the late 18th century, serving as a refuge for émigrés from the French Revolution. The town was frequented during the Second Congress of Rastatt in 1797–99 and she came for medicinal reasons, as the waters were recommended for gout, rheumatism, paralysis, neuralgia, skin disorders, and stones. The Ducal government subsequently subsidized the resorts development, guests included Queen Victoria, Wilhelm I, and Berlioz. The pumproom was completed in 1842, the Grand Duchys railways mainline reached Baden in 1845
Baden-Baden
–
View of Baden-Baden from
Mount Merkur.
Baden-Baden
Baden-Baden
–
Old Town (Altstadt)
Baden-Baden
–
Florentine Hill (Florentinerberg), with the New Castle (top right), the Caracalla Spa (lower right), and the Friedrichsbad (lower left)
4.
Grand Duchy of Baden
–
The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state in the southwest of Germany on the east bank of the Rhine. It existed between 1806 and 1918 and it came into existence in the 12th century as the Margraviate of Baden and subsequently split into different lines, which were unified in 1771. After World War II, the French military government in 1945 created the state of Baden out of the half of the former Baden. This portion of the former Baden was declared in its 1947 constitution to be the successor of the old Baden. The northern half of the old Baden was combined with northern Württemberg, becoming part of the American military zone, both Baden and Württemberg-Baden became states of West Germany upon its formation in 1949. In 1952 Baden merged with Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form Baden-Württemberg and this is the only merger of states that has taken place in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany. The unofficial anthem of Baden is called Badnerlied and consists of four or five traditional verses, however, over the years, many more verses have been added – there are collections with up to 591 verses of the anthem. Baden came into existence in the 12th century as the Margraviate of Baden, in 1803 Baden was raised to Electoral dignity within the Holy Roman Empire. Upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Baden became the much-enlarged Grand Duchy of Baden, in 1815 it joined the German Confederation. During the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, Baden was a centre of revolutionist activities, in 1849, in the course of the Baden Revolution, it was the only German state that became a republic for a short while, under the leadership of Lorenzo Brentano. The revolution in Baden was suppressed mainly by Prussian troops, the Grand Duchy of Baden remained a sovereign country until it joined the German Empire in 1871. After the revolution of 1918, Baden became part of the Weimar Republic as the Republic of Baden, when the French Revolution threatened to overflow into the rest of Europe in 1792, Baden joined forces against France, and its countryside was devastated once more. In 1796, the margrave Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden, was compelled to pay an indemnity, fortune, however, soon returned to his side. Changing sides in 1805, he fought for Napoleon, with the result that, by the peace of Pressburg in that year, he obtained the Breisgau and other territories at the expense of the Habsburgs. In 1806, he joined the Confederation of the Rhine, declared himself a prince, became a grand duke. The Baden contingent continued to assist France, and by the Peace of Vienna in 1809, Charles fought for his father-in-law until after the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, when he joined the Allies. In 1815 Baden became a member of the German Confederation established by the Act of 8 June, however, in the haste of winding up the Congress, the question of the succession to the grand duchy did not get settled, a matter that would soon become acute. A controversy between Bavaria and Baden ensued, which was decided in favour of the Höchberg claims by a treaty signed by Baden
Grand Duchy of Baden
–
Karlsruhe Palace, from 1718 residence of the Margraves of Baden-Durlach, from 1806 of the Grand Duchy of Baden
Grand Duchy of Baden
–
Flag (1891–1918)
Grand Duchy of Baden
–
Monument to the Constitution of Baden (and the Grand Duke for granting it), in Rondellplatz, Karlsruhe, Germany
5.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
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Flag
Germany
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
6.
