1.
Hyghalmen Roll
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The Hyghalmen Roll is a roll of arms kept at the English College of Arms in London. Some images show characteristics of German heraldry, such as repeating themes in the coat of arms and crest, the latter was omitted from the attributed arms of Jesus when the images were copied into Randle Holmes Book
2.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
3.
Early modern period
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The early modern period of modern history follows the late Middle Ages of the post-classical era. Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the period witnessed the exploration and colonization of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe. The historical powers became involved in trade, as the exchange of goods, plants, animals, and food crops extended to the Old World. The Columbian Exchange greatly affected the human environment, New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the early modern period. This process began in the medieval North Italian city-states, particularly Genoa, Venice, the early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. The European colonization of the Americas, Asia, and Africa occurred during the 15th to 19th centuries, the early modern trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Historians typically date the end of the modern period when the French Revolution of the 1790s began the modern period. Early modern themes Other In 16th century China, the Ming Dynastys economy was stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, Spanish. China became involved in a new trade of goods, plants, animals. Trade with Early Modern Europe and Japan brought in massive amounts of silver, during the last decades of the Ming the flow of silver into China was greatly diminished, thereby undermining state revenues and the entire Chinese economy. This damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure, the ensuing breakdown of authority and peoples livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as Li Zicheng to challenge Ming authority. The Ming Dynasty fell around 1644 to the Qing Dynasty, which was the last ruling dynasty of China, during its reign, the Qing Dynasty became highly integrated with Chinese culture. The Azuchi-Momoyama period saw the unification that preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period gets its name from the city, Edo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty with a largely bloodless coup. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture, King Sejong the Great promulgated hangul, the Korean alphabet. The period saw various other cultural and technological advances as well as the dominance of neo-Confucianism over the entirety of Korea, during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, invasions by the neighboring Japanese and Qing Chinese nearly overran the Korean peninsula
4.
Siebmachers Wappenbuch
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The Old Siebmacher The Alter Siebmacher was compiled 1605–1806, and represents the contemporary heraldry during the final two centuries of the Holy Roman Empire. Its two volumes were completed by Johann Sibmacher and his work was continued to six volumes with additional supplements by Paul Fürst, Wolfgang Gottlieb Fürst, Rudolf Johann Helmers, Christoph Weigel the Elder and Gabriel Nikolaus Raspe. The supplemented works were published under the titles of their respective publishers, such as, Fürstsches Wappenbuch, Helmersches Wappenbuch. The New Siebmacher The Neuer Siebmacher, Siebmachers großes und allgemeines Wappenbuch was compiled 1854-1967 by Adolf Matthias Hildebrandt, Maximilian Gritzner, the General-Index of the whole work has been edited by Hanns Jäger-Sunstenau. Later Ottfried Neubecker had published all burgher arms of the New Siebmacher without the text as a sort of illustrated glossary organized by the heraldic charges, contains six volumes,1,200 pages,16,000 names, completely cross-referenced, thousands of corrections to the original Index. Index of Siebmachers Armorials - The database contains the names and titles of the General-Index zu den Siebmacherschen Wappenbüchern 1605-1967
5.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
6.
Ordinary (heraldry)
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In heraldry, an ordinary is a simple geometrical figure, bounded by straight lines and running from side to side or top to bottom of the shield. There are also some geometric charges known as subordinaries, which have been given lesser status by some heraldic writers, diminutives of ordinaries and some subordinaries are charges of the same shape, though thinner. Most of the ordinaries are theoretically said to occupy one-third of the shield, ordinaries resemble partitions of the field, but are formally considered objects on the field. Though there is debate as to exactly which geometrical charges—with straight edges and running from edge to edge of the shield—constitute ordinaries. Except for the chief they are central to the shield, Cross, a pale and a fess of equal widths conjoined, as in the arms of the City of London. Pale, a vertical stripe right down the middle of the shield, typically 1/5th to 1/3rd the width of the field. A variant is the Canadian pale, invented in 1964 for the new Canadian national flag, fess, a horizontal stripe, as in the coat of arms of Austria. Typically 1/5th to 1/3rd the height of the field, bar, a narrower fess, sometimes reckoned as an ordinary in its own right. Bend, a band from the dexter chief to the opposite corner. Bend sinister, A bend in the opposite direction, Chief, horizontal band right across the top of the shield, as in the arms of the district of Lausanne. Chief triangular begins in the corners and extends to a point that is one quarter to one third the way down the shield and it is a complex line division variant of a chief. Chief enarched is drawn with a concave arch, the following are sometimes classed as ordinaries, sometimes as subordinaries, Bordure, the boundary of the shield, often used for cadency. Pile, downward pointing triangle, issuing from the top of the shield, a variant is the shakefork, a pall cut short of the margins, with pointed ends. It is frequent in Scotland, owing to its prominence in the armory of Clan Cunningham, ordinaries need not be bounded by straight lines. Some geometric figures are not considered to be honourable ordinaries and are called subordinaries, very loosely, they are geometric or conventional charges that, unlike ordinaries, do not stretch from edge to edge of the shield. There is no definitive list or definition, but they generally include, Quarter, the dexter chief quadrant of the shield Canton, smaller than the quarter, formally said to occupy one-ninth of the shield, though sometimes drawn smaller. Very occasionally a sinister canton is found, on the other side. Flaunches, always borne in pairs, a circular arc emerging out of each flank of the shield, Fret, interlacing bendlet, bendlet sinister and mascle
7.
Charge (heraldry)
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In heraldry, a charge is any emblem or device occupying the field of an escutcheon. This may be a design or a symbolic representation of a person, animal, plant. In French blazon, the ordinaries are called pièces while other charges are called meubles, while thousands of objects found in nature, mythology or technology have appeared in armory, there are several charges which have contributed to the distinctive flavour of heraldic design. Only these and a few other notable charges are discussed in this article, some heraldic writers distinguish, albeit arbitrarily, between honourable ordinaries and sub-ordinaries. While some authors hold that only nine charges are honourable ordinaries, the remainder are often termed sub-ordinaries, and narrower or smaller versions of the ordinaries are called diminutives. Apparently ceding the point for the moment, Fox-Davies lists the generally agreed-upon honourable ordinaries as the bend, fess, pale, pile, chevron, cross, saltire and chief. Boutell lists the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister, fess, bar, cross, saltire and cheveron as the honourable ordinaries. Thus, the chief, bend, pale, fess, chevron, cross and saltire appear to be the undisputed ordinaries, while authors disagree over the status of the pile, bar, inescutcheon, bordure and others. Several different figures are recognised as honourable ordinaries, each normally occupying about one-fifth to one-third of the field, the chief is the upper portion of the field. The bend runs from the left to the lower right, as \. The bend sinister runs from the right to the lower left. The pale, a stripe in the centre of the field. The fess is a horizontal stripe across the centre of the field. The chevron is a construction shaped like an inverted letter V, the cross is a geometric construction of two perpendicular lines or bands. It has hundreds of variants, most of which are common charges rather than ordinaries, the saltire is a diagonal cross, often called Saint Andrews cross. Most of the ordinaries have corresponding diminutives, narrower versions, most often mentioned when two or more appear in parallel, bendlets, pallets, bars, chevronels, in addition to those mentioned in the above section, other ordinaries exist. Some of these are variously called honourable ordinaries by different authors, the pall or pairle is shaped like the letter Y. The pile is a wedge issuing from the top of the field and its length and width vary widely
8.
