1.
John D. Rockefeller
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John Davison Rockefeller Sr. was an American oil industry business magnate and philanthropist. He is widely considered the wealthiest American of all time, born into a large family in upstate New York, he was shaped by his con man father and religious mother. His family moved several times before settling in Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller became an assistant bookkeeper at the age of 16, and went into a partnership with Maurice B. Clark. After buying them out, he and his brother William founded Rockefeller & Andrews with Samuel Andrews, instead of drilling for oil, he concentrated on refining. In 1867, Henry Flagler entered the partnership, the Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler company grew by incorporating local refineries. As kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, Rockefellers wealth soared and he became the richest person in the country, Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the industry, which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States, Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry, and along with other key contemporary industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, defined the structure of modern philanthropy. His peak net worth was estimated at $336 billion in 1913, Rockefeller spent the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate in Westchester County, New York. His foundations pioneered the development of research and were instrumental in the eradication of hookworm. Rockefeller was also the founder of both the University of Chicago and Rockefeller University and funded the establishment of Central Philippine University in the Philippines and he was a devout Northern Baptist, and supported many church-based institutions. Rockefeller adhered to total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco throughout his life and he was a faithful congregant of the Erie Street Baptist Mission Church, where he taught Sunday school, and served as a trustee, clerk, and occasional janitor. Religion was a force throughout his life, and Rockefeller believed it to be the source of his success. Rockefeller was the second of six children and eldest son born in Richford, New York, to con artist William Avery Bill Rockefeller and his siblings were Lucy, William Jr. Mary, and twins Franklin and Frances. His father was of English and German descent while his mother was of Scots-Irish descent, Bill was first a lumberman and then a traveling salesman who identified himself as a botanic physician and sold elixirs. The locals referred to the mysterious but fun-loving man as Big Bill and he was a sworn foe of conventional morality who had opted for a vagabond existence and who returned to his family infrequently. Throughout his life, Bill was notorious for shady schemes, in between the births of Lucy and John, Bill and his mistress/housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda who died young
2.
John D. Rockefeller Jr.
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John Davison Rockefeller Jr. was an American financier and philanthropist who was a prominent member of the Rockefeller family. He was the only son among the five children of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller, in biographies, he is commonly referred to as Junior to distinguish him from his father, Senior. Rockefeller was the fifth and last child of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and his four older sisters were Elizabeth, Alice, Alta, and Edith. His father John Sr. and uncle William Avery Rockefeller Jr. co-founded Standard Oil together, nicknamed Johnny Rock by his roommates, he joined both the Glee and the Mandolin Clubs, taught a Bible class and was elected junior class president. Scrupulously careful with money, he stood out as different from other rich mens sons, in 1897 he graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, after taking nearly a dozen courses in the social sciences, including a study of Karl Marxs Das Kapital. He joined the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and he later also became a director at J. P. Morgans U. S. Steel company, which had been formed in 1901. In April 1914, after a period of industrial unrest. Junior owned a controlling interest in the company and sat on the board as an absentee director, at least 20 men, women, and children died in the incident, and in January 1915 Junior was called to testify before the Commission on Industrial Relations. Many critics blamed Rockefeller for ordering the massacre, Margaret Sanger wrote an attack piece in her magazine The Woman Rebel declaring, But remember Ludlow. Remember the men and women and children who were sacrificed in order that John D. Rockefeller Jr. might continue his career of charity. He was at the time being advised by William Lyon Mackenzie King, Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it. This was novel advice, and attracted media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict. The family office, of which he was in charge, shifted from 26 Broadway to the 56th floor of the landmark 30 Rockefeller Plaza upon its completion in 1933, the office formally became Rockefeller Family and Associates. In 1921, Junior received about 10% of the shares of the Equitable Trust Company from his father, subsequently, in 1930, Equitable merged with Chase National Bank, making Chase the largest bank in the world at the time. Although his stockholding was reduced to about 4% following this merger, as late as the 1960s, the family still retained about 1% of the banks shares, by which time his son David had become the banks president. In the late 1920s, Rockefeller founded the Dunbar National Bank in Harlem, the financial institution was located within the Paul Laurence Dunbar Apartments at 2824 Eighth Avenue near 150th Street, servicing a primarily African-American clientele. It was unique among New York City financial institutions in that it employed African Americans as tellers, clerks, however, the bank folded after only a few years of operation. This letter became an important event in pushing the nation to repeal Prohibition, Rockefeller was known for his philanthropy, giving over $537 million to myriad causes over his lifetime compared to $240 million to his own family
3.
Frederick Taylor Gates
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Frederick Taylor Gates, son of Granville and Sarah Jane Gates, was born 2 July 1853 in Maine, Broome County, New York. Fredericks neighbor and uncle was Cyrus Gates a cartographer, abolitionist and he graduated from the University of Rochester in 1877 and from the Rochester Theological Seminary in 1880. From 1880 to 1888, he served as pastor of the Central Baptist Church in Minneapolis, on January 21,1889, Gates met the lifetime Baptist, John D. Rockefeller, Sr. In this capacity Gates steered Rockefeller Sr. money predominantly to syndicates arranged by the investment house of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. and, to a lesser extent, the house of J. P. Morgan. Gates served on the boards of companies in which Rockefeller had a majority shareholding. He also served as president of the General Education Board, which was merged into other Rockefeller family institutions. Gates focused exclusively on philanthropy after 1912, in all Gates supervised the distribution of about $500 million. In 1901, Gates designed the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research and he then designed the Rockefeller Foundation, becoming a trustee upon its creation in 1913. Gates served as president of the General Education Board, which became the foundation in the field of education. By 1912, however, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. was taking control of philanthropic policies, although Gates never quite lost his religion, he began shifting the direction from religious charities to decidedly more secular pursuits like medical research and education. Gates designed the China Medical Board in 1914, rather than viewing China through the traditional missionary lens of millions of heathens to be converted, Gates placed his faith in science. He complained the missionaries in China were trapped in the bondage of tradition and they had made few converts and fumbled the opportunity to spread Western science. There were hundreds of medical missionaries but they linked Western medical miracles to the teachings of Christianity, instead of focusing on preventive health, they urged sick and dying patients to convert. In 1924, Gates overreached, asking the Rockefeller Foundation Board to invest $265 million in the China Medical Board, the fantastic sum would make Chinese medical care the finest in the world and would eliminate denominationalism influence from the practice of medicine and charity work in China. The Board refused and Gates became a victim of his own progressive emphasis on the rule of experts, the experts on China and medicine disagreed with him, and he was marginalized, causing his resignation from the CMB. Gates was a progressive and committed to the Efficiency Movement. Baick, John S. Cracks in the Foundation, Frederick T. Gates, the Rockefeller Foundation, Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 20043, 59-89. ISSN 1537-7814 Fulltext, at History Cooperative, the most useful analysis Berliner, a System of Scientific Medicine, Philanthropic Foundations in the Flexner Era. Autobiography General Education Board The General Education Board, An Account of Its Activities, nevins, Allan, Study in Power, John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist
4.