Germ theory
–
The germ theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, animals and their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. Germ may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganisms, especially one which causes disease, such as protist, fungus, virus, prion, microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. The germ theory was proposed by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, such views were held in disdain, however, and Galens miasma theory remained dominant among scientists and doctors. The nature of this doctrine prevented them from understanding how diseases actually progressed, by the early nineteenth century, smallpox vaccination was commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases. Viruses were discovered in the 1890s, the miasma theory of disease transmission held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia or the Black Death were caused by a miasma, a noxious form of bad air. The theory held that the origin of these diseases was a miasma. Miasma was considered to be a vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell and this was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory of disease took hold in the last decade of the 19th century. In Antiquity, the Greek historian Thucydides was the first person to state, in his account of the plague of Athens, one theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by seeds that were present in the air. In his poem, De rerum natura, the Roman poet Lucretius stated that the world contained various seeds, the Greek physician Galen speculated in his On Initial Causes that some patients might have seeds of fever. In his On the Different Types of Fever, Galen speculated that plagues were spread by seeds of plague. During the Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville mentioned plague-bearing seeds in his On the Nature of Things, and in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galens seeds of plague in his work Commentaria non parum utilia in libros Galeni. The diseases were categorised based on how they were transmitted, italian physician Francesco Redi provided early evidence against spontaneous generation. He devised an experiment in 1668 in which he used three jars and he placed a meatloaf and egg in each of the three jars. He had one of the open, another one tightly sealed. After a few days, he observed that the meatloaf in the jar was covered by maggots
Germ theory
–
Scanning electron microscope image of
Vibrio cholerae. This is the bacterium that causes
cholera.
Germ theory
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A representation of the cholera epidemic of the 19th century depicts the spread of the disease in the form of poisonous air.
Germ theory
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Original map by John Snow showing the
clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854
Germ theory
–
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, painting by
A. Edelfeldt in 1885
7.
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
Mace granted by Charles II
8.
Nobel Prize in Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
Nobel Prize in Medicine
–
Nobel was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own laboratories.
Nobel Prize in Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Nobel Prize in Medicine
–
Nikolaas Tinbergen (left),
Konrad Lorenz (right) was awarded (with
Karl von Frisch) for their discoveries concerning animal behavior.
Nobel Prize in Medicine
–
In 1947,
Gerty Cori was the first woman to be awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
9.
Microbiology
–
Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, those being unicellular, multicellular, or acellular. Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on extraction or detection of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA sequences, viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. As an application of microbiology, medical microbiology is often introduced with medical principles of immunology as microbiology and immunology, otherwise, microbiology, virology, and immunology as basic sciences have greatly exceeded the medical variants, applied sciences. The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery, the existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission. However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the bodies of moulds. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms and he was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, here, he wrote who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms. He also noted that material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hookes Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria. Joseph Lister was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the wounds of patients. Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the classification of bacteria. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn’s and are considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the widely held theory of spontaneous generation
Microbiology
–
An
agar plate streaked with
microorganisms
Microbiology
–
Fermenting tanks with
yeast being used to
brew beer
Microbiology
–
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, is considered to be the one of the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope.
Microbiology
–
Innovative
laboratory glassware and experimental methods developed by
Louis Pasteur and other biologists contributed to the young field of bacteriology in the late 19th century.
10.
University of Berlin
–
The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
University of Berlin
–
Monument to Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the main building. Artist: Paul Otto
University of Berlin
–
Seal of the Universitas Humboldtiana Berolinensis (
Latin)
University of Berlin
–
Statue of
Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University, from 1883 by artist Reinhold Begas. Note the Spanish inscription describing him as "the second discoverer of Cuba".
University of Berlin
–
The Berlin University in 1850.
11.
Georg Meissner
–
Georg Meissner was a German anatomist and physiologist born in Hanover. He studied medicine at the University of Göttingen, where he worked closely with Rudolf Wagner, in 1851 he accompanied Wagner and Theodor Billroth on an expedition to Trieste, where he performed scientific studies of torpedo fish. In 1852 he earned his doctorate at Göttingen, and was later a university professor at Basel, Freiburg, – His name is associated with Meissners corpuscles, which are mechanoreceptors that are responsible for sensitivity to light touch. They were first described in 1852, with Meissner and Wagner each feeling that he alone should be given priority as to discovery of the corpuscles, a controversy took place between the two men, causing a strained relationship that lasted for several years. His name is associated with Meissners plexus, being described as the plexus submucosus of the alimentary tract. He also conducted research of physiological–chemical problems, in studies on the nature. Beitraege zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Haut, Leipzig 1853 Beiträge zur Physiologie des Sehorgans, Leipzig 1854 Über die Nerven der Darmwand, Z Ration Med N F8, 364–366 Meissner G
Georg Meissner
–
Georg Meissner (1829–1905)
12.
