1.
Science Museum (London)
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The Science Museum is a major museum on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. It was founded in 1857 and today is one of the major tourist attractions. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the Science Museum does not charge visitors for admission. Temporary exhibitions, however, may incur an admission fee and it is part of the Science Museum Group, having merged with the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in 2012. It included a collection of machinery which became the Museum of Patents in 1858, and this collection contained many of the most famous exhibits of what is now the Science Museum. In 1883, the contents of the Patent Office Museum were transferred to the South Kensington Museum, in 1885, the Science Collections were renamed the Science Museum and in 1893 a separate director was appointed. The Art Collections were renamed the Art Museum, which became the Victoria. When Queen Victoria laid the stone for the new building for the Art Museum, she stipulated that the museum be renamed after herself. On 26 June 1909 the Science Museum, as an independent entity, the Science Museums present quarters, designed by Sir Richard Allison, were opened to the public in stages over the period 1919–28. This building was known as the East Block, construction of which began in 1913, as the name suggests it was intended to be the first building of a much larger project, which was never realized. It also contains hundreds of interactive exhibits, a recent addition is the IMAX 3D Cinema showing science and nature documentaries, most of them in 3-D, and the Wellcome Wing which focuses on digital technology. Entrance has been free since 1 December 2001, the museum houses some of the many objects collected by Henry Wellcome around a medical theme. The fourth floor exhibit is called Glimpses of Medical History, with reconstructions, the fifth floor gallery is called Science and the Art of Medicine, with exhibits of medical instruments and practices from ancient days and from many countries. The collection is strong in clinical medicine, biosciences and public health, the museum is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. The Science Museum has a library, and until the 1960s was Britains National Library for Science, Medicine. It holds runs of periodicals, early books and manuscripts, and is used by scholars worldwide and it was, for a number of years, run in conjunction with the Library of Imperial College, but in 2007 the Library was divided over two sites. The Imperial College library catalogue search system now informs searchers that volumes formerly held there are Available at Science Museum Library Swindon Currently unavailable, a new Research Centre with library facilities is promised for late 2015 but is unlikely to have book stacks nearby. The Science Museums medical collections have a scope and coverage
2.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
3.
V12 engine
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By using split crankpins or ignoring minor vibrations, any V angle is possible. The 180° configuration is referred to as a flat-twelve engine or a boxer although it is in reality a 180° V since the pistons can. This is not important in a car if all-out performance is the only goal. Since cost and fuel economy are usually important even in luxury and racing cars and it is often used in marine engines where great power is required, and the hull width is limited, but a longer vessel allows faster hull speed. In twin-propeller boats, two V12 engines can be enough to sit side-by-side, while three V12 engines are sometimes used in high-speed three-propeller configurations. Large, fast cruise ships can have six or more V12 engines, after World War II, the compact, more powerful, and vibration-free turboprop and turbojet engines replaced the V12 in aircraft applications. The first V-type engine was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach, by 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in-line four-cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12 marine racing engine—the first V12 engine produced for any purpose, a single camshaft mounted in the central V operated the valves directly. As in many engines, the camshaft could be slid longitudinally to engage a second set of cams. Starting is by pumping a charge into each cylinder and switching on the trembler coils, a sliding camshaft gave direct reversing. The camshaft has fluted webs and main bearings in graduated thickness from the largest at the flywheel end, displacing 1,120 cu in, the engine weighed 950 pounds and developed 150 bhp. Little is known of the achievements in the 40-foot hull for which it was intended. One V12 Dörwald marine engine was still running in a Hong Kong junk in the late-1960s. Two more V12s appeared in the 1909-1910 motor boat racing season, the Lamb Boat & Engine Company of Clinton, Iowa built a 1,559 cu in engine for the companys 32-foot Lamb IV. It weighed in at 2,114 pounds, no weight is known for the massive 3,464 cu in F-head engine built by the Orleans Motor Company. Output is quoted as nearly 400 bhp, by 1914, when Panhard built two 2,356 cu in engines with four-valve cylinder heads the V12 was well established in motor boat racing. In October 1913, Louis Coatalen, chief engineer of the Sunbeam Motor Car Company entered a V12 powered car in the Brooklands short, the engine displaced 9 L, with bore and stroke of 80 x 150 mm. An aluminum crankcase carried two blocks of three cylinders each along each side, with a 60 degree included angle, the cylinders were of iron, with integral cylinder heads with L-shaped combustion chambers
4.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
5.