Ordinary of arms
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An ordinary of arms is a roll or register of coats of arms arranged systematically by design, with coats featuring the same principal elements grouped together. The purpose of an ordinary is to facilitate the identification of the owner of a coat of arms from visual evidence alone, Ordinaries may take a form which is either graphic or written. Most medieval and early modern manuscript ordinaries were graphic, whereas all the modern published ordinaries have been written. A knowledge of the technicalities of blazon is essential for the student hoping to make best use of a written ordinary, by extension, ordinaries may also be compiled of other elements of heraldic display, such as crests, supporters or badges. Although ordinaries of arms have been compiled since the 14th century, the earliest clear attestation is found in Edmondsons Complete Body of Heraldry of 1780. The ordinary appears to have been an English development of the 14th century, no medieval ordinaries are known from continental Europe. Medieval English ordinaries include Cookes Ordinary, compiled in c.1340, Cotgraves Ordinary, also of c.1340 but in blazon, and these three are all related, and perhaps derive from a lost progenitor. An independent work is William Jenyns Ordinary, compiled in c.1360.1520, in the second half of the century, Robert Glover, Somerset Herald, drew on a wide range of medieval sources to compile Glovers Ordinary, the fullest and most authoritative ordinary to date. This was assembled in its first form in 1584, and contained some 15,000 coats. At the beginning of the 17th century, Augustine Vincent, Rouge Croix Pursuivant and later Windsor Herald, compiled Vincents Ordinary, also of about 15,000 shields, drawn in trick. Versions of Glovers Ordinary, much augmented, were published in Joseph Edmondsons Complete Body of Heraldry, Cotgraves Ordinary was published in 1829, edited by Sir Harris Nicolas. Papworth began work in 1847, making use of Burkes General Armory, copying its entries – which were arranged alphabetically by surname – onto slips of paper. He published a prospectus in 1857, and began to issue his work in instalments shortly afterwards, nine parts had appeared by 1863, and fourteen by the time of his early death in 1870. By this point the work had proceeded as far as page 696, the Ordinary, containing about 50,000 entries, was published as a complete volume in 1874. It rapidly established itself as a work of reference, and was reprinted in 1961,1977 and 1985. Its weakness was its dependence for its contents on Burkes General Armory and other secondary sources, in 1926 Lt Col George Babington Croft Lyons left a substantial bequest to the Society of Antiquaries to prepare a revised and improved edition of Papworth. Anthony Wagner became co-general editor in 1940 and sole editor in 1944. A number of volunteers were recruited to assemble material on index cards and it was eventually decided to limit the project to England, to the medieval period, and to publish a simple ordinary, including a name-index but without the additional essays
9.
Wernigerode Armorial
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The Wernigerode Armorial is an armorial compiled in southern Germany in the late 15th century. The manuscript is the first of two volumes, the second volume has been lost. A third volume consists of a register to vols,1 and 2, kept in the Halle University Library. It is an important witness of the period from medieval to classical conventions of heraldry. After this preface, the book begins a more realistic listing of the heraldry of its time and this is followed by the arms of lower nobility and certain notable bourgeois families and the arms of imperial cities. Online facsimile Description of the manuscript by Marianne Reuter,2009
10.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
11.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
12.
Matthew Paris
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Matthew Paris, known as Matthew of Paris, was a Benedictine monk, English chronicler, artist in illuminated manuscripts and cartographer, based at St Albans Abbey in Hertfordshire. He wrote a number of works, mostly historical, which he scribed and illuminated himself, some were written in Latin, some in Anglo-Norman or French verse. His Chronica Majora is a source, though modern historians recognise that Paris was not always reliable. He tended to glorify Emperor Frederick II and denigrate the Pope, however, in his Historia Anglorum, Paris displays a highly negative view of Frederick, going as far as to describe him as a tyrant who committed disgraceful crimes. In spite of his surname and knowledge of the French language, Paris was of English birth and he may have studied at Paris in his youth after early education at St Albans School. The first we know of Matthew Paris is that he was admitted as a monk to St Albans in 1217. He was clearly at ease with the nobility and even royalty and his life was mainly spent in this religious house. Apart from these missions, his activities were devoted to the composition of history. After admission to the order in 1217, he inherited the mantle of Roger of Wendover, Paris revised Rogers work, adding new material to cover his own tenure. This Chronica Majora is an important historical document, especially for the period between 1235 and 1259. Equally interesting are the illustrations Paris created for his work, the Dublin MS contains interesting notes, which shed light on Paris involvement in other manuscripts, and on the way his own were used. The lending of his manuscripts to aristocratic households, apparently for periods of weeks or months at a time, Paris manuscripts mostly contain more than one text, and often begin with a rather random assortment of prefatory full-page miniatures. Some have survived incomplete, and the elements now bound together may not have been intended to be so by Paris. Unless stated otherwise, all were given by Paris to his monastery, the monastic libraries were broken up at the Dissolution. These MS seem to have appreciated, and were quickly collected by bibliophiles. Many of his manuscripts in the British Library are from the Cotton Library, corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Mss 26 and 16,362 x 244/248 mm. ff 141 +281, composed 1240–53. His major historical work, but less heavily illustrated per page than others and these two volumes contain annals from the creation of the world up to the year 1253. There are 100 marginal drawings, some maps and an itinerary, and full-page drawings of William I
13.
Illuminated manuscript
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An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles
14.
Chronica Majora
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The Chronica Majora is an important medieval illuminated manuscript chronicle written in Latin by Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk living in the Abbey of St Albans. The work begins with the creation of the world and contains annals up to 1259, the year of Pariss death. The first two parts of the Chronica, covering the years up to 1188 and from 1189 to 1253, are contained in two manuscripts in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Parker MS26 and MS16. They include 100 marginal drawings, some maps and an itinerary, and full page drawings of William I. MS16 has very recently had all prefatory matter re-bound separately, the remainder of the Chronica, from 1254 until Pariss death in 1259, is in the British Library, bound as Royal MS14 C VII folios 157-218, following Pariss Historia Anglorum. 6 Richard Vaughan, The Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Monastic Life in the Thirteenth Century, Richard Vaughan, The Illustrated Chronicles of Matthew Paris. ISBN 978-0-7509-0523-7 Suzanne Lewis, The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora
15.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
16.