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
–
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle was a German physician, pathologist, and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the loop of Henle in the kidney and his essay, On Miasma and Contagia, was an early argument for the germ theory of disease. He was an important figure in the development of modern medicine, Henle was born in Fürth, Bavaria, to Simon and Rachel Diesbach Henle. After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctors degree in 1832, in 1840, he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zürich and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg, where he taught anatomy, physiology, and pathology. In 1852, he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of his great Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy, the last volume of which was not published until 1873. He discovered the loop of Henle and Henles tubules, two structures in the kidney. Other anatomical and pathological findings associated with his name are, Crypts of Henle, hassall–Henle bodies, Transparent growths in the periphery of the Descemet membrane of the eye. Henles fissure, Fibrous tissue between the muscle fibers. Henles ampulla, Ampulla of the uterine tube, Henles layer, Outer layer of cells of root sheath of a hair follicle. Henles ligament, Tendon of the transversus abdominis muscle, Henles membrane, Bruch’s layer forming inner boundary of the choroid of the eye. Henles sheath, Connective tissue which supports outer layer of nerve fibres in a funiculus, Henles spine, The supra-meateal spine that serves as a landmark in the mastoid area. He did not find a species of bacteria himself – this was achieved by his student Robert Koch. Those two put up the rules of cleanly defining disease-causing microbes, the Henle Koch postulates. In 1870, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Göttingen,13 May 1885, neurotree, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle Details Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle. Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
–
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
13.
Karl Ewald Hasse
–
Karl Ewald Hasse was a German physician and professor of special pathology born in Dresden. He was the son of historian Friedrich Christian August Hasse and he studied medicine at the medical-surgical academy in Dresden and at University of Leipzig, earning his doctorate in 1833. Later, he continued his education in Paris and Vienna, and subsequently returned to Leipzig and he was instrumental in the decision by the Swiss psychiatrist and pioneer of psychosurgery, Gottlieb Burckhardt, to enter the medical field of nervous diseases. Die Menschenblattern und die Kuhpockenimpfung, eine geschichtliche Skizze,1852, krankheiten des Nervensystems,1855, second edition 1868. Karl Ewald Hasse, der Nestor der deutschen Kliniker, by Hermann Obst,1900, from 1874, Hasse directed Gustav Born, the father of Max Born. Hasses anti-semitism led him to treat Born with disdain -, nancy Thorndike Greenspan The end of the certain world, the life and science of Max Born. Pagel, Biographical Dictionary Works by or about Karl Ewald Hasse at Internet Archive Neurotree, Karl Ewald Hasse Details
Karl Ewald Hasse
–
Karl Ewald Hasse
14.
Rudolf Virchow
–
Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician, known for his advancement of public health. He is known as the father of modern pathology because his work helped to discredit humourism and he is also known as the founder of social medicine and veterinary pathology, and to his colleagues, the Pope of medicine. Born and raised in Schievelbein as a child of a working-class family. Dissuaded by his voice, he abandoned his initial interest in theology. With special military scholarship, he earned his degree from Friedrich-Wilhelms Institute under the tutelage of Johannes Peter Müller. He worked at the Charité hospital under Robert Froriep, whom he succeeded as the prosector. Although he failed to contain the 1847–1848 typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia, his report laid the foundation for health in Germany. From it, he coined a well known aphorism, Medicine is a social science and he participated in the Revolution of 1848, which led to his expulsion from Charité the next year. He published a newspaper Die medicinische Reform during this period to disseminate his social and political ideas and he took the first Chair of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Würzburg in 1849. After five years, Charité invited him back to direct its newly built Institute for Pathology, the campus of Charité is now named Campus Virchow Klinikum. He cofounded the political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, by which he was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives and his opposition to Otto von Bismarcks financial policy resulted in an anecdotal Sausage Duel between the two. But he ardently supported Bismarck in his campaigns, the social revolution he himself named as Kulturkampf. A prolific writer, his writings alone exceeded 2,000 in number. Among his books, Cellular Pathology published in 1858 is regarded as the root of modern pathology and this work also popularised the third dictum in cell theory, Omnis cellula e cellula, although his idea originated in 1855. He founded journals such as Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin, the latter is published by German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies of which he also founded. Virchow was the first to describe and give names of diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism. He coined scientific terms, chromatin, agenesis, parenchyma, osteoid, amyloid degeneration and his description of the transmission cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis established the importance of meat inspection, which was started in Berlin. He developed the first systematic method of autopsy involving surgery of all body parts, a number of medical terms are named after him, including Virchows node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchows triad
Rudolf Virchow
–
Rudolf Carl Virchow
Rudolf Virchow
–
Illustration of Virchow's
cell theory
Rudolf Virchow
–
Rudolf and Rose Virchow in 1851
15.