Private foundation
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A private foundation is a legal entity set up by an individual, a family or a group of individuals, for a purpose such as philanthropy or an object legal in the economic operation. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is the largest private foundation in the U. S. with over $38 billion in assets, however, most private foundations are much smaller. Approximately two-thirds of the more than 84,000 foundations which file with the IRS, in 2008, have less than $1 million in assets, and 93% have less than $10 million in assets. In aggregate, private foundations in the U. S. control over $628 billion in assets, unlike a charitable foundation, a private foundation does not generally solicit funds from the public. And a private foundation does not have the requirements and reporting responsibilities of a registered. Not all foundations engage in philanthropy, some private foundations are used for planning purposes. One of the characteristics of the legal entities existing under the status of Foundations is a diversity of structures and purposes. Nevertheless, there are common structural elements that are the first observed under legal scrutiny or classification. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. The following foundations are set up under common law legal systems, a private foundation, in the United States, is a charitable organization described in the Internal Revenue Code by section 509. A private foundation is necessarily a 501 exempt organization and it is defined by a negative definition, by what it is not. A private foundation is not a charity, as described in section 170 through. Neither is it a section 509 organization, nor a supporting organization, Private foundations are subject to 2% excise taxes found in section 4940 through 4945 of the internal revenue code. Once a charity becomes a foundation, it retains that status unless it follows the difficult termination rules of section 507. The following foundations are set up under civil law legal systems, in Canada the Canada Revenue Agency is a branch of the Canadian government which regulates all foundations. Under Canadian law, since 1967, a foundation is controlled by a single donor or family through a board that is made up of a majority of directors at non-arm’s length. It is a registered charity with the Canada Revenue Agency. A public foundation is governed by a board that is made up of a majority of directors at arm’s length, a private foundation is not allowed to engage in any business activity, but it can operate its own charitable program
5.
Internal Revenue Service
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The Internal Revenue Service is the revenue service of the United States federal government. The IRS is responsible for collecting taxes and administering the Internal Revenue Code and its duty to maximize tax revenue entails providing tax assistance to taxpayers, as well as pursuing and resolving instances of erroneous or fraudulent tax filings. The IRS has also overseen various benefits programs, and enforces portions of the Affordable Care Act. The IRS originated with the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, an office created in 1862 to assess the nations first income tax. The temporary measure provided over a fifth of the Unions war expenses and was allowed to expire a decade later, in 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution was ratified authorizing Congress to impose a tax on income, in the 1950s, the agency was renamed the Internal Revenue Service and significantly reorganized. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 modernized the IRS and restructured it along a private sector model, in the 2015 fiscal year, the IRS processed almost 240 million returns and collected approximately $3.3 trillion in revenue, spending 35¢ for every $100 it collected. The Revenue Act of 1862 was passed as an emergency and temporary war-time tax and it copied a relatively new British system of income taxation, instead of trade and property taxation. The first income tax was passed in 1862, The initial rate was 3% on income over $800, in 1862 the rate was 3% on income between $600 and $10,000, and 5% on income over $10,000. In 1864 the rate was 5% on income between $600 and $5,000,7. 5% on income $5, 000–10,000, and 10% on income $10,000 and above. By the end of the war, 10% of Union households had paid some form of tax. After the Civil War, Reconstruction, railroads, and transforming the North and South war machines towards peacetime required public funding, however, in 1872, seven years after the war, lawmakers allowed the temporary Civil War income tax to expire. Income taxes evolved, but in 1894 the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax of 1894 unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers Loan & Trust Co. a decision that contradicted Hylton v. United States, the federal government scrambled to raise money. In 1906, with the election of President Theodore Roosevelt, and later his successor William Howard Taft, by February 1913,36 states had ratified the change to the Constitution. It was further ratified by six states by March. Of the 48 states at the time,42 ratified it, connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah rejected the amendment, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Florida did not take up the issue. A copy of the very first IRS1040 form, dated 1913, in the first year after ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, no taxes were collected—instead, taxpayers simply completed the form and the IRS checked it for accuracy. The IRSs workload jumped by ten-fold, triggering a massive restructuring, professional tax collectors began to replace a system of patronage appointments
6.
Globalization
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Globalization or globalisation is the action or procedure of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. Advances in transportation and in telecommunications infrastructure have been factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic. Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectivity of the worlds economies and cultures grew very quickly. The term globalization is recent, only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s, further, environmental challenges such as global warming, cross-boundary water and air pollution, and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas, economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization. The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the emergence of a network of economic systems. One of the earliest known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled Towards New Education, a related term, corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in 1897 to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both began to be used as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. Economist Theodore Levitt is widely credited with coining the term in an article entitled Globalization of Markets, However, the term globalization was in use well before this and had been used by other scholars as early as 1981. Levitt can be credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream audience in the later half of the 1980s. Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, articles, sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society. Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional, without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements, extensity, intensity, velocity and it pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs and they have also argued that four different forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, a second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a form, is the movement of commodities. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization and he asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow. Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined economic globalization as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and he used political globalization to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state
7.
Fifth Avenue
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Fifth Avenue is a major thoroughfare going through the borough of Manhattan in New York City, United States. It stretches from West 143rd Street in Harlem to Washington Square North at Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village and it is considered among the most expensive and best shopping streets in the world. The lower stretch of Fifth Avenue extended the stylish neighborhood of Washington Square northwards, Fifth Avenue is the central scene in Edith Whartons 1920 Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Age of Innocence. The novel describes New Yorks social elite in the 1870s and provides context to Fifth Avenue. Originally a narrower thoroughfare, much of Fifth Avenue south of Central Park was widened in 1908, the midtown blocks, now famously commercial, were largely a residential district until the start of the 20th century. In 1906 his department store, B. Altman and Company, the result was the creation of a high-end shopping district that attracted fashionable women and the upscale stores that wished to serve them. Lord & Taylors flagship store is located on Fifth Avenue near the Empire State Building. In the 1920s traffic towers controlled important intersections from 14th to 59th Streets, traffic crosses the river on the Madison Avenue Bridge. Fifth Avenue serves as the line for house numbering and west-east streets in Manhattan. It separates, for example, East 59th Street from West 59th Street, the most expensive street in the world moniker changes depending on currency fluctuations and local economic conditions from year to year. For several years starting in the mid-1990s, the district between 49th and 57th Streets was ranked as having the worlds most expensive retail spaces on a cost per square foot basis. In 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Fifth Avenue as being the most expensive street in the world, some of the most coveted real estate on Fifth Avenue are the penthouses perched atop the buildings. The American Planning Association compiled a list of 2012 Great Places in America and this historic street has many world-renowned museums, businesses and stores, parks, luxury apartments, and historical landmarks that are reminiscent of its history and vision for the future. Below is a list of sites on Fifth Avenue with their designation dates,500 Fifth Avenue Building – December 14,2010 Aeolian Building – – December 10,2002 George W. It recognizes structures, buildings, sites, and districts associated with important events, people, Fifth Avenue from 142nd Street to 135th Street carries two-way traffic. Fifth Avenue carries one-way traffic southbound from 135th Street to Washington Square North, the changeover to one-way traffic south of 135th Street took place on January 14,1966, at which time Madison Avenue was changed to one way uptown. From 124th Street to 120th Street, Fifth Avenue is cut off by Marcus Garvey Park, Fifth Avenue is one of the few major streets in Manhattan along which streetcars did not operate. Instead, Fifth Avenue Coach offered a more to the taste of fashionable gentlefolk
8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
9.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
10.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
11.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
12.