Rolls-Royce Limited
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This article covers from 1904 to 1987 when this business by then owned by Rolls-Royce plc was again listed on the Stock Exchange. For the present day owners of the business enterprise, see Rolls-Royce Holdings for aero-engines etc. Rolls-Royce Limited owned a British luxury-car and aero engine manufacturing business founded in 1904 by Charles Stewart Rolls, Rolls-Royce Limited was incorporated on 15 March 1906 as a vehicle for their ownership of their Rolls-Royce business. Their business quickly developed a reputation for superior engineering quality, best car in the world, Rolls-Royce became a leading manufacturer of piston aero-engines after it was brought into building them by the First World War. In the late 1960s, Rolls-Royce Limited became hopelessly crippled by its mismanagement of development of its advanced RB211 jet engine and the consequent cost over-runs. In 1971 their financial collapse was dealt with by sale, at a price which took years to negotiate, of the entire business to a new government-owned company. Insolvent Rolls-Royce Limited was put into liquidation, everything that could be sold off was sold off but more than 45 years later there are still assets remaining to be sold. Rolls-Royce Limited continued to trade and realise the surplus assets bought from the former company, in 1977 Rolls-Royce Limited, given the necessary consent, was re-named Rolls-Royce Limited. It remained nationalised until 1987 when, re-named Rolls-Royce plc, the government sold its shares to the public, today it owns and operates Rolls-Royces principal business though it is no longer listed on the stock exchange. Instead it has been a subsidiary of a holding company currently Rolls-Royce Holdings plc since 2003. A marketing survey in 1987 showed there was one brand name more widely known than Rolls-Royce. In 1884 Henry Royce started an electrical and mechanical business and he made his first car, a two-cylinder Royce 10, in his Manchester factory in 1904. Henry Royce was introduced to Charles Rolls at the Midland Hotel, Rolls was proprietor of an early motor car dealership, C. S. Rolls & Co. in Fulham. In spite of his preference for three- or four-cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the Royce 10, the first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. During 1906 Royce had been developing an improved model with more power than the Rolls-Royce 30 hp. Initially designated the 40/50 hp, this was Rolls-Royces first all-new model, the new 40/50 was responsible for Rolls-Royces early reputation with over 6,000 built. Its chassis was used as a basis for the first British armoured car used in world wars Aero-engine manufacture began in 1914 because the government requested it. After the First World War, Rolls-Royce successfully avoided attempts to encourage British car manufacturers to merge, faced with falling sales of the 40/50 Rolls-Royce introduced the smaller, cheaper Twenty in 1922, effectively ending the one-model policy followed since 1908
6.
Arthur Rowledge
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Arthur John Rowledge MBE, FRS was an English engineer who designed the Napier Lion aero engine and was a key figure in the development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin. Rowledge was born in Peterborough, Northamptonshire in 1876, the son of John and his father was described as a bricklayer in 1881. Arthur Rowledge joined Napier & Son in 1913 as Chief Designer, after designing car engines and the Napier Lion aero engine, Rowledge took up a similar position at Rolls-Royce Limited in 1921, where he became known as Rg in company shorthand. He is credited with designing the Condor III, the Kestrel and the Rolls-Royce R racing engine, Rowledge died on 11 December 1957, aged 81. 26 March 1920 - Member of the Order of the British Empire,1931 - Gold Medal of the Institution of Automobile Engineers for contributions to Schneider Trophy aero engine development, specifically development of the Rolls-Royce R engine. 1941 - Fellow of the Royal Society, Rolls-Royce Piston Aero Engines - a designer remembers, Historical Series no 16, Rolls Royce Heritage Trust,1990. ISBN 1-872922-00-7 Flightglobal. com - Six years progress of water-cooled engines by A. J. Rowledge, Flight,14 March 1930
7.