Friedrich Loeffler
–
Friedrich August Johannes Loeffler was a German bacteriologist at the University of Greifswald. He obtained his M. D. degree from the University of Berlin in 1874 and he worked with Robert Koch from 1879 to 1884 as an assistant in the Imperial Health Office in Berlin. In 1884, he became staff physician at the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute in Berlin and his development of original methods of staining rendered an important and lasting service to bacteriology. Early in his career, he began a study of parasitic diseases, among his discoveries was the organism causing diphtheria and the cause of foot-and-mouth disease. His description of the bacillus, published in 1884, was the originating cause of an antitoxin treatment. He also created Löfflers serum, a blood serum used for the detection of the bacteria. In 1887, he founded the Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie und Parasitik, the Friedrich Loeffler Institute on the Isle of Riems near Greifswald is named in his honor. Bochalli R. Friedrich Loeffler, his life & works, on the occasion of 75th return of the anniversary of the discovery of the diphtheria bacillus, Friedrich LOEFFLER and the Thessalian field mouse plague of 1892. Kaiser G. Friedrich Loeffler zum 80, in memory of Professor Friedrich Loeffler. Zeitschrift für Orthopädie und ihre Grenzgebiete, opening address of the scientific festive colloquium commemorating the 125th birthday of Friedrich Loeffler on June 21st and 22d,1977 in Greifswald. Hüller H, Berndt HG, Dittrich M, the work of Friedrich Loeffler in Greifswald. Bethge R, Knöfler EW.30 years of the East Germany Orthopedic Society—in memory of its co-founder, beer J. Friedrich Loeffler as a founder of virology. Mochmann H, Köhler W. Friedrich Loeffler --his contributions to bacteriology and virology, in memory of the 75th anniversary of his death. Friedrich Loefflers way to the Isle of Riems near Greifswald, www. fli. bund. de – German Federal Research Institute for Animal Health
Friedrich Loeffler
–
Friedrich August Johannes Loeffler
16.
German people
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
German people
German people
–
Germanic Kingdoms in Europe c. 500 AD
German people
–
Extent of
Holy Roman Empire in 972 (red line) and 1035 (red dots) with
Kingdom of Germany marked in blue
German people
–
18 January 1871: The proclamation of the
German Empire in the
Hall of Mirrors of the
Palace of Versailles.
Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later
Friedrich III, stands on his father's right.
17.
Physician
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Physician
–
"The Doctor" by
Luke Fildes (detail).
Physician
–
The
Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important
parasites.
Physician
–
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
18.
Microbiologist
–
The term microbiologist comes from the Greek mīkros meaning small βίος, and bios, meaning life -λογία, combined with -logia meaning one who studies. A microbiologist is a biological scientist who studies microscopic life forms, microbiologists investigate the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. They contribute much to the field by trying to understand and learn about the interaction between these microbes and the environment and also among themselves and other organisms, most microbiologists are qualified to work in offices and/or research facilities, such as a laboratory as well as in the academia. There, they conduct experiments that help them analyze microbes and their importance, a microbiologists work is often repeated or improved in order to establish accurate research. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, industrial or medical aspects of microbiology including, virology, immunology, bioinformatics, many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance the understanding of cell reproduction and human disease. Some microbiologists have contributed to knowledge of pathogens and disease-causing microbes, while others, study their interaction with the environment and their use as potential environmental pollution cleaners. Microbiology is a subset of science that often overlaps with other subjects surrounding biology. Nonetheless, the spectrum of fields, a microbiologists can work on is immense, there were 16,900 microbiologists employed in the United States in 2008, this number was projected to increase by over 12 percent in the next decade
Microbiologist
–
Microbiologists examining cultures on a
Petri dish.