Rajiv Shah
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Rajiv Raj Shah, MD is the President of the Rockefeller Foundation. He is a former American government official, physician and health economist who served as the 16th Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development from 2010–2015. Born to Indian immigrant parents who settled in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the late 1960s, Shah grew up in the Detroit area and he graduated with honors, Phi Beta Kappa, from the University of Michigan with a Bachelor of Science in Economics. At Michigan, he was awarded the Otto Graf Scholarship, given to one student university-wide for leadership excellence, while a grad student, he created Project Impact for South Asian Americans, a non-profit organization through which he raised small dollar donations for his new community service organization. Additionally, while studying at the Wharton School of Business, Shah was awarded a $500,000 grant from U. S. Healthcare to development econometric tools to improve hospital efficiency, from these early experiences he learned that ability to raise resources is critical to any organizations success. Shah also spent time at the London School of Economics where he earned a general course certificate in economics, during the 2000 Gore-Lieberman Presidential Campaign, Shah was a health policy advisor and research associate. He was also involved in the historic Florida recount where he was among the first to detail the Florida “butterfly ballot. ”He also served as a member of Governor Ed Rendells transition committee on health. Shah was also responsible for developing the International Finance Facility for Immunization which raised more than $5 billion for the Global Alliance for Vaccines, IFFI has been recognized as an example of the power of innovative financing for global development. Shah was nominated by President Obama to serve as Chief Scientist and Undersecretary of Agriculture for Research, Education and he was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate on May 12,2009. Shah was responsible for management and oversight of the U. S, government’s Agricultural Research Service, Economic Research Service, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, National Agricultural Statistics Service. Shah also led the creation and launch of the National Institute of Food, Shah was nominated to serve as the 16th Administrator of USAID on November 10,2009 and confirmed by the United States Senate unanimously on Christmas Eve, December 24,2009. He was sworn into office by Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton on January 7,2010, on his fifth day as Administrator, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Port-au-Prince, Haiti, that destroyed the capital and killed more than 200,000 citizens. Shah was tasked by President Obama to lead the United States response to the disaster and he and his team are credited for putting into place an innovative real-time data assessment effort and establishing new public-private partnerships that saved lives. In 2014, Shah led the U. S. response to the outbreak of Ebola in West Africa again focusing on a strategy that was driven by evidence, innovation and data. The response is credited with slowing the rate of new infections faster than had been projected which prevented significant transmission across Africa, in addition to overseeing America’s response to international crises and humanitarian assistance, Shah worked to reform how USAID conducted business. He pioneered a new model of development that included more innovation and engagement with the private sector and he earned bipartisan support for his efforts which included increasing his Agency’s budget growth during a time of sequestration. Internally, Shah launched USAID Forward, a set of reforms that touched every part of the Agency, including contractor. Shah led efforts to reform food security in an effort to fight against hunger around the world, Shah used the Camp David G8 Summit in 2012 to attract private investment commitments to the effort
13.
Rockefeller family
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The family is also known for its long association with and control of Chase Manhattan Bank. They are considered to be one of the most powerful families, if not the most powerful family, one of the founding members of the Rockefeller family was businessman William Rockefeller Sr. born in Granger, New York, to a Protestant family. He had six children with his first wife Eliza Davison, the most prominent of which were oil tycoons John Davison Rockefeller and William Rockefeller, Oil baron John D. Rockefeller was a devout Northern Baptist, and he supported many church-based institutions. The family was involved in numerous real estate construction projects in the U. S. during the 20th century. In Manhattan by fourteen major institutions that were based in the area, the result, in 1951, was the six-building apartment complex known as Morningside Gardens. Seniors donations led to the formation of the University of Chicago in 1889, the Central Philippine University in the Philippines and this was one instance of a long family and Rockefeller Foundation tradition of financially supporting Ivy League and other major colleges and universities over the generations—seventy-five in total. John D Jr. established International House at Berkeley, beginning with John Sr. the family has been a major force in land conservation. John Jr. and his son Laurance were particularly prominent in this area, at the event, the societys president, John Flicker, notably stated, Cumulatively, no other family in America has made the contribution to conservation that the Rockefeller family has made. Nelson, John D. III, John D. IV, Peggy Dulany, Rockefeller Foundation, the Trilateral Commission -David, Rockefeller Brothers Fund. The Bilderberg Group - David, John D. IV, the Asia Society - John D. III, John D. IV, Charles, David. The Population Council - John D. III, the Council of the Americas - David. The Group of Thirty - The Rockefeller Foundation, the World Economic Forum - David. The Peterson Institute - David, Monica, the International Executive Service Corps - David. The Institute for Pacific Relations - Junior, the League of Nations - Junior. The United Nations - Junior, John D. III, Nelson, David, Peggy Dulany, the United Nations Association - David. These include, the Commonwealth Fund, Charles E. Culpeper Foundation, Lucille P. Markey Charitable Trust, in total, it holds over 70 million pages of documents and contains the collections of forty-two scientific, cultural, educational and philanthropic organizations. Only the expurgated records of deceased family members are available to scholars and researchers. He reports that it will be years before all the papers will be open to the public
14.
Standard Oil
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
15.
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
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It had a total income of £101.7 million in 2009/10, of which £62.5 million was from research grants and contracts. The school was founded in 1899 by Sir Patrick Manson as the London School of Tropical Medicine, before giving lectures at St Georges Hospital, London, in 1895, Livingstone College afforded Manson his first opportunity to teach courses in tropical medicine. Mansons early career was as a physician in the Far East where he deduced the correct etiology of filariasis, on his return to London, he was appointed Medical Advisor to the Colonial Office. He strongly believed that doctors should be trained in medicine to treat British colonial administrators and others working throughout Britains tropical empire. He also encouraged and mentored Ronald Ross during this period to uncover the correct etiology of malaria, the original school was established as part of the Seamens Hospital Society. This enlarged school, now named the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine was granted its Royal Charter in 1924, the school moved to its present location in Gower Street in 1929. The school is London Universitys major resource for teaching and research in public health. On successful completion of their studies, students gain a University of London degree, a competition to design a new school building to be sited in Gower Street, was held involving five architects, all experienced in laboratory design and construction. This was won in 1925 by Morley Horder and Verner Rees who located the entrance in Keppel Street. This building was opened in 1929 by HRH the Prince of Wales, the purchase of the site and the cost of a new building was made possible through a gift of $2m from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is currently headed by Simon Croft, who is Professor of Parasitology, the Faculty is organised into four large research departments. The range of disciplines represented in the faculty is very broad, the Faculty has overseas links which provide a basis for field studies and international collaborations in developed and developing countries. Funding for research in the Faculty comes from around 45 funding organisations, interests and activities embrace the health needs of people living in countries at all levels of development. The School has the largest numbers of active staff in the areas of epidemiology. The Facultys research programmes, with a spend of over £7m. In addition, staff participate in Centres based in other departments, notably the Malaria Centre, courses are delivered both face-to-face in London and via distance learning in collaboration with the University of London International Programmes. The School also offers access to online courses. The LSHTM won the 2009 Gates Award for Global Health established by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the award recognises organisations that have made an outstanding contribution to improving global health
16.
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
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The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health is part of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. The school is ranked first in health in the U. S. News. Originally named the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Bloomberg has donated a total of $1.1 billion to Johns Hopkins University over a period of several decades. The school is also the founder of Delta Omega, the honorary society for graduate studies in public health. The Bloomberg School is fully accredited by the Council on Education for Public Health, in 1913, the Rockefeller Foundation sponsored a conference on the need for public health education in the United States. Foundation officials were convinced that a new profession of public health was needed and it would be allied to medicine but also distinct, with its own identity and educational institutions. The Report, reflected the different preferences of the plans two architects—William Henry Welch favoured scientific research, whereas Wickliffe Rose wanted an emphasis on public health practice. Welch, the first Dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine also became the founding Dean of the first school of health in the United States. The facility is located on the former Maryland Hospital site founded in 1797, the Maryland Hospital was originally built as a hospital to care for Yellow Fever for the indigent away from the city. In 1840, the hospital expanded to care for the mentally ill. In 1873, the buildings were torn down as the facility relocated to a new site as the Spring Grove Hospital Center, the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health represents the archetype for formalized public health education in the United States. By 1922, other schools of health at Harvard, Columbia. The Bloomberg School is the largest school of health in the world, with 530 full-time and 620 part-time faculty. It is home to over fifty Research Centers and Institutes with research ongoing in the U. S. combined and certificate training programs in various areas of public health. The Bloomberg School of Public Health is located in the East Baltimore campus of the Johns Hopkins University, the main building on which the school is located is on North Wolfe Street, it has nine floors and features an observation area and a fitness center on the top floor. The Bloomberg School also occupies Hampton House on North Broadway, the school is also serviced by the Welch Medical Library, a central resource shared by all the schools of the Medical Campus. The campus includes the Lowell Reed Residence Hall and the Denton Cooley Recreational Center, Public transportation to and from the campus is served by the Baltimore Metro Subway, local buses, and the JHMI shuttle. In 1931, it was changed to Dean and in 1946 back to Director, in 1958, the title again became Dean
17.