Supermarine S.6
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The Supermarine S.6 is a 1920s British single-engined single-seat racing seaplane built by Supermarine. The S.6 continued the line of Supermarine seaplane racers that were designed for Schneider Trophy contests of the late 1920, following the success of the Supermarine S.5 in the 1927 Schneider Trophy R. J. Mitchell designed a successor, the Supermarine S.6 to Specification 8/28, refining the design of the earlier S.5, Mitchell now used all-metal construction. Although its lineage was evident, the new design had to accommodate a new powerplant, the 875 hp Napier Lion VIIB engine was judged to be incapable of further development, and the S.6 was to use the new 1,900 hp Rolls-Royce R engine. Two aircraft were built at Woolston and operated by the RAF High Speed Flight, the two S.6 racers were entered into the 1929 Schneider Trophy at Calshot, England. N247 came first piloted by Flying Officer H. R. D, waghorn at a speed of 328.63 mph. N248 was disqualified when it turned one of the marker poles. All that could be done was to modify the S.6 to take a more powerful 2,350 hp version of the Rolls-Royce R engine, the two existing S. 6s were re-designated as S. 6As with new floats, added cooling areas and statically-balanced control surfaces. All four S. 6s were brought up to a standard with nine Rolls-Royce R engines shared between them. Although the British team faced no competitors, the RAF High Speed Flight brought six Supermarine Schneider racers to Calshot Spit on Southampton Water for training, if both S1595 and N248 failed in their attempts, N247 held in reserve would be used. The S. 6B S1596 was then to attempt the World Air Speed Record, during training N247 flown by Navy Lt. G. N. Brinton was destroyed in a takeoff accident, precluding any other plans with only the two S. 6Bs and the surviving S. 6A prepared for the final Schneider run. N248 remained as part of the team for the 1931 contest at Calshot, until the 1960s, S. 6A N248 was displayed incorrectly as S. 6B S1596 as a visitor attraction in a building adjacent to Southampton Royal Pier
8.
Supermarine S.6B
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The Supermarine S. 6B is a British racing seaplane developed by R. J. Mitchell for the Supermarine company to take part in the Schneider Trophy competition of 1931, the S. 6B marked the culmination of Mitchells quest to perfect the design of the racing seaplane and represented the cutting edge of aerodynamic technology. The last in the line developed by Supermarine, it followed the S.4, S.5 and this caused enormous public disappointment, having won two successive races a victory in a third race would secure the trophy outright. The RAF High Speed Flight was reformed, and Mitchell and Rolls-Royce set to work, additionally, the floats were extended forward by some three feet. Rolls-Royce had managed to increase the power of the engine by 400 hp to 2,300 hp, although the British team faced no competitors, the RAF High Speed Flight brought six Supermarine Schneider racers to Calshot Spit on Southampton Water for training and practice. The aircraft were, S.5 N219, second at Venice in 1927, S.5 N220, winner at Venice in 1927, two S. 6s with new engines and redesignated as S. 6As, and the newly built S. 6Bs, S1595 and S1596. The improved aircraft was designated the Supermarine S. 6B to differentiate the variant from the S. 6A, if both S1595 and N248 failed in their attempts, N247 held in reserve would be used. The S. 6B S1596 was then to attempt the World Air Speed Record, during practice, N247 was destroyed in a takeoff accident, resulting in the death of the pilot, Lieut. G. L. Brinton, R. N. precluding any other plans with only the two S. 6Bs and the surviving S.6 prepared for the final Schneider run, the winning Schneider flight was piloted by Flt. Lt. John Boothman in aircraft serial number S1595 at a speed of 340.08 mph, flying seven perfect laps of the course over the Solent. Seventeen days later, Flt Lt. George Stainforth in S. 6B serial S1596 broke the air speed record reaching 407.5 mph. The S. 6B is hailed as giving the impetus to the development of the Supermarine Spitfire, at the completion of the record flights, both S. 6Bs were retired. The Schneider Trophy winning S. 6B S1595 was donated to the Science Museum in London, for a short period of time, S1596 was tested at the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment at Felixstowe. Until the 1960s, S. 6A N248 was displayed incorrectly as S1596 at Southampton Royal Pier as a visitor attraction, the ultimate fate of the S1596 is unknown. Flight,2 October 1931, pp. 981–982
9.