19.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
Nobel was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own laboratories.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
Nikolaas Tinbergen (left),
Konrad Lorenz (right) was awarded (with
Karl von Frisch) for their discoveries concerning animal behavior.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
In 1947,
Gerty Cori was the first woman to be awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
20.
Klausthal
–
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the part of the Harz mountains. Clausthal-Zellerfeld was the seat of the former Samtgemeinde Oberharz, altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz Buntenbock Clausthal-Zellerfeld Wildemann Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers, Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge. Mining in the began in the 16th century. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914, the large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. Mining activity halted in 1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted, today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976, the former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today. The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers, today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering. Tower dating from 1637. de Clausthal-Zellerfeld at DMOZ Clausthal
Klausthal
–
Church in 2005
Klausthal
–
Former railway station
Klausthal
–
Dietzel House dating from 1674, which now also houses the tourist information office
Klausthal
–
House where Robert Koch was born
21.
Jacob Henle
–
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle was a German physician, pathologist, and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the loop of Henle in the kidney and his essay, On Miasma and Contagia, was an early argument for the germ theory of disease. He was an important figure in the development of modern medicine, Henle was born in Fürth, Bavaria, to Simon and Rachel Diesbach Henle. After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctors degree in 1832, in 1840, he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zürich and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg, where he taught anatomy, physiology, and pathology. In 1852, he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of his great Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy, the last volume of which was not published until 1873. He discovered the loop of Henle and Henles tubules, two structures in the kidney. Other anatomical and pathological findings associated with his name are, Crypts of Henle, hassall–Henle bodies, Transparent growths in the periphery of the Descemet membrane of the eye. Henles fissure, Fibrous tissue between the muscle fibers. Henles ampulla, Ampulla of the uterine tube, Henles layer, Outer layer of cells of root sheath of a hair follicle. Henles ligament, Tendon of the transversus abdominis muscle, Henles membrane, Bruch’s layer forming inner boundary of the choroid of the eye. Henles sheath, Connective tissue which supports outer layer of nerve fibres in a funiculus, Henles spine, The supra-meateal spine that serves as a landmark in the mastoid area. He did not find a species of bacteria himself – this was achieved by his student Robert Koch. Those two put up the rules of cleanly defining disease-causing microbes, the Henle Koch postulates. In 1870, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Göttingen,13 May 1885, neurotree, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle Details Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle. Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
Jacob Henle
–
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
22.
Succinic acid
–
Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula 22. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber, succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle, an ancient energy-yielding process shared by all organisms. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism to the regulation of cellular function, dysregulation of succinate synthesis and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury. Succinic acid is a white, odorless solid with an acidic taste. In an aqueous solution, succinic acid readily ionizes to form its conjugate base, succinate. As a diprotic acid, succinic acid undergoes two successive reactions,22 → 2− + H+ 2− → 222− + H+ The pKa of these processes are 4.3 and 5.6. Both anions are colorless and can be isolated as the salts, e. g. Na2, in living organisms, primarily succinate, not succinic acid, is found. As a radical group it is called a succinyl group, like most simple mono- and dicarboxylic acids, it is not harmful but can be an irritant to skin and eyes. Succinic acid can be oxidized to fumaric acid or be converted to diesters and this diethyl ester is a substrate in the Stobbe condensation. Dehydration of succinic acid gives succinic anhydride, succinate can be used to derive 1, 4-butanediol, maleic anhydride, succinimide, 2-pyrrolidinone and tetrahydrofuran. Historically, succinic acid was obtained from amber by distillation and has thus been known as spirit of amber, today, succinic acid is generated for human use synthetically or converted from biomass via fermentation. Common industrial routes of synthesis include partial hydrogenation of maleic acid, oxidation of 1, 4-butanediol, succinate is also produced petrochemically from butane via maleic anhydride. Additionally, genetic engineering of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has allowed for the high-yielding. Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tons a year, in 2004, succinate was placed on the US Department of Energys list of top 12 platform chemicals from biomass. Succinic acid is a precursor to polyesters and a component of some alkyd resins. A key derivative of succinic acid,1, 4-butanediol, has industrial applications. The global market size for BDO was estimated at USD4.72 billion in 2013, BDO is a precursor to the common organic solvent THF and a precursor to polybutylene terephthalate, an engineering-grade thermoplastic. The automotive and electronics industries heavily rely on PBT to produce connectors, insulators, wheel covers, gearshift knobs, Succinic acid also serves as the bases of certain biodegradable polymers, which are of interest in tissue engineering applications
Succinic acid
Succinic acid
–
Succinic acid
23.