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
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The Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health is the public health graduate school of Harvard University, located in the Longwood Medical Area of Boston, Massachusetts adjacent Harvard Medical School. The Chan School is considered a preeminent school of health in the United States. She will become the first African American individual to head a Harvard faculty, as of 2015, the school is ranked second in the nation in the U. S. News & World Report. U. S. News consistently ranks Harvard #1 in Health Policy, the School traces its origins to the Harvard-MIT School for Health Officers, founded in 1913, Harvard calls it the nations first graduate training program in public health. In 1922, the School for Health Officers became the Harvard School of Public Health, and in 1946 it was split off from the medical school and became a separate faculty of Harvard University. It was renamed the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health in 2014 after receiving a $350 million donation, the largest gift in Harvards history at the time, from the Morningside Foundation. The Morningside Foundation is headed by Harvard School of Public Health alumnus Dr. Gerald Chan, SM ’75, SD ’79, the program is a cohort-based program emphasizing small-group learning and collaboration. The program is designed for three years – two years at Harvard, plus one year in a doctoral project – although some students may take up to four years to complete the program. Study, examining the factors for and prognosis of lung cancer in terms of genetics. The College Alcohol Study, which examines the causes of college binge drinking and approaches to prevention, the Program on the Global Demography of Aging, which studies policy issues related to economics of aging with a focus on the developing world. The Superfund Basic Research Program, studying toxic waste management. S, department of Health and Human Services. Steven K. Marr, MD, MPH, epidemiologist and author
18.
Dalla Lana School of Public Health
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Dalla Lana School of Public Health is the school of public health at the University of Toronto. Founded in 1927, the school successfully merged public health education, research and service and it was also home for 50 years to Connaught Laboratories, which became a global leader in the manufacture of vaccines, insulin, and many other pharmaceutical products. Having grown to be the largest cluster of public health scholars in Canada, Hygiene, particularly sanitation, was a component of the teaching programs at the early private medical schools in Toronto starting as early as 1871. One of the earliest recorded hygiene instructors was William Coverton, who taught sanitary sciences in the Trinity University medical school from 1878–1891. Upon Oldrights retirement, John Amyot, a bacteriologist affiliated with the provincial health laboratory, was appointed chair of the Department of Hygiene, like Oldright, Amyot was interested in sewage treatment and water treatment as means of controlling diseases such as typhoid. From his experience as a physician, Amyot was also a proponent of preventive medicine. The program was first offered in 1912, and its first graduate, Robert Defries, John G. FitzGerald completed his medical training at the University of Toronto in 1903. FitzGeralds experience in Europe made him aware of the success of antitoxins, capitalizing on the success of his rabies venture, FitzGerald set out to address the much larger problem of diphtheria. As diphtheria antibodies needed to be raised in horses, stabling provisions were also required, Amyots assistant, William Fenton, proposed their accommodation in a small stable behind his home at 145 Barton Avenue near the university. In 1915, Defries was appointed to lead the program which he did until called away by military obligations in 1916. Like diphtheria, tetanus vaccine manufacture also used horses to raise polyclonal antibodies, in 1915, the chair of the Ontario chapter of the Red Cross, Colonel Albert Gooderham, was tapped by the university to help address the issue of space. The chair of the Rockefeller Foundation, Simon Flexner, attended the ceremony in 1917. It has been speculated that Flexners impression of the importance of FitzGerald, Gooderham later provided additional monies to construct laboratory facilities at the farm. Ultimately in 1923, the Antitoxin Laboratory in the Department of Hygiene also changed its name to Connaught Laboratories, given the high demand and the production needs, additional space was obtained in the newly vacated campus YMCA building. In 1923, the Antitoxin Laboratory facilities in the Department of Hygiene together with the facilities were consolidated under the name. FitzGerald succeeded Amyot as chair of the department after the retirement of the latter in 1919, at the same time, FitzGerald expanded the DPH curriculum beyond microbiology and sanitation to include preventive medicine, epidemiology, industrial hygiene and nutrition. Just as the laboratories were thriving, so the needs of the Department of Hygiene required larger facilities for teaching. The application was approved and construction begun in 1923 on a new building that would bring together the public health activities on campus
19.
The New School
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The New School is a private research university in Lower Manhattan, New York City, located mostly in Greenwich Village. From its founding in 1919 by progressive New York educators, and for most of its history, between 1997 and 2005 it was known as New School University. The university and each of its colleges were renamed in 2005, in 1934, the University in Exile was chartered by New York State and its name was changed to the Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science. In 2005, it adopted what had initially been the name of the whole institution, Parsons School of Design is the New Schools art school. Founders included economist and literary scholar Alvin Johnson, historian Charles A. Beard, economists Thorstein Veblen and James Harvey Robinson, several founders were former professors at Columbia University. In October 1917, after Columbia University imposed a loyalty oath to the United States upon the faculty and student body. Charles A. Beard, Professor of Political Science, resigned his professorship at Columbia in protest and his colleague James Harvey Robinson resigned in 1919 to join the faculty at the New School. The New School plan was to offer the rigorousness of postgraduate education without degree matriculation or degree prerequisites and it was theoretically open to anyone, as the adult division today called Schools of Public Engagement remains. The first classes at the New School took the form of lectures followed by discussions, for groups, or as smaller conferences. Davenport, Elsie Clews Parsons, and Roscoe Pound, John Cage later pioneered the subject of Experimental Composition at the school. The New School uses To the Living Spirit as its motto, in 1937, Thomas Mann remarked that a plaque bearing the inscription be the Living Spirit had been torn down by the Nazis from a building at the University of Heidelberg. He suggested that the University in Exile adopt that inscription as its motto, to indicate that the spirit, mortally threatened in Europe. The University in Exile was initially founded by the director of the New School, Alvin Johnson, through the financial contributions of Hiram Halle. The University in Exile and its subsequent incarnations have been the heart of the New School. In 1934, the University in Exile was chartered by New York State, in 2005 the Graduate Faculty was again renamed, this time taking the original name of the university, The New School for Social Research. The New School played a role with the founding of the École Libre des Hautes Études after the Nazi invasion of France. The École Libre gradually evolved into one of the institutions of research in Paris. Between 1940 and 1949, the New School was host to the Dramatic Workshop, important acting teachers during this period were Stella Adler and Elia Kazan
20.
Eugenics
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Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population. The exact definition of eugenics has been a matter of debate since the term was coined, frederick Osborns 1937 journal article Development of a Eugenic Philosophy framed it as a social philosophy—that is, a philosophy with implications for social order. That definition is not universally accepted, osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits, or reduced rates of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits. Alternatively, gene selection rather than people selection has recently been made possible through advances in genome editing, in this period, eugenic ideas were espoused across the political spectrum. Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies with the intent to improve the quality of stock of their countries. S. Furthermore, negative eugenics in particular is considered by many to be a violation of human rights. Another criticism is that eugenic policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, the concept of positive eugenics to produce better human beings has existed at least since Plato suggested selective mating to produce a guardian class. The idea of eugenics to decrease the birth of inferior human beings has existed at least since William Goodell advocated the castration. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwins theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwins death, Galton gave his research a name, with the introduction of genetics, eugenics relied on an ideology of genetic determinism in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism, throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial. Eugenics became a discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources. Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals, in 1909 the Anglican clergymen William Inge and James Peile both wrote for the British Eugenics Education Society. Inge was a speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics Conference. Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenists with meetings in 1912 in London, Eugenic policies were first implemented in the early 1900s in the United States. It also took root in France, Germany, and Great Britain, later, in the 1920s and 30s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other countries including Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan and Sweden. In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations, politically, the movement advocated measures such as sterilization laws. In its moral dimension, eugenics rejected the doctrine that all beings are born equal
21.
Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
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Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer was a German human biologist and geneticist. A member of the Dutch noble Verschuer family, his title Freiherr is often translated as baron, like many other eugenicists in Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom and the Nordic countries, he was successful in redefining himself as a geneticist in the postwar era. From 1951 to 1965 he was Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Münster, at Münster he established one of the largest centers of genetics research in West Germany, and remained one of the worlds most prominent genetics researchers until his death. He became Professor Emeritus in 1965, in 1952 he was elected President of the German Anthropological Association. His son Helmut von Verschuer was an official of the European Commission. Otmar von Verschuer was born into a family originally from Gelderland. From birth he held the title of Freiherr, a title that had granted to several family branches by the Holy Roman Emperor, the Dutch king. His father Hans von Verschuer was a businessman and he was mainly of Dutch, German, and Swedish descent, and was a descendant of the House of Stuart through his 6th great grandmother Brita Stuart, a Swedish noblewoman of Scottish descent. He served in the First World War and had promoted to first lieutenant by 1918. From 1919 he studied medicine at the University of Marburg and he earned a doctorate in medicine at LMU in 1923 and a habilitation at the University of Tübingen in 1927. In 1927 he became head of department for human genetics at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, in 1935 Verschuer became a member of the congregation of the anti-Nazi pastor Otto Fricke, a leading member of the Confessing Church. He also maintained a friendship with his relative Adam von Trott zu Solz. Despite his proximity to the Confessing Church, he joined the Nazi Party in 1940, Verschuer was never tried for war crimes despite many indications that he not only was fully cognisant of Mengeles work at Auschwitz, but even encouraged and collaborated with Mengele. He is presently employed as Hauptsturmführer and camp physician in the camp at Auschwitz. In the summer of 1944, Mengele and his Jewish slave assistant Dr and he was accepted during the war as a member of the American Eugenics Society, a position he kept until his death. In late 1945 or early 1946 he petitioned the mayor of Frankfurt to allow him to reestablish the KWIfA. In 1951, Verschuer was awarded the prestigious professorship of human genetics at the University of Münster, many of his wartime students were similarly appointed to top positions in universities of Erlangen, Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, and Münster. In his denazification hearing, Verschuer was deemed to be a Nazi fellow traveler and he was never prosecuted for his research activities during the war
22.
Josef Mengele
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Josef Mengele was a German Schutzstaffel officer and physician in Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele was a member of the team of doctors responsible for the selection of victims to be killed in the gas chambers. Arrivals deemed able to work were admitted into the camp, Mengele left Auschwitz on 17 January 1945, shortly before the arrival of the liberating Red Army troops. After the war, he fled to South America, where he evaded capture for the rest of his life, Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine from Munich University and began a career as a researcher. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the SS in 1938, initially assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, he transferred to the concentration camp service in early 1943 and was assigned to Auschwitz. There he saw the opportunity to conduct research on human subjects. His subsequent experiments, focusing primarily on twins, had no regard for the health or safety of the victims, assisted by a network of former SS members, Mengele sailed to Argentina in July 1949. In spite of requests by the West German government and clandestine operations by the Israeli intelligence agency, Mossad. He drowned while swimming off the Brazilian coast in 1979 and was buried under a false name and his remains were disinterred and positively identified by forensic examination in 1985. Mengele was born the eldest of three children on 16 March 1911 to Karl and Walburga Mengele in Günzburg, Bavaria, Germany and his younger brothers were Karl Jr and Alois. Mengeles father was founder of the Karl Mengele & Sons company, Mengele did well in school and developed an interest in music, art, and skiing. He completed high school in April 1930 and went on to study medicine at Goethe University Frankfurt, Munich was the headquarters of the Nazi Party. In 1931 Mengele joined the Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten, an organisation that was in 1934 absorbed into the Nazi Sturmabteilung. In 1935, Mengele earned a PhD in anthropology from the University of Munich, as an assistant to von Verschuer, Mengele focused on the genetic factors resulting in a cleft lip and palate or cleft chin. His thesis on the subject earned him a cum laude doctorate in medicine in 1938, both of his degrees were later rescinded by the issuing universities. In a letter of recommendation, von Verschuer praised Mengeles reliability, on 28 July 1939, Mengele married Irene Schönbein, whom he had met while working as a medical resident in Leipzig. Their only son, Rolf, was born in 1944, Mengele joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the Schutzstaffel in 1938. He received basic training in 1938 with the Gebirgsjäger and was called up for service in the Wehrmacht in June 1940, some months after the outbreak of World War II
23.
Auschwitz concentration camp
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Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II. It consisted of Auschwitz I, Auschwitz II–Birkenau, Auschwitz III–Monowitz, Auschwitz I was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners, who began to arrive in May 1940. The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941, from early 1942 until late 1944, transport trains delivered Jews to the camps gas chambers from all over German-occupied Europe, where they were killed with the pesticide Zyklon B. An estimated 1.3 million people were sent to the camp, around 90 percent of those killed were Jewish, approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp. Many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation, forced labor, infectious diseases, individual executions, and medical experiments. In the course of the war, the camp was staffed by 7,000 members of the German Schutzstaffel, some, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss, were executed. The Allied Powers refused to believe reports of the atrocities at the camp. As Soviet troops approached Auschwitz in January 1945, most of its population was sent west on a death march, the prisoners remaining at the camp were liberated on 27 January 1945, a day now commemorated as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the following decades, survivors, such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel, wrote memoirs of their experiences in Auschwitz, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, acts of violence perpetrated against Jews became ubiquitous. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933 excluded most Jews from the legal profession, similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise. Harassment and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily and their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts. German Jews were subjected to violent attacks and boycotts, in September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of Germanic or related blood were defined as citizens, thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani people and this supplementary decree defined Gypsies as enemies of the race-based state, the same category as Jews. By the start of World War II in 1939, around 250,000 of Germanys 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Palestine, the United Kingdom, Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. German dictator Adolf Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed, approximately 65,000 civilians, who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race, were killed by the end of 1939. In addition to leaders of Polish society, the Nazis killed Jews, prostitutes, Romani, sS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, then head of the Gestapo, ordered on 21 September that Polish Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links
24.
Kaiser Wilhelm Society
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The Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science was a German scientific institution established in the German Kaiserreich in 1911. During the Third Reich it was involved in Nazi scientific operations, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society was an umbrella organization for many institutes, testing stations, and research units created under its authority. Funding was ultimately obtained from sources internal and external to Germany, internally, money was raised from individuals, industry, and the government, as well as through the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft. External to Germany, the Rockefeller Foundation granted students worldwide one-year study stipends, for whichever institute they chose, in contrast to the German universities with their formal independence from state administrations, the institutions of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft had no obligation to teach students. The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and its facilities were involved in weapons research. By the end of World War II, the KWG and its institutes had lost their central location in Berlin and were operating in other locations, the KWG was operating out of its Aerodynamics Testing Station in Göttingen. Albert Vögler, the president of the KWG, committed suicide on 14 April 1945, thereupon, Ernst Telschow assumed the duties until Max Planck could be brought from Magdeburg to Göttingen, which was in the British zone of the Allied Occupation Zones in Germany. Planck assumed the duties on 16 May until a president could be elected, Otto Hahn was selected by directors to be president, but there were a number of difficulties to be overcome. Hahn, being related to nuclear research had been captured by the forces of Operation Alsos. At first, Hahn was reluctant to accept the post, Hahn took over the presidency three months after being released and returned to Germany. However, the Office of Military Government, United States passed a resolution to dissolve the KWG on 11 July 1946, also, Colonel Bertie Blount was on the staff of the British Research Branch, and he had received his doctorate at Göttingen under Walther Borsche. Among other things, Bertie suggested to Hahn to write to Sir Henry Hallett Dale, who had been the president of the Royal Society, while in England, Bertie also spoke with Dale, who came up with a suggestion. Dale believed that it was only the name conjured up a pejorative picture. On 11 September 1946, the Max Planck Gesellschaft was founded in the British Zone only, the second founding took place on 26 February 1948 for both the American and British occupation zones. The physicists Max von Laue and Walther Gerlach were also instrumental in establishing the Society across the allied zones, adolf von Harnack Max Planck Carl Bosch Albert Vögler Max Planck Otto Hahn KWI for Animal Breeding Research, founded in Dummerstorf. Transformed into an institute of the -German Academy of Sciences. KWI of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, founded 1926 in Berlin-Dahlem, KWI for Bast Fiber Research, founded 1938 in Sorau. It was relocated to Mährisch Schönberg in 1941 and to Bielefeld in 1946, the Institute was closed down in 1957
25.