Blue Bird K4
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Blue Bird K4 was a powerboat commissioned in 1939 by Sir Malcolm Campbell, to rival the Americans efforts in the fight for the world water speed record. The name K4 was derived from its Lloyds unlimited rating, and was carried in a prominent circular badge on the forward hull. K4 was built by Vosper & Company as a replacement to the Blue Bird K3 and it also used the same Rolls-Royce R engine. Conventional planing powerboats, such as Miss England or Blue Bird K3, have a single keel, at speed, the force on this step is enough to lift the bow upward, reducing the wetted surface area of the hull and thus also the frictional drag. A three pointer has a two distinctly separate floats fitted to the front, and a point at the rear of the hull. When the boat increases in speed, most of the hull out of the water. These points being even smaller in area than the hull of a monohull hydroplane, have even less drag. Having a broad spacing between the front planing points, the three-pointer is less susceptible to instability caused by small disturbances than is a monohull. However, if the bow lifts beyond its safety margin, the forces on the broad forward area of the hull will cause it to kite upwards, leading to a somersault. This is what happened to both Slo-mo-shun and Bluebird K7, K4 set one world water speed record on 19 August 1939 on Coniston Water, Cumbria, England. After World War II, Sir Malcolm unsuccessfully re-engined K4 with a de Havilland Goblin turbojet engine, the new superstructure did gain the nickname The Coniston Slipper. Donald Campbell had not previously attempted record-breaking, but after Sir Malcolms death at the end of 1948, under the terms of his will, Sir Malcolms possessions, including the record breakers, were auctioned off and Donald was forced to buy them back. K4 was then re-engined with a propellor and one of the previous Rolls-Royce R engines, a replica of K4 currently is on show at the Lakeland Motor Museum, Backbarrow. Donald Campbell, The Man Behind the Mask, Lakeland Motor Museum Malcolm Campbell and Bluebird K4
10.
Rolls-Royce Buzzard
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The Rolls-Royce Buzzard was a British piston aero engine of 36.7 litres capacity that produced about 800 horsepower. Designed and built by Rolls-Royce Limited it featured 12 cylinders in a V configuration of 6 in bore and 6.6 in stroke and it was manufactured in the late 1920s, but only 100 were sold. A further development was the Rolls-Royce R Schneider Trophy engine, the Buzzard was developed by scaling-up the Kestrel engine in the ratio of 5,6. Buzzard IMS, Maximum power 955 hp, nine engines produced at Derby, Buzzard IIMS, Maximum power 955 hp, reduced propeller drive ratio,69 engines produced at Derby. Buzzard IIIMS, Maximum power 937 hp, further reduced propeller drive ratio,22 engines produced at Derby
11.