Franco-Prussian War
–
The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France. The German forces were superior in numbers, had training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railroads. The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, the causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and this new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, in Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia, many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern princes candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems, other historians, notably French historian Pierre Milza, dispute this. According to Milza, the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity, the Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull, gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt he had just received a slap. Napoleons new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, a crowd of 15–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government, the southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers, some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made, universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, however, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented
Franco-Prussian War
–
Clockwise from top left: Prussian infantry at the
Battle of Spicheren;
Jeanniot 's 1886 La ligne de feu (
Battle of Mars-La-Tour);
Werner 's depiction of the
capitulation of Sedan;
Neuville 's 1873 Les dernières cartouches (
Battle of Bazeilles).
Franco-Prussian War
–
A French
mitrailleuse in the
Bundeswehr Military History Museum
Franco-Prussian War
–
French reservists responding to the call.
Franco-Prussian War
–
Map of German and French armies near their common border on 31 July 1870
24.
Prussia
–
Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
Prussia
–
... during the
Renaissance period
Prussia
–
Flag (1892–1918)
Prussia
–
... according to the design of 1702
Prussia
–
Prussian King's Crown (
Hohenzollern Castle Collection)
25.
Province of Posen
–
The Province of Posen was a province of Prussia from 1848 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 until 1918. The area, roughly corresponding to the region of Greater Poland annexed during the 18th century Polish partitions, was about 29,000 km2. For more than a century, it was part of the Prussian Partition, incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Posen after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the territory was administered as a Prussian province upon the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848. In 1919 according to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to return the bulk of the province to the newly established Second Polish Republic, the land is mostly flat, drained by two major watershed systems, the Noteć in the north and the Warta in the center. Ice Age glaciers left moraine deposits and the land is speckled with hundreds of lakes, streams flowing in. Agriculture was the industry, as one would expect for the 19th century. The three-field system was used to grow a variety of crops, primarily rye, sugar beet, potatoes, other grains, significant parcels of wooded land provided building materials and firewood. Small numbers of livestock existed, including geese, but an amount of sheep were herded. When this area came under Prussian control, the system was still in force. It was officially ended in Prussia in 1810, but lingered in some practices until the late 19th century, the situation was thus that Polish serfs lived and worked side by side with free German settlers. Though the settlers were given initial advantages, in time their lots were not much different, serfs worked for the noble lord, who took care of them. Settlers worked for themselves and took care of themselves, but paid taxes to the lord, typically, an estate would have its manor and farm buildings, and a village nearby for the Polish laborers. Near that village, there might be a German settlement, and in the woods, there would be a foresters dwelling. The estate owners, usually of the nobility, owned the local grist mill, in many places, windmills dotted the landscape, reminding one of the earliest settlers, the Dutch, who began the process of turning unproductive river marshes into fields. This process was finished by the German settlers employed to reclaim unproductive lands for the host estate owners, the territory of later province had become Prussian in 1772 and 1793 during the First and Second Partition of Poland. After Prussias defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, the territory was attached to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 upon the Franco-Prussian Treaty of Tilsit. In 1815 during the Congress of Vienna, Prussia gained the third of the Warsaw duchy. Instead Prussian Germanisation measures increased under Oberpräsident Eduard Heinrich von Flottwell, a first Greater Poland Uprising in 1846 failed, as the leading insurgents around Karol Libelt and Ludwik Mierosławski were reported to the Prussian police and arrested for high treason
Province of Posen
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1919 German army permit to enter the Polish territory of Posen, just ceded to Poland.