Camden Roll
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The Camden Roll is a 13th-century English roll of arms believed to have been created c. 1280, containing 270 painted coats of arms with 185 French blazons for various English and European monarchs, lords, the original roll is now held at the British Museum as Cotton Roll XV.8. It consists of three vellum membranes in total measuring 6.25 by 63, the face of the roll consists of 270 painted shields arranged in 45 rows of six shields, each with associated names and/or titles listed above each shield. The dorse includes French blazons for 185 of the shields on the face, the roll belonged to William Camden, Clarenceux King of Arms, c. 1605, and is believed to have been several documents and manuscripts which were willed to Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington. In 1700 Sir John Cotton, Sir Roberts grandson, sold the Cottonian library to the nation, held at The Queens College, Oxford, MS. Tricked by Robert Glover, Somerset Herald of Arms, held at the College of Arms, MS. Trick believed to be attributed to Richard Scarlett, held at the British Museum, MS. Held at the College of Arms, MS. L.14, trick is attributed to Nicholas Charles, Lancaster Herald of Arms. Illustrated by R. S. Nourse based on the list of blazons in James Greenstreets The Original Camden Roll of Arms published in Vol. XXXVIII of The Journal of the British Archaeological Society,1882
17.
Dering Roll
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The Dering Roll is the oldest English roll of arms surviving in its original form. It was made between 1270 and 1280 and contains the coat of arms of 324 knights, starting with two children of King John. Sir Edward Dering acquired the roll during the 17th century and modified it to include an ancestor of his own. It was eventually purchased by the British Library following fund raising involving a number of other charities, glovers Roll, made in 1586, is a copy of a now lost roll dating from even earlier, from the reign of King Henry III. The Dering Roll depicts the coats of arms of around a quarter of the English baronage during the era of Edward I. Emphasis was given to knights from Sussex and Kent, as it was produced in Dover between 1270 and 1280 and the document was designed to list the knights who owed feudal service there. It depicts 324 coats of arms, beginning with Richard Fitz Roy and William de Say, the shields are arranged in 54 rows, with six shields on each line. Above each shield reads the name, except in six cases where it has been omitted or removed. Stephen de Pencester may have commissioned the roll during his time as Constable of Dover Castle, during the 20th century it was acquired by Sir Anthony Wagner. On 4 December 2007, the roll was sold at auction at Sothebys for the sum of £192,000 to an individual who subsequently applied for an export licence. It is now on display at the Sir John Ritblat Gallery in the British Library, some feudal coats of arms and others. Oxford, J. Parker & Co. http, //www. bsswebsite. me. uk/History/Dering/deringroll. htm Images of original roll and modern renderings
18.
British Library
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The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom and the second largest library in the world by number of items catalogued. It holds well over 150 million items from many countries, as a legal deposit library, the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and Ireland, including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK. The Library is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. The Librarys collections include around 14 million books, along with holdings of manuscripts. In addition to receiving a copy of every publication produced in the UK and Ireland, the Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9.6 kilometres of new shelf space. Prior to 1973, the Library was part of the British Museum, the Euston Road building is classified as a Grade I listed building, of exceptional interest for its architecture and history. The British Library was created on 1 July 1973 as a result of the British Library Act 1972. Prior to this, the library was part of the British Museum. In 1983, the Library absorbed the National Sound Archive, which holds many sound and video recordings, with over a million discs, the core of the Librarys historical collections is based on a series of donations and acquisitions from the 18th century, known as the foundation collections. From 1997 to 2009 the main collection was housed in this new building. Construction work on the Newspaper Storage Building was completed in 2013, the collection has now been split between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites. The British Library Document Supply Service and the Librarys Document Supply Collection is based on the site in Boston Spa. Collections housed in Yorkshire, comprising low-use material and the newspaper and Document Supply collections, the Library previously had a book storage depot in Woolwich, south-east London, which is no longer in use. The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect Colin St John Wilson, facing Euston Road is a large piazza that includes pieces of public art, such as large sculptures by Eduardo Paolozzi and Antony Gormley. It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the 20th century, in December 2009 a new storage building at Boston Spa was opened by Rosie Winterton. The building was Grade I listed on 1 August 2015, in England, Legal Deposit can be traced back to at least 1610. The other five libraries are, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the University Library at Cambridge, the Trinity College Library at Dublin, in 2003 the Ipswich MP Chris Mole introduced a Private Members Bill which became the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003. The Act extends United Kingdom legal deposit requirements to electronic documents, such as CD-ROMs, the Library also holds the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections which include the India Office Records and materials in the languages of Asia and of north and north-east Africa
19.
Tricking
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Tricking is a method for indicating the tinctures used in a coat of arms by means of text abbreviations written directly on the illustration. Tricking and hatching are the two primary methods employed in the system of heraldry to show colour in black and white illustrations, the system of heraldry has always had some methods to designate the tinctures of arms. The earliest such method was blazon, which is describing the arms by words and is as old as heraldry itself and we can find the first blazon in the work of Chrétien de Troyes titled Lancelot ou le Chevalier de la Charette. The English heraldry system still uses a form of blazon almost unchanged since the reign of Edward I, traditionally, the images of heraldic manuscripts like the rolls of arms and armorial books are all coloured. While the first method was introduced and developed by the heralds, in addition, some other methods were also in use such as giving designations to tinctures by using the numbers from 1 to 7. In the beginning, tinctures were designated with the names of the colours as described in the 1576 book by Martin Schrot. In his book Baselische Chronik Cristian Urstis named the tinctures after the initials of the given colours, earlier, this method was applied by Virgil Solis, and Johann von Francolin. Almost simultaneously with Urstis, Don Alphonsus Ciacconius, a Rome-based Spanish Dominican scholar, or was designated with A, argent or white, respectively with a, azure with c, gules with r, and vert by v. Though the sign for sable was not present in his system traditionally it was designated with the colour itself. That was a time when heraldry was ruled by allegorical and astrological views, all this was in connection with the ancient lore of sympathies, which examined sympathies and antipathies among the stars, minerals, animals, plants, and people. Some additional tinctures were also designed by astrological symbols, the Babylonians, according to the lore of sympathies, had great esteem for gems, semi-precious stones and scarce minerals. They saw them as the concentrates of cosmic powers. Pliny the Elder stressed several times that he wrote his work to reveal this universal law and this doctrine was taken over by the Medieval medicine, pharmacy, alchemy, heraldry etc. During the 1350s, the work of Bartolo de Sassoferrato linked Or to the sun, Azure to the element air, between 1382 and 1387 he was followed by Honoré Bonet, a heraldist from Provence. In his work Arbre des Batailles Bonet declares that the gold is the noblest in the world because, due to its very nature, is bright and shining. The work of Bonet was thoroughly studied by the 15th century Burgundian heraldists, in his work Le Blason des Couleurs, Courtois developed a heraldic system consisting of the tinctures, planets and carbuncles. He was familiar with the Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, however, his main contribution was the development of gemstone-planetary blazon. Tenné and Sanguine were the used in the abatements of arms which were dishonorable charges placed upon the coats of arms of malefactors. Dragons head and dragons tail were in use from the ancient times
20.