Max Planck Institute for Brain Research
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The Max Planck Institute for Brain Research is located in Frankfurt, Germany. It was founded as Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research in Berlin 1914, moved to Frankfurt-Niederrad in 1962 and it is one of 83 institutes in the Max Planck Society. Research at the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research focuses on the operation of networks of neurons in the brain, the experimental focus is on all scales required to achieve this understanding - from networks of molecules in dendritic compartments to networks of interacting brain areas. This includes interdisciplinary analyses at the molecular, cellular, multi-cellular, network and behavioral levels, from 1901 to 1910, Vogts coworker at this institute was Korbinian Brodmann, who in 1909 established the cytoarchitectonic classification of cortical areas still in use today. Oskar Vogts own scientific achievements also were in the field of cortical cytoarchitectonics and myeloarchitectonics, in the 1920s Oskar Vogt became interested in the potential morphological correlates of mental abilities, and hence in the neuroanatomical study of elite brains. When Lenin died of a hemorrhage in 1924, his brain was preserved in formaldehyde. In 1926, Vogt was recruited by the Soviet government to help establish Lenins genius via histological investigation of his brain. He was given space in Moscow to carry out this work. In it, he helped establish and then headed the Moscow Brain Institute, between 1926 and 1930, Vogt travelled to Moscow several times to supervise the work on Lenins brain by the Russian collaborators who had been trained at Vogts KWI for Brain Research in Berlin. Lenins brain was, for a time, on display in the Lenin Mausoleum, world War I delayed the plans for a new building to house the KWI for Brain Research. The KWIs first proper building in Berlin-Buch was only inaugurated in 1931 under the directorship of Oskar Vogt, the Vogts moved to Neustadt in the Black Forest and established another private brain research institute, funded in part by the family of steel baron Krupp and by Vogt´s own funds. In 1937, Hugo Spatz, a pupil of Franz Nissl, became Vogts successor as director of the KWI for Brain Research, during his tenure, the Departments of Neuropathology and of Tumor Research were added. One focus of both Spatz’s and Hallervorden’s histological research were pathologies of the extrapyramidal/motor system, in a previous collaboration they had described an extrapyramidal disease that was later named Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome. Between 1940 and 1945, Hallervorden and Spatz became involved in the atrocities of the Nazi regime by studying the brains of euthanasia victims, for many years, brain sections from these studies remained archived in our institute together with research material from other periods. When this was recognized, all dating from the period 1933-1945 were given a burial at a Munich cemetery by the Max Planck Society in 1990. A memorial stone was erected in honor of the victims of these atrocities, after 1945, the different departments of the KWI for Brain Research were relocated to Dillenburg, Giessen, Köln, Marburg and Göttingen. In 1948 the Max Planck Society was founded to succeed the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, Hallervorden retired as director in 1955, Spatz in 1959. Rolf Hassler, a pupil of Oskar Vogt and coworker of the famous Freiburg neurologist Richard Jung, studied subcortical brain areas, thalamo-cortical systems, basal ganglia, Wilhelm Krücke, a pupil of Hallervorden, was a renowned specialist on peripheral neuropathies
26.
Judith Rodin
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Judith Rodin is a philanthropist with a long history in higher education. She was the president of the Rockefeller Foundation from march 2005 till 4 January 2017, from 1994 to 2004, Rodin served as the 7th permanent president of the University of Pennsylvania, and the first permanent female president of an Ivy League university. Rodin was born Jewish in Philadelphia, PA and she was the younger of two daughters of Morris and Sally Seitz. She graduated with honors from the Philadelphia School for Girls and won a scholarship to the University of Pennsylvania. At Penn, Rodin majored in psychology and graduated from the Universitys College for Women with a B. A. in 1966 and she went on to earn a Ph. D. from Columbia University, which she received in 1970. Rodin also completed some postdoctoral research at the University of California at Irvine in 1971, after teaching briefly at New York University, Rodin became an associate professor at Yale University, where she was to become well known among students as a popular lecturer. She held various professorial and other positions at Yale from 1972 to 1994, including Dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Chair of the Department of Psychology and her immediate predecessor was Dr. Claire M. Fagin, who served in 1994 as Interim President. Under Rodins leadership, Penn invigorated its resources, doubling its research funding and tripling both its annual fundraising and the size of its endowment. S, news & World Report rankings of top national research universities from 16th in 1994 to 4th in 2002. Rodin became president of the Rockefeller Foundation in March,2005 and she is on the Board of Directors of Citigroup and Comcast Corporation, where she served as the presiding director until 2006. Rodin has also served on the board of corporations, including Aetna, Electronic Data Systems and she continues to serve as a trustee of the Brookings Institution. Rodin is married to Paul R. Verkuil, a president of the College of William and Mary, former dean of the Tulane University Law School. Verkuil is a professor at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, Rodin was previously married two other times, to Bruce Rodin and to Nicholas Neijelow, with whom she has a son, Alex. In 2003, Rodin was named to the PoliticsPA list of Pennsylvanias Most Politically Powerful Women and that same year, Rodin received the Philadelphia Award, given to citizen of the region who done the most to advance the best and largest interest of the community. Rodin was named one of Crains 50 Most Powerful Women in New York list three years in a row, biography from the Rockefeller Foundation Judith Rodin at SourceWatch Interview on Charlie Rose
27.
Gordon Conway
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Sir Gordon Richard Conway KCMG FRS FRGS FREng is an agricultural ecologist and former President of the Royal Geographical Society. Conway was educated at the Bangor University, Cambridge University and the University of the West Indies in Trinidad and he completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of California, Davis. In the early 1960s, working in Sabah, North Borneo, he one of the pioneers of sustainable agriculture. From 1970 to 1986, he was Professor of Environmental Technology at the Imperial College of Science and he was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sussex and Chair of the Institute of Development Studies. He was made a Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Michael and he is a Deputy Lieutenant for East Sussex. He was recently President of the Royal Geographical Society, in June 2004 Conway was awarded an honorary degree from the Open University as Doctor of the University. In the same year he was elected as Fellow of the Royal Society In 2008, Conway took up his appointment as the UK Department for International Development’s Chief Scientific Adviser in January 2005. He was listed on The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll and was president of the Royal Geographical Society and he co-authored, Science and Innovation for Development One Billion Hungry, Can we Feed the World. Prof Sir Gordon Conway, KCMG, DL, FRS at Debretts People of Today
28.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
29.