Province of Posen
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Flag
26.
Wolsztyn
–
Wolsztyn is a town in western Poland, on the western edge of Greater Poland Voivodeship. It is the seat of Wolsztyn County, and of the administrative district of Gmina Wolsztyn. The town is situated within the historic Greater Poland region, located on the small Dojca river, a headstream of the Obra, about 72 kilometres southwest of Poznań. The municipal area includes a lake, next to which is a former palace built in Classical style in the early 20th century, now used as a hotel and restaurant. Nearby tourist destinations include the Pszczew Landscape Park and the Przemęt Landscape Park, the current settlement was established about 1285 on a causeway across the swampy Dojca River, probably by Cistercian monks descending from Obra Abbey. It developed as a centre of trade and cloth manufacturing on the road from Poznań to Lusatia. Wolsztyns town privileges were confirmed in 1519, part of the Greater Polish Poznan Voivodeship for centuries, it was annexed by Prussia in the course of the Second Partition of Poland in 1793. With the Prussian Province of Posen it became part of the German Empire in 1871, after World War I Wolsztyn returned to the newly established Second Polish Republic upon the Greater Poland Uprising in 1918–19. With the 1939 Invasion of Poland, the town was incorporated into the Nazi German Reichsgau Wartheland until the end of World War II. The town has a Baroque parish church dating from the 18th century, the railway line from Wolsztyn to Zbąszyń opened in 1886. As of 2011 these services run to Leszno and Zbąszynek, the site also includes a railway museum featuring restored locomotives. Since 1993 the Polish State Railways organises an annual parade of locomotives, the 2007 event, which also celebrated the roundhouses centenary, attracted about 20,000 visitors. pl, news and information
Wolsztyn
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Parish church
Wolsztyn
Wolsztyn
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Town hall
Wolsztyn
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Robert Koch Museum
27.
Pure culture
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A microbiological culture, or microbial culture, is a method of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture media under controlled laboratory conditions. Microbial cultures are used to determine the type of organism, its abundance in the sample being tested and it is one of the primary diagnostic methods of microbiology and used as a tool to determine the cause of infectious disease by letting the agent multiply in a predetermined medium. Furthermore, the culture is more generally used informally to refer to selectively growing a specific kind of microorganism in the lab. Microbial cultures are foundational and basic methods used extensively as a research tool in molecular biology. It is often essential to isolate a pure culture of microorganisms, a pure culture is a population of cells or multicellular organisms growing in the absence of other species or types. A pure culture may originate from a cell or single organism. For the purpose of gelling the microbial culture, the medium of agarose gel is used, agar is a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. A cheap substitute for agar is guar gum, which can be used for the isolation, there are several types of bacterial culture methods that are selected based on the agent being cultured and the downstream use. One method of culture is liquid culture, in which the desired bacteria are suspended in a liquid nutrient medium, such as Luria Broth. This allows a scientist to grow up large amounts of bacteria for a variety of downstream applications, liquid cultures are ideal for preparation of an antimicrobial assay in which the experimenter inoculates liquid broth with bacteria and lets it grow overnight. Then they would take aliquots of the sample to test for the activity of a specific drug or protein. As an alternative, the microbiologist may decide to use static liquid cultures and these cultures are not shaken and they provide the microbes with an oxygen gradient. Microbiological cultures can be grown in petri dishes of differing sizes that have a layer of agar-based growth medium. Once the growth medium in the dish is inoculated with the desired bacteria. After the desired level of growth is achieved, agar plates can be stored upside down in a refrigerator for a period of time to keep bacteria for future experiments. There are a variety of additives that can be added to agar before it is poured into a plate, some types of bacteria can only grow in the presence of certain additives. This can also be used when creating engineered strains of a bacteria that contain an antibiotic-resistance gene, when the selected antibiotic is added to the agar, only bacterial cells containing the gene insert conferring resistance will be able to grow. This allows the researcher to select only the colonies that were successfully transformed, stab cultures are similar to agar plates, but are formed by solid agar in a test tube
Pure culture
–
Solid and liquid microbial cultures
Pure culture
–
A culture of
Bacillus anthracis
Pure culture
–
Liquid cultures of
cyanobacterium Synechococcus PCC 7002
28.