Lancaster Herald
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Lancaster Herald of Arms in Ordinary is an English officer of arms at the College of Arms in London. The title of Lancaster Herald first occurs in 1347 at Calais, as a retainer of John of Gaunt Lancaster was advanced to the rank of King of Arms, and was later promoted to the royal household of Henry IV, and made king of the northern province. This arrangement continued until 1464, when Lancaster reverted to the rank of herald, since the reign of King Henry VII Lancaster has been a herald in ordinary. The badge of office is a red rose of Lancaster, royally crowned, the current Lancaster Herald of Arms in Ordinary is Robert John Baptist Noel, MA, MPhil. Brackets indicate a date or approximate date for which there is evidence that the person was holder of this office. The reigning monarch is given if the date is not known more precisely, herman John Nicholas Roger Durroit, Esq. 1526-1527 William Jennings or Jenys, Esq, 1527-1531 William Fellows, Esq. made visitation at Carmarthen in 1530. Re-instated 1539, executed for counterfeiting Clarenceauxs seal, December 1549, 1536-1538 Thomas Milner, Esq. condemned for his submission to Robert Aske. 1761-1774 Sir Isaac Heard 1774-1781 Thomas Locke, Esq, 1781-1793 Charles, son of Sir Charles Townley 1793-1822 Edmund Lodge, Esq. FSA 1822-1841 George Frederick Beltz KH, FSA 1841-1869 Sir Albert William Woods, GCVO, KCB, KCMG, KGStJ, FSA 1870-1882 George Edward Cokayne, 1922-1954 Archibald George Blomefield Russell, Esq. CVO, FSA 1954-1968 John Riddell Bromhead Walker, Esq, CVO, MC 1972-1982 Francis Sedley Andrus, Esq. LVO 1982-1995 Peter Llewellyn Gwynn-Jones, Esq, CVO, FSA 1999–Present Robert John Baptist Noel, Esq
21.
College of Arms
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The College is also the official body responsible for matters relating to the flying of flags on land, and it maintains the official registers of flags and other national symbols. Though a part of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom the College is self-financed, unsupported by any public funds, founded by royal charter in 1484 by King Richard III, the College is one of the few remaining official heraldic authorities in Europe. Within the United Kingdom, there are two authorities, the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland and the College for the rest of the United Kingdom. The College has had its home in the City of London since its foundation, the College of Arms also undertakes and consults on the planning of many ceremonial occasions such as coronations, state funerals, the annual Garter Service and the State Opening of Parliament. Heralds of the College accompany the sovereign on many of these occasions, the College comprises thirteen officers or heralds, three Kings of Arms, six Heralds of Arms and four Pursuivants of Arms. There are also seven officers extraordinary, who take part in ceremonial occasions but are not part of the College, the entire corporation is overseen by the Earl Marshal, a hereditary office held by the Duke of Norfolk, currently Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 18th Duke of Norfolk. King Richard IIIs interest in heraldry was indicated by his possession of two important rolls of arms, while still Duke of Gloucester and Constable of England for his brother from 1469, he in the latter capacity supervised the heralds and made plans for the reform of their organisation. Soon after his accession to the throne he created Sir John Howard as Duke of Norfolk and Earl Marshal of England, who became the first Howard appointed to both positions. The charter then goes on to state that the heralds for the time being, shall be in perpetuity a body corporate in fact and name and this charter titled Literæ de incorporatione heraldorum is now held in the British Museum. There has been evidence that prior to this charter, the royal heralds had already in some ways behaved like a corporation as early as 1420. Nevertheless, the charter is the earliest surviving document to affirm the chapter as a body of heralds. The charter outlines the constitution of the officers, their hierarchy, the College was also granted a house named Coldharbour on Upper Thames Street in the parish of All-Hallows-the-Less, for storing records and living space for the heralds. The house, built by Sir John de Pulteney, four times Lord Mayor of London, was said to be one of the greatest in the City of London. The defeat and death of Richard III at Bosworth field was a blow for the heralds. The victorious Henry Tudor was crowned King Henry VII soon after the battle, henrys first Parliament of 1485 passed an Act of Resumption, in which large grants of crown properties made by his two predecessors to their supporters were cancelled. Whether this act affected the status of the Colleges charter is debatable, however, Henry then granted the house to his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort, for life. This was because it was supposed that the house was granted personally to John Writhe the Garter King of Arms, as a result, the heralds were left destitute and many of their books and records were lost. Despite this ill treatment from the King, the position at the royal court remained
22.
Battle of Falkirk
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The Battle of Falkirk, which took place on 22 July 1298, was one of the major battles in the First War of Scottish Independence. Led by King Edward I of England, the English army defeated the Scots, shortly after the battle Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland. King Edward learned of the defeat of his army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. As a preliminary step he moved the centre of government to York, a council-of-war was held in the city in April to finalise the details of the invasion. The Scottish magnates were all summoned to attend, and when none appeared they were all declared to be traitors, Edward then ordered his army to assemble at Roxburgh on 25 June. Edwards own supply fleet was delayed by bad weather, and when the army reached central Scotland it was tired and hungry. The Welsh infantry in particular were badly demoralised, while the army was encamped at Temple Liston, near Edinburgh, they erupted in a drunken riot that was broken up by the English cavalry, who killed 80 Welshmen. Edward faced the prospect of the kind of retreat that became a regular feature of his sons campaigns in the succeeding reign. Edward was delighted, As God lives and they need not pursue me, for I will meet them this day. The Scots army, again made up chiefly of spearmen as at Stirling, was arranged in four great armoured hedgehogs known as schiltrons, the long spears pointed outwards at various heights gave these formations a formidable and impenetrable appearance. The gaps between the schiltrons were filled with archers and to the rear there was a troop of men-at-arms, provided by the Comyns. On Tuesday 22 July, the English cavalry, divided into four battalions, the left was commanded by the Earls of Norfolk, Hereford and Lincoln. The right was under the command of Antony Bek, Bishop of Durham, while the King commanded the centre, in a disorganised pell-mell the cavalry finally closed on the Scots, on the right and left. The party of men-at-arms under John Comyn left the field immediately, the Scots bowmen commanded by Sir John Stewart of Bonkill, the younger brother of the High Steward of Scotland, stood their ground and were quickly destroyed. But the schiltrons held firm, with the knights making little impression on the dense forest of long spears, King Edward arrived in time to witness the discomfiture of his cavalry and quickly restored discipline. The knights were ordered to withdraw and Edward prepared to employ the tactics that the Earl of Warwick had used to defeat the Welsh spearmen at the Battle of Maes Moydog in 1295. The Scottish cavalry charged the English cavalry, but seeing the vast numbers that were formed against them they then fled the field, Edwards longbowmen were brought into place and quickly overcame the inexperienced force of badly armed Scottish archers. The schiltrons were a target, they had no defence
23.