Ida Tarbell
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Ida Minerva Tarbell was an American teacher, author and journalist. She was one of the leading muckrakers of the era of the late 19th. She is best known for her 1904 book, The History of the Standard Oil Company and it was first serialized in McClures Magazine from 1902 to 1904. She depicted John D. Rockefeller as crabbed, miserly, money-grabbing and she wrote many other notable magazine series and biographies, including several works on President Abraham Lincoln, revealing his early life. Ida Tarbell was born in Erie County, Pennsylvania, on November 5,1857. to Esther Ann and Franklin Summer Tarbell, a teacher and she was born in the log cabin home of her maternal grandfather, Walter Raleigh McCullough, a Scots-Irish pioneer, and his wife. Her fathers distant immigrant ancestors had settled in New England in the 17th century, in 1860, Idas father moved the family to Titusville, Pennsylvania, a new center of oil production. There he built a house, which was her mothers first home of her own, the Tarbell family lived in the western region of the state in the period as new oil fields were being developed in the 1860s, utterly changing the regional economy. Her father first used his trade to build wooden oil storage tanks and he later became an oil producer and refiner in Venango County. Her fathers business, along with those of other small businessmen, was adversely affected by the South Improvement Company scheme between the railroads and larger oil interests. The Tarbells converted to Methodism when Ida was a child and they were socially active, entertaining prohibitionists and womens suffragists. Tarbell graduated at the head of her school class in Titusville and went on to study biology at Allegheny College in 1876. As a student, she was a member of the local sorority that became the Mu chapter of the Kappa Alpha Theta sorority in 1876. She lived separately in a house with the few other upper class women at the college, Tarbell began her career as a teacher at Poland Union Seminary in Poland, Ohio. She taught classes in geology, botany, geometry and trigonometry as well as languages, Greek, Latin, French, after two years, she realized teaching was too much for her and that she enjoyed writing more. As a suffragist, Tarbell had determined never to marry and so instead pursued a journalism career, Tarbell returned to Pennsylvania, where she met Theodore L. Flood, editor of The Chautauquan, a teaching supplement for home study courses at Chautauqua, New York. She was quick to accept Floods offer to write for the publication and she later wrote, “I was glad to be useful, for I had grown up with what was called the Chautauqua movement. ”In 1886 she became managing editor. Her duties included proofreading, answering questions, providing proper pronunciation of certain words, translating foreign phrases, identifying characters. “Doing this job I began to think about facts and reading proofs and it was an exacting job which never ceases to worry me
30.
The History of the Standard Oil Company
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The History of the Standard Oil Company is a 1904 book by journalist Ida Tarbell. It is an exposé about the Standard Oil Company, run at the time by oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, the subsequent decision splintered the company into 34 baby Standards. The value of Rockefellers shares rose after the breakup as the new companies had a development on the stock exchange. The original book was a hardcover set. An abridged paperback edition was released later, the inspiration behind The History of Standard Oil Company was largely fueled by Ida Tarbells childhood experiences. Her father, Franklin Tarbell, worked for Standard Oil and lived through what Ida called hate, suspicion, after her education and accumulate writing experience, Tarbell began working at McClures Magazine, where she wrote several successful series on historical figures. After this initial success, her shift turned to John D. Rockefeller and she began by interviewing Henry H. Eventually, Tarbell uncovered a crucial piece of evidence proving that Standard Oil was rigging railroad prices and preying on its competition. Public outcry erupted at the conclusion of Tarbells 19-part exposure of Standard Oil published in McClures, journalists, politicians, and citizens alike celebrated the accomplishments of Tarbell - a woman outside the inner workings of business and without significant money or influence. These reactions are immortalized in political cartoons utilizing imagery of Rockefellers hidden agendas being demolished by investigative journalism, Rockefeller but critical of Standard Oils unfair and business strategies of questionable legality. So careful is she in her facts, so sane in her judgements, as such, The History of Standard Oil Company harbors great significance as a standard-bearer of modern investigative journalism
31.
Russell Sage Foundation
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The Russell Sage Foundation is an American philanthropic foundation that primarily funds research relating to income inequality. Located in New York City, it is a research center, the foundation also publishes, under its own imprint, the books that derive from the work of its grantees and visiting scholars. The foundation focuses on labor markets, immigration and ethnicity, and social inequality in the United States and her will added a $5 million bequest in 1917. The Foundation was also responsible for reforms in health care, city planning, consumer credit, labor law, the training of nurses. In 1907, the foundation funded the Pittsburgh Survey, the first systematic effort to survey working class conditions in a large U. S. city, considered a major Progressive Era achievement, the findings inspired labor reforms and helped end twelve-hour days and seven-day weeks for steel workers. Between 1909 and 1922, the Foundation spent nearly a sixth of its capital to build Forest Hills Gardens, the aim was to demonstrate the economic and social viability of an intelligently planned suburban community. The first lots sold for $800, and a new suburb began thriving by 1917, in 1922, the Foundation helped launch the Regional Plan Association to research, write and publish a plan to guide the future development of the New York metropolitan region. In its first 40 years, the Foundation spent more than $1 million on the Regional Survey, researchers completed 12 massive volumes as part of the effort, with the first being published in 1928-29. The Foundation also provided support for social feminists such as Mary van Kleeck, since World War II, the Foundation has devoted its efforts to strengthening the social sciences as a means of achieving more informed and rational social policy. It launched a variety of programs to draw the social sciences closer to decision-makers in other professions and this initiative included funds for research on social indicators, a collection of data that measure the quality of life. In the 1950s, the Foundation supported research on the practice and it established the Foundation Center, a non-profit that maintains data on organized philanthropy. It was also the first to publish The Foundation Directory, a listing of the nation’s several thousand largest foundations. During this decade, the foundation also received money from the Ford Foundation for the utilization of the behavioral sciences. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Foundation turned to ethics, including patients rights, extreme measures to sustain life. Foundation-supported books from this period include Bernard Barber’s Drugs and Society, the Foundation was an early force in the development of behavioral economics, launching the Behavioral Economics program in 1986 with the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Books on behavioral economics published by Russell Sage include Quasi Rational Economics, three charter members of the Roundtable subsequently received the Noble Prize in economics, George Akerlof, Daniel Kahneman, and Thomas Schelling. The Foundation launched new programs to study immigration, the rise of economic inequality, between 1992 and 2000, the Foundation worked with the Ford Foundation to conduct a Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. In 2000, the Foundation partnered with the Population Reference Bureau to produce The American People, Census 2000, edited by Reynolds Farley of the University of Michigan and John Haaga of PRB
32.
Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
33.
Harold Fowler McCormick
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Harold Fowler McCormick was an American businessman. He was chairman of the board of International Harvester Company and a member of the McCormick family, harold Fowler McCormick was born in Chicago May 2,1872, to inventor Cyrus Hall McCormick and philanthropist Nancy Fowler. During the 1890s he competed in the US National Tennis Championships, in 1895 he married Edith Rockefeller, the youngest daughter of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller and schoolteacher Laura Celestia Cettie Spelman. McCormick became the third inaugural trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation and he was also a trustee of the Rockefeller-created University of Chicago. She was previously married to James Alexander Stillman and was the daughter of James Brown Potter and Mary Cora Urquhart. Muriel McCormick Mathilde McCormick As an officer of the Aero Club of Illinois, founded February 10,1910, McCormick became the president in 1912, following Octave Chanute. In 1914, McCormick, Plew, and Bion J. However, Chicagos irregular weather, especially the crosswinds, made a shamble of schedules, McCormick married Polish opera singer Ganna Walska in 1922. He resided at 1000 Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, samuel Insull, president of a utilities holding empire that included Commonwealth Edison, was another influence, along with William Randolph Hearst. John D. Rockefeller Rockefeller family Rockefeller Foundation International Harvester Company Adams, titan, The Life of John D. Rockefeller Sr
34.