Air racing
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The first heavier-than-air air race was held on May 23,1909 - the Prix de Lagatinerie, at the Port-Aviation airport south of Paris, France. Léon Delagrange who covered slightly more than half of the ten 1. 2-kilometre laps was declared the winner, some other minor events were held before the Grande Semaine dAviation de la Champagne in August 22–29,1909 at Reims, France. This was the first major international flying event, drawing the most important aircraft makers and pilots of the era, as well as celebrities and royalty. The premier event — the first Gordon Bennett Trophy competition — was won by Glenn Curtiss, Curtiss was named Champion Air Racer of the World. The first air race in the United States was held at Dominguez Field, just south of Los Angeles, from January 10 to 20,1910, organized by pilots A. Roy Knabenshue and Charles Willard. Funding was raised from railroad magnate Henry Huntington and the Los Angeles Merchants, william Randolph Hearst carried coverage of the event in his Los Angeles Examiner, and hired a hot air balloon with a promotional parse touting his newspaper. The event attracted 43 entrants, of which 16 appeared and it was there that aviation pioneer and military pilot Jimmy Doolittle, then thirteen, saw his first airplane. In 1913 the first Schneider Trophy seaplane race was held, of the 48 aircraft that started,33 would complete the double crossing of the continent. In 1921, the United States instituted the National Air Meets, in 1929, the Womens Air Derby, nicknamed the Powder Puff Derby, became a part of the National Air Races circuit. The National Air Races lasted until 1949, the Cleveland Air Races was another important event. In 1947, an All-Woman Transcontinental Air Race, also dubbed the Powder Puff Derby was established, in 1934, the MacRobertson Air Race from England to Australia took place with the winning de Havilland Comet flown by C. W. A. Scott and Tom Campbell Black. The National Championship Air Races were soon moved to the Reno Stead Airport and have held there every September since 1966. The five-day event attracts around 200,000 people, and includes racing around courses marked out by pylons for six classes of aircraft, Unlimited, Formula One, Sport Biplane, AT-6, Sport and Jet. It also features civil airshow acts, military flight demonstrations, numerous other venues across the United States, Canada, and Mexico have also hosted events featuring the smaller Formula One and Biplane classes. In 1970, American Formula One racing was exported to Europe, also in 1970, the California 1000 Air Race started at the Mojave Airport with a 66 lap unlimited air race that featured a Douglas DC-7 with one aircraft completing the circuit. Red Bull has created a series called the Red Bull Air Race World Championship in which competitors fly individually between pairs of pylons, while performing prescribed maneuvers, usually held over water near large cities, the sport has attracted large crowds and renewed media interest in air racing. Aero GP has multiple aircraft racing together pik around pylons, and is based in Europe where it has held an air race each year since 2005. Powered paragliding or paramotor races have been organized by the Parabatix Sky Racers with the first occurring on 4 September 2010 in an airfield in Montauban, restricting aircraft to a specific type or design creates a competition that focuses on pilot skill
12.
Supercharger
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A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
13.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
14.
Schneider Trophy
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The Coupe dAviation Maritime Jacques Schneider, commonly called the Schneider Trophy or Schneider Prize, was a trophy awarded annually to the winner of a race for seaplanes and flying boats. The Schneider Trophy is now held at the Science Museum, South Kensington, London, announced in 1912 by Jacques Schneider, a French financier, balloonist and aircraft enthusiast, the competition offered a prize of approximately £1,000. The race was held twelve times between 1913 and 1931 and it was intended to encourage technical advances in civil aviation but became a contest for pure speed with laps over a triangular course. The contests were staged as time trials, with setting off individually at pre-agreed times. The contests were popular and some attracted crowds of over 200,000 spectators. An earlier trophy, also presented by Jacques Schneider in 1910, in France, was the Schneider Cup, which is now in the possession of the RAF College Cranwell. If an aero club won three races in five years, they would retain the trophy and the pilot would receive 75,000 francs for each of the first three wins. Each race was hosted by the winning country. The races were supervised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale and the club in the hosting country. Each club could enter up to three competitors with an number of alternatives. The race was significant in advancing aeroplane design, particularly in the fields of aerodynamics and engine design, the Schneider Trophy is a sculpture of silver & bronze set on a marble base. It depicts a zephyr skimming the waves, and a winged figure is seen kissing a zephyr recumbent on a breaking wave. The heads of two other zephyrs and of Neptune, the god of the Sea, can be surrounded by octopus. The symbolism represents speed conquering the elements of sea and air, the first competition was held on 16 April 1913, at Monaco. It was won by a French Deperdussin at an speed of 73.56 km/h. The British won in 1914 with a Sopwith Tabloid at 139.74 km/h, after World War I, the competition resumed in 1919 at Bournemouth where in foggy conditions the Italian team won. They were later disqualified and the race was voided, in 1920 and 1921 at Venice the Italians won — in 1920 no other nation entered and in 1921 the French entry did not start. After 1921, a requirement was added, the winning seaplane had to remain moored to a buoy for six hours without human intervention
15.