Thomas Wriothesley
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Sir Thomas Wriothesley was a long serving officer of arms at the College of Arms in London. He was the son of Garter King of Arms, John Writhe, Wriothesley was born at Colatford Wiltshire. His name at birth was Thomas Writhe, and he was the eldest son and second of four children of John Writhe and his first wife, Barbara, the location of Colatford has not been identified, but it was either near Castle Combe or Cricklade. Wriothesleys first wife, whom he married before 1500, was Jane, the pair had ten children together, though their only surviving son was Charles Wriothesley, Windsor Herald of Arms in Ordinary. His second wife was Anne, widow of Robert Warcop with whom he had a daughter who died in infancy, Wriothesley died worn out with age in London, on 24 November 1534, and was presumably buried with his family in St Giles Cripplegate. His will has never been found and his library may have stayed intact until the death of his son Charles in 1562, after that it was probably dispersed. Manuscripts of his are now to be found in the College of Arms, the British Library, in 1489 Wriothesley was made Wallingford Pursuivant in the private service of Prince Arthur at Wallingford and continued as such under Prince Henry. In 1491 he accompanied King Henry VII to Brittany, on 26 January 1505 he was appointed Garter King of Arms, over the heads of all the royal heralds in ordinary. Clarenceux King of Arms, Roger Machado, was an old friend of Wriothesleys father and it was around this time that Thomas changed his original surname of Writhe to the grander one of Wriothesley, which he applied retrospectively to his ancestors. His brother William, York Herald of Arms in Ordinary joined him in this change, in 1529 he gave evidence at the divorce proceedings of Katherine of Aragon. He was present at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520 and he took the Order of the Garter to Archduke Ferdinand of Austria in 1523. Wriothesley was licensed to carry out heraldic visitations, though no such record has survived. Wriothesleys output as an heraldic artist was considerable and includes parts of a great armory and ordinary of all English arms. His collections are a link between the heraldry of the Middle Ages and that of the later College of Arms, while his drawings of monuments anticipate the work of later Tudor heralds. Anthony Wagner has called Wriothesleys Gartership active, prosperous and in many ways distinguished, after this, Garter King of Arms played no part in the visitation process. Herald King of arms The 1511 Westminster Tournament Roll The Westminster Challenge The College of Arms Heraldic List of Officers of Arms
24.
Caerlaverock Castle
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Caerlaverock Castle is a moated triangular castle first built in the 13th century. It is located on the southern coast of Scotland,11 kilometres south of Dumfries, Caerlaverock was a stronghold of the Maxwell family from the 13th century until the 17th century when the castle was abandoned. It was besieged by the English during the Wars of Scottish Independence, in the 17th century, the Maxwells were created Earls of Nithsdale, and built a new lodging within the walls, described as among the most ambitious early classical domestic architecture in Scotland. In 1640 the castle was besieged for the last time and was subsequently abandoned, although demolished and rebuilt several times, the castle retains the distinctive triangular plan first laid out in the 13th century. Caerlaverock Castle was built to control trade in early times, today, the castle is in the care of Historic Scotland and is a popular tourist attraction. It is protected as a monument, and as a category A listed building. The history of its builders can be traced to Undwin and his son Maccus in the 11th century, Maccus gave his name to the barony of Maccuswell and his grandson, John de Maccuswell, was first Lord Maxwell of Caerlaverock. The Baronies of Maxwell and Caerlaverock then passed down through the male line, the earliest mention of the lands of Caerlaverock is around 1160, when they were granted to the monks of Holm Cultram Abbey. Around 1220 Alexander II of Scotland granted the lands to Sir John Maxwell, Sir John Maxwell also served as Chamberlain of Scotland from 1231–1233, and began work on the first castle at Caerlaverock. This castle was square in shape and was one of the earliest stone castles to be built in Scotland and it had a moat with a bridge facing north. Only the foundations and remains of an enclosure around it remain. This early castle may have been incomplete when it was abandoned in favour of a rock outcrop some 200 metres to the north and it was here that Sir Johns brother Sir Aymer Maxwell began construction of the present castle. Sir Aymer also served as Chamberlain in 1258–1260, and was Justiciar of Galloway in 1264, in the 1270s the new castle was completed, and Herbert Maxwell, nephew of John Maxwell, occupied it. When the moat around the castle was dug, the quarrying was probably a source of building stone for the castle. While the gatehouse stands on rock, the rest of the castle was built on a clay platform created especially for the castle. In 1299, the garrison of Caerlaverock attacked Lochmaben Castle which was held by English forces, in July 1300 King Edward I of England marched north with an army including eighty-seven of the Barons of England and several knights of Brittany and Lorraine. John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond was among Edwards most trusted warriors and is said to have been present and he was a son of the John II, Duke of Brittany who had grown up in Edwards court and it was said that Edward treated him as a son. The Maxwells, under their chief Sir Eustace Maxwell, made a defence which repelled the English several times
25.
Duke of Buccleuch
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Anne was created Duchess of Buccleuch in her own right along with her husband, so that the title was unaffected by Monmouths attainder of 1685. The title passed on to his descendants, who have borne the surnames Scott, Montagu-Scott. In 1810, the 3rd Duke of Buccleuch inherited the Dukedom of Queensberry, also in the Peerage of Scotland, Sir Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch distinguished himself at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh. His great-grandson Sir Walter was created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606, other subsidiary titles associated with the Dukedom of Buccleuch are, Earl of Buccleuch, Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Scott of Whitchester and Eskdaill. The Earldom of Doncaster and Barony of Scott of Tindale had been forfeit at the time of the first Dukes attainder, until 1835, the Dukes also held lands in the West Riding of Yorkshire and the ancient title of Lord of Bowland. The Duke of Buccleuch is the chief of Clan Scott. The courtesy title used by the Dukes eldest son and heir is Earl of Dalkeith, Sir Walter Scott, Bart. was directly descended of the Lords of Buccleuch. His family history, fancifully interpreted, is the subject of much of The Lay of the Last Minstrel. The title originally comes from a holding in the Scottish Borders and these three houses are still lived in by the family and are also open to the public. The family also owns Dalkeith Palace in Midlothian, which is let and its historic London residence was Montagu House, Whitehall, now demolished. Most of the Dukes of Buccleuch are buried in the Buccleuch Memorial Chapel in St. Marys Episcopal Church, Dalkeith, the 2nd Duke is buried in Eton College Chapel. The most recent Dukes are buried among the ruins of Melrose Abbey in Melrose. Nick Carraway, the narrator of F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby, says his family has a tradition that were descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch, but then points out that this is not true
26.