Berlin University
–
The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
Berlin University
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Monument to Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the main building. Artist: Paul Otto
Berlin University
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Seal of the Universitas Humboldtiana Berolinensis (
Latin)
Berlin University
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Statue of
Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University, from 1883 by artist Reinhold Begas. Note the Spanish inscription describing him as "the second discoverer of Cuba".
Berlin University
–
The Berlin University in 1850.
29.
Fanny Hesse
–
Fanny Hesse is best known for her work in microbiology alongside her husband, Walther Hesse. Together they were instrumental in developing Agar as a medium for culturing microorganisms, Hesse was born in 1850 in New York City to Gottfried Elishemius, a wealthy import merchant, and his wife, Ceclie Elise. She met her husband and research partner Walther Hesse in 1872 while in Germany and they were engaged in 1873, and married in 1874 in Geneva. This led to Koch using agar to cultivate the bacteria that cause tuberculosis, prior to her discovery, Hesse, working unpaid, would make drawings for her husbands publications. While Koch, in an 1882 paper on tuberculosis bacilli, mentioned he used agar instead of gelatin, he did not credit Fanny or Walther Hesse, Fanny Hesses suggestion never resulted in financial benefit for the Hesse family. Walther Hesse AGAR and the Quest to Isolate Pure Cultures The Forgotten Woman Who Made Microbiology Possible
Fanny Hesse
–
Fanny Hesse
30.
Agar
–
Agar or agar-agar is a jelly-like substance, equivalent to vegan gelatin, obtained from algae. It was discovered in the late 1650s or early 1660s, by Mino Tarōzaemon in Japan, where it is called kanten. Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose, which forms the structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae. These algae are known as agarophytes and belong to the Rhodophyta phylum, Agar is actually the resulting mixture of two components, the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin. Throughout history into modern times, agar has been used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia. The gelling agent in agar is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the walls of some species of red algae, primarily from the genera Gelidium. For commercial purposes, it is derived primarily from Gelidium amansii, in chemical terms, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of the sugar galactose. Agar was discovered in Japan in 1658 by Mino Tarōzaemon, an innkeeper who was said to have discarded surplus seaweed soup, over the following centuries, agar became a common gelling agent in several Southeast Asian cuisines. Agar was first subjected to analysis in 1859 by the French chemist Anselme Payen. Beginning in the late 19th century, agar began to be used heavily as a medium for growing various microbes. Agar was first described for use in microbiology in 1882 by the German microbiologist Walther Hesse, Agar quickly supplanted gelatin as the base of microbiological media, due to its higher melting temperature, allowing microbes to be grown at higher temperatures without the media liquefying. With its newfound use in microbiology, agar production quickly increased and this production centered on Japan which produced most of the worlds agar until World War II. However, with the outbreak of World War II many nations were forced to establish domestic agar industries in order to continue microbiological research, around the time of World War II, approximately 2,500 tons of agar were produced annually. By the mid-1970s, production worldwide had increased dramatically to approximately 10,000 tons each year, since then, production of agar has fluctuated due to unstable and sometimes over-utilized seaweed populations. The word agar comes from agar-agar, the Malay name for red algae from which the jelly is produced and it is also known as Kanten, Japanese isinglass, Ceylon moss or Jaffna moss. Gracilaria lichenoides is specifically referred to as agal-agal or Ceylon agar, Agar consists of a mixture of two polysaccharides, agarose and agaropectin, with agarose making up about 70% of the mixture. Agarose is a polymer, made up of repeating units of agarobiose. Agar exhibits hysteresis, melting at 85 °C and solidifying from 32–40 °C and this property lends a suitable balance between easy melting and good gel stability at relatively high temperatures
Agar
–
Culinary usage:
Mizu yōkan - a popular Japanese
red bean jelly made from agar
Agar
–
Scientific usage: A
blood agar plate used to culture bacteria and diagnose infection.
Agar
–
100mm diameter
Petri dishes containing agar gel for bacterial culture
Agar
–
Physcomitrella patens plants growing
axenically in vitro on
agar plates (
Petri dish, 9 cm diameter).
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