Seaplane
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A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing on water. Seaplanes that can take off and land on airfields are in a subclass called amphibious aircraft. Their use gradually tailed off after World War II, partially because of the investments in airports during the war, the word seaplane is used to describe two types of air/water vehicles, the floatplane and the flying boat. A floatplane has slender pontoons, or floats, mounted under the fuselage, two floats are common, but other configurations are possible. Only the floats of a floatplane normally come into contact with water, some small land aircraft can be modified to become float planes, and in general, floatplanes are small aircraft. Floatplanes are limited by their inability to handle wave heights typically greater than 12 inches and these floats add to the empty weight of the airplane and to the drag coefficient, resulting in reduced payload capacity, slower rate of climb, and slower cruise speed. Most flying boats have small floats mounted on their wings to keep them stable, not all small seaplanes have been floatplanes, but most large seaplanes have been flying boats, with their great weight supported by their hulls. The term seaplane is used by some instead of floatplane and this is the standard British usage. This article treats both flying boats and floatplanes as types of seaplane, in the US fashion, an amphibious aircraft can take off and land both on conventional runways and water. A true seaplane can only take off and land on water, there are amphibious flying boats and amphibious floatplanes, as well as some hybrid designs, e. g. floatplanes with retractable floats. Modern production seaplanes are typically light aircraft, amphibious, and of a floatplane design, on 6 June 1905, Gabriel Voisin took off and landed on the River Seine with a towed kite glider on floats. The first of his flights was 150 yards. He later built a powered floatplane in partnership with Louis Blériot, other pioneers also attempted to attach floats to aircraft in Britain, Australia, France and the United States. On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre flew the first successful powered seaplane, the Gnome Omega-powered hydravion, fabres first successful take off and landing by a powered seaplane inspired other aviators, and he designed floats for several other flyers. The first hydro-aeroplane competition was held in Monaco in March 1912, featuring aircraft using floats from Fabre, Curtiss, Tellier and this led to the first scheduled seaplane passenger services, at Aix-les-Bains, using a five-seat Sanchez-Besa from 1 August 1912. The French Navy ordered its first floatplane in 1912, in 1911−12, François Denhaut constructed the first seaplane with a fuselage forming a hull, using various designs to give hydrodynamic lift at take-off. Its first successful flight was on 13 April 1912, throughout 1910 and 1911, American pioneering aviator Glenn Curtiss developed his floatplane into the successful Curtiss Model D land-plane, which used a larger central float and sponsons. Combining floats with wheels, he made the first amphibian flights in February 1911 and was awarded the first Collier Trophy for US flight achievement, from 1912, his experiments with a hulled seaplane resulted in the 1913 Model E and Model F, which he called flying-boats
16.