Earl of Salisbury
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Earl of Salisbury is a title that has been created several times in British history. It has a history, being first created for Patrick de Salisbury in the middle twelfth century. It was eventually inherited by Alice, wife of Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, when the Earl of Lancaster lost his titles and was executed for treason in 1322, the Countess surrendered all of her titles to the King, and the titles lapsed. The title was created for a time in 1337 for William Montacute. It was inherited later by Richard Neville the Kingmaker, upon death the title went into abeyance because multiple individuals were entitled to inherit it. Then, in 1472, it was granted to George, Duke of Clarence, when the Duke of Clarence was executed in 1478 for treason, the title was forfeit. It was then granted to Edward of Middleham, who died in 1484 at the age of 11, in 1605 the title was given to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, a close advisor to James I. Cecil was a son of Queen Elizabeth Is chief advisor, William Cecil, for information on this creation, see the Marquess of Salisbury. George Plantagenet, 1st Earl of Salisbury, son-in-law of the last Neville earl, after 1485 he was kept in custody and did not attend the House of Lords under any title, in the intervening months, he was too young to sit. He was executed and attainted in 1499 at the age of 24, at which point all his titles and it is possible, however, that he had used it as a courtesy title, as it was a subsidiary title of his father. Margaret Plantagenet, Countess of Salisbury, only sister of the above, sources differ on whether the Earldom of Salisbury restored to her was her fathers or her grandfathers
27.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
28.
Order of the Golden Fleece
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It became one of the most prestigious orders in Europe. The chaplain of the Austrian branch is Cardinal Graf von Schönborn and it is restricted to a limited number of knights, initially 24 but increased to 30 in 1433, and 50 in 1516, plus the sovereign. The Orders first King of Arms was Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, so that those knights and gentlemen who shall see worn the order. Should honor those who wear it, and be encouraged to employ themselves in noble deeds, the bishop of Châlons, chancellor of the Order, rescued the fleeces reputation by identifying it instead with the fleece of Gideon that received the dew of Heaven. He was succeeded as king by Philip V, a Bourbon, in either case the sovereign, as Duke of Burgundy, writes the letter of appointment in French. These, and other awards by Joseph, were revoked by King Ferdinand on the restoration of Bourbon rule in 1813, napoleon created by Order of 15 August 1809 the Order of the Three Golden Fleeces, in view of his sovereignty over Austria, Spain and Burgundy. This was opposed by Joseph I of Spain and the new order was never awarded, in 1812 the acting government of Spain awarded the order to the Duke of Wellington, an act confirmed by Ferdinand on his resumption of power, with the approval of Pope Pius VII. Wellington therefore became the first Protestant to be awarded the Golden Fleece and it has subsequently also been awarded to non-Christians, such as Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand. There was another crisis in 1833 when Isabella II became Queen of Spain in defiance of Salic Law that did not allow women to become heads of state and her right to award the Fleece was challenged by Spanish Carlists. Sovereignty remained with the head of the Spanish house of Bourbon during the republican and Francoist periods and is today by the present King of Spain. Knights of the Order are entitled to be addressed with the style His/Her Excellency in front of their name, King Juan Carlos I of Spain – Former Sovereign of the Order as King of Spain from 1975 to 2014. The problem of inheritance was avoided on the accession of Maria Theresa in 1740 as sovereignty of the Order passed not to herself but to her husband. Sovereignty remains with the head of the House of Habsburg, which was handed over on 20 November 2000 by Otto von Habsburg to his elder son, die Schatzkammer in Wien, Symbole abendländischen Kaisertums. Der Schatz des Ordens vom Goldenen Vlies, ISBN 3-7017-0541-0 Boulton, DArcy Jonathan Dacre,1987
29.
Duchy of Burgundy
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Upon the extinction of the line with the death of Duke Philip I in 1361, the duchy fell back to King John II of France and the royal House of Valois. The Burgundian duchy rose to a complex of a European scale after in 1363 King John II of France ceded the duchy to his younger son Philip of Valois. By his marriage with Countess Margaret of Flanders, he laid the foundation for a Burgundian realm further north in the Low Countries collectively known as the Burgundian Netherlands. The Burgundian sphere, in its own right, was one of the largest ducal territories that existed at the time of the emergence of Early Modern Europe. Including the thriving regions of Flanders and Brabant, it was a centre of trade. After about one hundred years of Valois-Burgundy rule, however, the last duke Charles the Bold rushed to the Burgundian Wars and was killed in the 1477 Battle of Nancy. With the abdication of the Habsburg emperor Charles V in 1556, the Burgundians settled in the area around Dijon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Autun and Châtillon-sur-Seine, and gave the name to the region. The Kingdom of the Burgundians was annexed by the Merovingian Kings of the Franks Childebert I in 534 following their defeat by the Franks and it was recreated, however, on several occasions when Frankish territories were redivided between the sons on the death of a Frankish king. As part of the Kingdom of the Franks, Burgundy maintained a semi-autonomous existence, with the Burgundians maintaining their own law code, however, southern Burgundy was pillaged by the Saracen invasion of the 8th century. When Charles Martel drove the invaders out, he divided Burgundy into four commands, Arles-Burgundy, Vienne-Burgundy, Alamanic Burgundy and he appointed his brother Childebrand governor of Frankish Burgundy. Under the Carolingians, Burgundian separatism lessened and Burgundy became a geographical term. As a vital military defender of the West Frankish border, Guerin was sometimes known by the Latin term for leader – Dux or Duke, by the time of Richard the Justiciar, the Duchy of Burgundy was beginning to emerge. Richard was officially recognised by the king as a duke, he stood as individual count of each county he held. As Duke of Burgundy, he was able to wield an increasing amount of power over his territory, to the collective body of his territory there came to be applied the term ducatus. Included in the ducatus of Richard were the regions of Autunais, Beaunois, Avalois, Lassois, Dijonais, Memontois, Attuyer, Oscheret, under Richard, these territories were given law and order, protected from the Normans, and served as a haven for persecuted monks. It was from his territories in Burgundy that he drew the resources needed to fight those who challenged his right to rule, under Hugh the Black came the beginning of what would be a long and troubled saga for Burgundy. His neighbours were the Robertian family, who held the title of Duke of Francia and this family, wanting to improve their standing in France and against the Carolingian kings, attempted to subject the duchy to the suzerainty of their own duchy. They failed, eventually, when they appeared close to success, they were forced to scrap the scheme, two brothers of Hugh Capet, the first Capetian King of France, took up the rule of Burgundy as duke
30.
Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor
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Henry VII was the King of Germany from 1308 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1312. He was the first emperor of the House of Luxembourg, born around 1275 in Valenciennes, he was a son of Count Henry VI of Luxembourg and Béatrice from the House of Avesnes. Raised at the French court, he was the lord of comparatively small properties in a peripheral and predominantly French-speaking part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was symptomatic of the weakness that during his rule as the Count of Luxembourg, he agreed to become a French vassal. During his rule of Luxembourg, he ruled effectively, especially in keeping the peace in local feudal disputes, Henry became caught up in the internal political machinations of the Holy Roman Empire with the assassination of King Albert I on 1 May 1308. Almost immediately, King Philip of France began aggressively seeking support for his brother, Charles of Valois, Philip thought he had the backing of the French Pope Clement V, and that his prospects of bringing the empire into the orbit of the French royal house were good. He lavishly spread French money in the hope of bribing the German electors, although Charles of Valois had the backing of Henry, Archbishop of Cologne, a French supporter, many were not keen to see an expansion of French power, least of all Clement V. The principal rival to Charles appeared to be Rudolf, the Count Palatine, Henry of Cologne’s brother, Baldwin, Archbishop of Trier, won over a number of the electors, including Henry, in exchange for some substantial concessions. Consequently, Henry skillfully negotiated his way to the crown, elected with six votes at Frankfurt on 27 November 1308, Henry was subsequently crowned at Aachen on 6 January 1309. In July 1309, Pope Clement V confirmed Henrys election and he agreed to crown Henry Emperor at Candlemas 1312personally, the title having been vacant since the death of Frederick II. Yet the newly crowned king had local issues to deal with before he could seek the imperial crown, Henry was approached by part of the Bohemian nobility and some important and influential ecclesiastics to intervene in Bohemia. In July 1310 he engineered the removal of Henry of Carinthia and he therefore confirmed them in their imperial fiefs by October 1309, in exchange, Leopold of Habsburg agreed to accompany Henry in his Italian expedition, and to provide a body of troops as well. He also saw it, together with the crowns of Italy and Arles and it was hoped that this would lessen the tensions in Italy between the anti-imperial Guelphs, who looked to the King of Naples for leadership, and the pro-imperial Ghibellines. Negotiations broke down due to Robert’s excessive monetary demands, as well as through the interference of Philip, while these negotiations were taking place, Henry began his descent into northern Italy in October 1310, with his eldest son John remaining in Prague as the Imperial vicar. As Emperor, Henry had planned to restore the glory of the Holy Roman Empire, each of these contests had created bitter losers, each of whom looked to the emperor-elect for restitution. Henry expressed both his high-minded idealism and lack of craft in his plan to require all the cities of Lombardy to welcome back their exiles. He received both parties, Guelph or Ghibelline, courteously, in the beginning he showed no obvious favoritism to either party, nevertheless, he insisted that the current rulers in all of the Italian city-states had usurped their powers. He insisted that the towns should come under the control of the Empire
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Codex Manesse
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The codex was produced in Zürich, for the Manesse family. The manuscript is the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries, the Codex Manesse is an anthology of the works of a total of about 135 Minnesingers of the mid 12th to early 14th century. For each poet, a portrait is shown, followed by the text of their works, most of the poems are Minnesang, but there are also other genres, including fables and didactic poems. Some images are motivated by the biography of the person depicted, the house of Manesse declined in the late 14th century, selling their castle in 1393. The fate of the codex during the 15th century is unknown, in 1604, Melchior Goldast published excerpts of its didactic texts. After 1657 it was in the French royal library, from which it passed to the Bibliothèque Nationale, in 1888, after long bargaining, it was sold to the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg, following a public subscription headed by William I and Otto von Bismarck. The first critical editions of the Codex Manesse appeared in the nineteenth century. The codex is frequently referred to by Minnesang scholars and in editions simply by the abbreviation C, introduced by Karl Lachmann, two leaves of a 15th-century copy of the manuscript, called the Troßsche Fragment, were held in the Berlin State Library, but went missing in 1945. The possibility that the compiler was the Minnesinger Johannes Hadlaub provided the subject of a novella, Hadlaub. Walter Koschorreck and Wilfried Werner, editors, Kommentar zum Faksimile des Codex Manesse, commentary to the facsimile edition, with essays by Wilfried Werner, Ewald Vetter, Walter Koschorreck, Hugo Kuhn, Max Wehrli and Ewald Jammers
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Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
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Canton of St. Gallen
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The canton of St. Gallen is a canton of Switzerland. Located in Northeastern Switzerland, the canton has an area of 2,026 km² and it was formed in 1803 as a conflation of the city of St. Gallen, the territories of the Abbey of St. Gall and various former subject territories of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The canton of St. Gallen is a construct of various historical territories. About half of the area corresponds to the acquisitions of the abbey of St. Gallen over centuries. The city of St. Gallen became independent of the Abbey in 1405, at the same time, the Abbey lost control of the Appenzell. Conversely, the Toggenburg was acquired by the Abbey in 1468, both the City and the Abbey were associates of the Old Swiss Confederacy, but unlike Appenzell never joined as full members. The territories at Lake Zürich, Walensee and Rheintal remained independent until 1798, in the Helvetic Republic, the northern parts of the modern canton together with Appenzell became the Canton of Säntis, while its southern parts together with Glarus became the canton of Linth. The founding of St. Gallen is based on the Irish monk Gallus, around 720, one hundred years after Galluss death, the Alemannic priest Othmar built an abbey and gave it the name Abbey of St. Gallen. In 926 Hungarian raiders attacked the abbey and surrounding town, about 1205 the abbot became a prince of the church in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1311 St. Gallen became a Free imperial city, by about 1353 the guilds, headed by the cloth-weavers guild, gained control of the civic government. In 1415 the city bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund, in 1405 the Appenzell estates of the abbot successfully rebelled and in 1411 they became allies of the Old Swiss Confederation. A few months later the town of St. Gallen also became allies and they joined the everlasting alliance as full members of the Confederation in 1454 and in 1457 became completely free from the abbot. However, in 1451 the abbey became an ally of Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, in early 1490 the four cantons supported the Abbot against the rebellious city and the Appenzell. Following their victory the Confederation took ownership of the city of St. Gallen, starting in 1526 then-mayor and humanist Joachim von Watt introduced the reformation in the city of St. Gallen. The town converted to the new reformed religion while the Abbey remained Roman Catholic, while iconoclastic riots forced the monks to flee the city and removed images from the citys churches, the fortified Abbey remained untouched. The Abbey would remain a Catholic stronghold in the Protestant city until 1803, in April 1798, the territories of the later canton of St. Gallen were divided between the Cantons of Säntis and Linth of the Helvetic Republic (along with Appenzell, Glarus and parts of Schwyz. However, the two new Cantons had immediate financial problems and were forced to institute a number of unpopular taxes, the Abbey was secularized on 17 September 1798 and the Prince-Abbot Pankraz Vorster fled to Vienna. The unpopular laws and the closing of the Abbey caused unrest throughout the area, when the War of the Second Coalition broke out in 1799, an Austrian army marched into eastern Switzerland and returned the Prince-Abbot to his throne at the Abbey
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Swiss National Museum