Charter
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A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte and it has come to be synonymous with the document that lays out the granting of rights or privileges. The term is used for a case to an institutional charter. A charter school, for example, is one that has different rules, regulations, charter is sometimes used as a synonym for tool or lease, as in the charter of a bus or boat or plane by an organization, intended for a similar group destination. A charter member of an organization is a member, that is. Anglo-Saxon Charters are documents from the medieval period in Britain which typically make a grant of land or record a privilege. They are usually written on parchment, in Latin but often with sections in the vernacular, describing the bounds of estates, the British Empire used three main types of colonies as it sought to expand its territory to distant parts of the earth. These three types were royal colonies, proprietary colonies, and corporate colonies, a charter colony by definition is a colony…chartered to an individual, trading company, etc. by the British crown. Although charter colonies were not the most prevalent of the three types of colonies in the British Empire, they were by no means insignificant, a congressional charter is a law passed by the United States Congress that states the mission, authority and activities of a group. Congress issued federal charters from 1791 until 1992 under Title 36 of the United States Code, a municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. Charters for chivalric orders and other orders, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, in project management, a project charter or project definition is a statement of the scope, objectives and participants in a project. It provides a preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities, outlines the objectives, identifies the main stakeholders. It serves as a reference of authority for the future of the project, in medieval Europe, royal charters were used to create cities. The date that such a charter was granted is considered to be when a city was founded, at one time a royal charter was the only way in which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally now used instead
35.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
36.
William Howard Taft
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William Howard Taft served as the 27th President of the United States and as the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U. S. Attorney General, William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father, and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, in 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelts hand-picked successor, despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. With Roosevelts help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908, in the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs, and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a source of governmental income. Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912, Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates, and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of re-election, he took only Utah, after leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. In 1921, President Harding appointed Taft as chief justice, an office he had long sought, Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, but under him, there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, after his death the next month, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians rankings of U. S. presidents, William Howard Taft was born September 15,1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn, Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a worker, Tafts demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success. He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, at Yale College, which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular. One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest, in 1878, Taft graduated, second in his class out of 121. He attended Cincinnati Law School, and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880, while in law school, he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper, edited by Murat Halstead
37.
Nelson W. Aldrich
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Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich was a prominent American politician and a leader of the Republican Party in the Senate, where he served from 1881 to 1911. By the 1890s he was one of the Big Four key Republicans who largely controlled the decisions of the Senate, along with Orville H. Platt, William B. Allison. In a career spanned three decades, Aldrich helped to create an extensive system of tariffs that protected American factories. He was a party to the re-structuring of the American financial system through the institution of the income tax amendment. His most important contribution was the design of the modern Federal Reserve System, deeply committed to the efficiency model of the Progressive Era, he believed these reforms would lead to greater efficiency. Reformers, however, denounced him as representative of the evils of Big business, Aldrich became wealthy with investments in street railroads, sugar, rubber and banking. He married into the Rockefeller family, and his descendents became powerful figures in American politics, Aldrich was born in Foster, Rhode Island, into a middle-class family descended from noted English immigrants John Winthrop, William Wickenden, and Roger Williams. His branch passed through generations of declining circumstances and his father was Anan E. Aldrich, a mill hand, and mother Abby Burgess. He attended public schools in East Killingly, Conn. and the East Greenwich Academy a boarding school in Rhode Island, Aldrichs first job was clerking for the largest wholesale grocer in the state, where he worked his way up to become a partner in the firm. He served briefly in the Union Army during the American Civil War when he enlisted as a private in Company D of the 10th Rhode Island Infantry on May 26,1862. Aldrichs company served for three months at Fort DeRussy, which was part of the defenses of Washington, D. C, Aldrich was mustered out of service with the regiment on September 1,1862. On October 9,1866, he married Abigail Pearce Truman Abby Chapman and they had a total of eleven children. By 1877, Nelson had an effect on state politics. He served as a member of the Providence City Council from 1869 to 1874 and he served in the Rhode Island House of Representatives in 1875 and 1876 and served as Speaker of the House in 1876. In 1878 the Republican bosses of Rhode Island endorsed him for the US House of Representatives, he won, in 1881 he was elected to the U. S. Senate by the Rhode Island legislature. He served in the Senate for 30 years from 1881 to 1911 and he was the longest serving United States Senator from Rhode Island before the 36-year tenure of Claiborne Pell in the late 20th Century. Aldrichs main power base was his chairmanship of the Senate Finance Committee which oversaw bank regulation, the panic of 1907 led to the passage of the Aldrich–Vreeland Act in 1908, which established the National Monetary Commission, sponsored and headed by Aldrich. After issuing a series of 30 reports, this commission drew up the Aldrich Plan, in 1909, Aldrich introduced a constitutional amendment to establish an income tax, although he had declared a similar measure communistic a decade earlier
38.
William Sulzer
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William Sulzer was an American lawyer and politician, nicknamed Plain Bill Sulzer. He was the 39th Governor of New York and a congressman from the same state. He was the first and so far only New York governor to be impeached and he broke with his sponsors at Tammany Hall, and they produced convincing evidence that Sulzer had falsified his sworn statement of campaign expenditures. William Sulzer was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on March 18,1863, the son of Thomas Sulzer, who was German born and he was the second in a family of eight children. He was reared on is family farm and attended the schools in or near Elizabeth. At age 12 he left home and sailed as a cabin boy aboard a brig and he returned to the family home a year later and became a clerk in a grocery store. Sulzer took night classes at Cooper Union before attending and graduating from Columbia College, then he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1884, and commenced practice in New York City. Even before beginning his law practice he was a member of Tammany Hall political machine serving as a stump speaker. He was married to Clara Rodelheim in 1908 and his participation in the machine helped assure that he was appointed to the Committee on General Laws in his first term. During his time in the Assembly he introduced bills seeking to abolish debtors prisons and his popularity and loyalty to Tammany machine were such that in 1893, Tammany Boss Richard Croker selected Sulzer to be elected as Speaker of the New York State Assembly. The term was noted as being corrupt and highly partisan, as the Democratic machine dominated all committees. Sulzer himself declared during the term ll legislation came from Tammany Hall and was dictated by that great statesmen, during his time in the Assembly, Sulzer was a delegate to the 1892 Democratic National Convention, and returned as such to every national convention until 1912. Sulzer was elected to the 54th United States Congress in 1894, representative in the eight succeeding Congresses, from March 4,1895, to December 31,1912, representing the 10th Congressional District. In Congress he became known as a Populist, and became known for his oratory, repeatedly he called for resolutions condemning Czarist Russia over the issue of pogroms. In the Sixty-second United States Congress he chaired the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Sulzer during his time in Congress supported numerous Progressive goals in terms of popular democracy and efficiency. He was a supporter of the creation of the United States Department of Labor, the election of senators --- for which he proposed a resolution in support of ---. In the Election of 1896 he supported the nomination of and campaigned for William Jennings Bryan, in 1896, for the first time he announced his candidacy for the governorship but was rejected by Tammany and the Democratic Party at large. In 1898 Richard Croker openly opposed his attempt for the Democratic nomination, for the next six elections Sulzer was continually rejected for the Democratic nomination for governor, losing to Tammany supported politicians such as William Randolph Hearst, and John Alden Dix
39.
Carnegie Corporation of New York
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected corporation for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Corporations capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31,1999. During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, as the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for purposes in Canada. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth. During the corporations early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee, James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions, soon after Carnegies death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board. Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegies personal philanthropies, until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools. In his letter of gift to his trustees, Carnegie wrote, Conditions upon erth inevitably change, hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths. I disclaim any intention of doing so, on the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement, thus, over the years, the corporations priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational. After Carnegies death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research, convinced of the nations need to increase scientific expertise and scientific management, the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. At this time, the corporation developed a interest in adult education. During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore opportunities for adults. The foundations grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes, widely heralded, Myrdals book American Dilemma had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and his cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations
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Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