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The Swiss National Museum — part of the Musée Suisse Group, itself affiliated with the Federal Office of Culture — is one of the most important art museums of cultural history in Europe. It is located in the city of Zurich, Switzerlands largest city, the museum building of 1898 in the historicist style was built by Gustav Gull in the form of the French Renaissance city chateaus. The exhibition tour takes the visitor from prehistory through ancient times, there is a very rich section with gothic art, chivalry and a comprehensive collection of liturgical wooden sculptures, panel paintings and carved altars. Zunfthaus zur Meisen near Fraumünster church houses the porcelain and faience collection of the Swiss National Museum, the boats of the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft start their round trips on the Limmat through the city of Zürich at the Swiss National Museum. Media related to Swiss National Museum at Wikimedia Commons National Museum Zurich
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Gelre Armorial
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The Gelre Armorial is a medieval armorial. The armorial was compiled before 1396 by one Claes Heinenzoon who was a herald in the service of the Duke of Guelders, the book displays some 1,800 coats-of-arms from all over Europe, in color, and is one of the most important sources for medieval heraldry. The Gelre Armorial manuscript is preserved in the Royal Library of Belgium. A copy from around 1500, produced by Cornelis Enghebrechtsz, is preserved in the library of Hoge Raad van Adel and this version, however, only contains 1400 arms. From 1880 to 1905, Victor Bouton produced 60 copies with hand-coloured arms, the book also contains the oldest known depiction linking the Danish king to the red flag with white cross. On folio page 55v of the armorial, behind the horn is a lance tip with a banner. The text left of the coat of arms says die coninc van denmarke and this is the earliest known coloured image of the Dannebrog. Gelre Armorial in Gallica Facebookpage on the Gelre Armorial Text version of the Gelre Armorial
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Royal Library of Belgium
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The Royal Library of Belgium is one of the most important cultural institutions in Belgium. The library has a history that goes back to the age of the Dukes of Burgundy, in the second half of the 20th century, a new building was constructed on the Mont des Arts in central Brussels, near the Central Station. The library owns several collections of importance, like the famous Fétis archives. There are four million volumes in the Royal Library, including a rare book collection numbering 45,000 works. The library has more than 700,000 engravings and drawings,150,000 maps and plans and this coin collection holds one of the most valuable coins in the field of numismatics, a fifth-century Sicilian tetradrachm. The Royal Library is open for reference only, patrons must be at least eighteen years of age and must pay an annual membership fee. Having more than 6 million books, the Royal Library of Belgium is the biggest library of the country and it also serves as collection point of Dutch language artworks. Made up of around 60 smaller collections concerning music, the department is a significant resource for the study of music history in Belgium. The most representative pieces are part of collections of François-Joseph Fétis, Eugène Ysaÿe, Henri Vieuxtemps, Marc Danval, Yves Becko, Denijs Dille, the Royal Library of Belgiums Music Division is considered one of Belgiums most important centers for the preservation and study of music-related documents. The Music Division maintains a rich and varied collection composed of hundreds of thousands of manuscript and printed scores, among the oldest pieces of the Fétis Collection are several late 15th century manuscripts by theorist Johannes Tinctoris. Through legal deposit, the Music Division also acquires a number of musicological works. The Music Division assumes a role within various international associations, notably IAML, RILM. The non-profit organization Archives Béla Bartók de Belgique was created in 2002 and has its headquarters in the Music Division, the “Librarium” is a permament exhibition dedicated to the history of the book. The Librarium consists of 6 halls each shedding a different light on carriers of writing, in the first hall the book emergence is introduced. The whole room is dedicated to show the relation between word and image, the collection material is changed every three months. Moreover, the exhibition shows furnished rooms of Henry Van de Velde, Michel de Ghelderode, 1837-1850, Frédéric de Reiffenberg 1850-1887, Louis-Joseph Alvin 1887-1904, Edouard Fétis 1904-1909, Henri Hymans 1909-1912, Joseph Van den Gheyn, S. J
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National Library of the Netherlands
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The National Library of the Netherlands is based in The Hague and was founded in 1798. King Louis Bonaparte gave the library its name of the Royal Library in 1806. It has been known as the National Library of the Netherlands since 1982, the institution became independent of the state in 1996, although it is financed by the Department of Education, Culture and Science. In 2004, the National Library of the Netherlands contained 3,300,000 items, most items in the collection are books. There are also pieces of literature, where the author, publisher, or date may not be apparent. The collection contains almost the entire literature of the Netherlands, from medieval manuscripts to modern scientific publications, for a publication to be accepted, it must be from a registered Dutch publisher. The collection is accessible for members, any person aged 16 years or older can become a member. One day passes are also available, requests for material take approximately 30 minutes. The KB hosts several open access websites, including the Memory of the Netherlands, list of libraries in the Netherlands European Library Nederlandse Centrale Catalogus Media related to Koninklijke Bibliotheek at Wikimedia Commons Official website
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Lucerne
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Lucerne is a city in central Switzerland, in the German-speaking portion of the country. Lucerne is the capital of the canton of Lucerne and part of the district of the same name. With a population of about 81,057 people, Lucerne is the most populous town in Central Switzerland, and a nexus of economics, transportation, culture, and media of this region. The citys urban area consists of 17 municipalities and towns located in three different cantons with a population of about 250,000 people. Owing to its location on the shores of Lake Lucerne and its outflow, one of the citys famous landmarks is the Chapel Bridge, a wooden bridge first erected in the 14th century. The official language of Lucerne is German, but the spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. After the fall of the Roman Empire beginning in the 6th century, in 1178 Lucerne acquired its independence from the jurisdiction of Murbach Abbey, and the founding of the city proper probably occurred that same year. The city gained importance as a strategically located gateway for the commerce from the Gotthard trade route. By 1290 Lucerne had become a self-sufficient city of size with about 3000 inhabitants. About this time King Rudolph I von Habsburg gained authority over the Monastery of St. Leodegar and its lands, the populace was not content with the increasing Habsburg influence, and Lucerne allied with neighboring towns to seek independence from their rule. Along with Lucerne, the three other forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden formed the eternal Swiss Confederacy, known as the Eidgenossenschaft, later the cities of Zürich, Zug and Bern joined the alliance. With the help of these additions, the rule of Austria over the area came to an end, the issue was settled by Lucerne’s victory over the Habsburgs in the Battle of Sempach in 1386. For Lucerne this victory ignited an era of expansion, the city shortly granted many rights to itself, rights which had been withheld by the Habsburgs until then. By this time the borders of Lucerne were approximately those of today, in 1415 Lucerne gained Reichsfreiheit from Emperor Sigismund and became a strong member of the Swiss confederacy. The city developed its infrastructure, raised taxes, and appointed its own local officials, the city’s population of 3000 dropped about 40% due to the Black Plague and several wars around 1350. In 1419 town records show the first witch trial against a male person, among the growing towns of the confederacy, Lucerne was especially popular in attracting new residents. As the confederacy broke up during Reformation after 1520, most cities became Protestant, after the victory of the Catholics over the Protestants in the Battle at Kappel in 1531, the Catholic towns dominated the confederacy. The future, however, belonged to the Protestant cities like Zürich, Bern and Basel, the former prominent position of Lucerne in the confederacy was lost forever
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