Flight airspeed record
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An air speed record is the highest airspeed attained by an aircraft of a particular class. The rules for all official records are defined by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Speed records are divided into classes with sub-divisions. There are three classes of aircraft, landplanes, seaplanes, and amphibians, then within these classes, there are still further sub-divisions for piston-engined, turbojet, turboprop, and rocket-engined aircraft. Within each of groups, records are defined for speed over a straight course. Records in gray font color are unofficial, including unconfirmed or unpublicized secrets, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird holds the official Air Speed Record for a manned airbreathing jet aircraft with a speed of 3,530 km/h. It was capable of taking off and landing unassisted on conventional runways, the record was set on 28 July 1976 by Eldon W. Joersz and George T. Morgan Jr. near Beale Air Force Base, California, US. SR-71 pilot Brian Shul reported in The Untouchables that he flew in excess of Mach 3.5 on April 15,1986, over Libya in order to avoid a missile. Whereas these were both demilitarised, modified fighters, the fastest piston-engined aeroplane in stock condition was the German Dornier Do 335 Pfeil, with a maximum speed of 474 mph in level flight. The unofficial record for fastest piston-engined aeroplane is held by a Supermarine Spitfire Mk IXX, the last new speed record ratified before the outbreak of World War II was set on 26 April 1939 with a Me 209 V1, at 755 km/h. The chaos, and secrecy, of World War II meant that new speed breakthroughs were not publicized nor ratified, in October 1941, an unofficial speed record of 1004 km/h was secretly set by a Messerschmitt Me 163 AV4 rocket aircraft. Continued research during the war extended the secret, unofficial speed record to 1130 km/h by July 1944, the first new official record in the post-war period was achieved by a Gloster Meteor in November 1945, at 976 km/h. The first aircraft to exceed the unofficial October 1941 record of the Me 163 AV4 was the Douglas Skystreak, the July 1944 unofficial record of the Me 163B V18 was officially surpassed in November 1947, when Chuck Yeager flew the Bell X-1 to 891 mph. The official speed record for a seaplane moved by piston engine - still valid today - is 709.209 km/h, from the seaplane Macchi-Castoldi M. C.72, attained on October 23,1934, by Francesco Agello. It was equipped with the Fiat AS.6 engine developing a power of 3100 hp at 3300 rpm, the original Macchi-Castoldi MC72 MM.181 seaplane that holds the record is kept in the Air Force Museum at Vigna di Valle in Italy. The fastest manned atmospheric vehicle of all time was the Apollo Command Module, while different from most peoples idea of an aircraft, the capsule did have a lift to drag ratio of around 0.368, which was used to control the flight trajectory. Flying between any two airports allow a number of combinations, so setting a speed record is fairly easy with an ordinary aircraft. List of vehicle speed records Lockheed X-7 - Mach 4.31 in the 1950s World record Allward, modern Combat Aircraft 4, F-86 Sabre
17.
Land speed record
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The land speed record is the highest speed achieved by a person using a vehicle on land. The land speed record is standardized as the speed over a course of fixed length, two runs are required in opposite directions within one hour, and a new record mark must exceed the previous one by at least one percent to be validated. There are numerous other records for cars, motorcycles fall into a separate class. The first regulators were the Automobile Club de France, who proclaimed themselves arbiters of the record in about 1902. 01sec, national or regional auto clubs had to be AIACR members to ensure records would be recognized. The AIACR became the FIA in 1947, controversy arose in 1963, Spirit of America was not recognised due to its being a three-wheeler and not wheel-driven so the FIA introduced a special wheel-driven class. She drove a six-cylinder Napier motorcar, a 100 hp development of the K5, through her career as a stuntwoman, she met Bill Fredrick, the stunt technology maker and high-speed car designer who built the Motivator vehicle. Craig Breedloves mark of 407.447 miles per hour, set in Spirit of America in September 1963, was considered unofficial. The vehicle breached the FIA regulations on two grounds, it had three wheels, and it was not wheel-driven, since its jet engine did not supply power to its axles. Some time later, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme created a non-wheel-driven category, on July 27,1964, Donald Campbells Bluebird CN7 posted a speed of 403.10 miles per hour on Lake Eyre, Australia. This became the official FIA LSR, although Campbell was disappointed not to have beaten Breedloves time, in October, several four-wheel jet-cars surpassed the 1963 mark, but were eligible for neither FIA nor FIM ratification. Thus, Art Arfons Green Monster was belatedly recognized as the absolute LSR holder, Bluebird the holder of the land speed record. No wheel-driven car has since held the absolute record, there is no wheel-driven category as such. The Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile validates records in a variety of classes, of which the classes are in Category A. The accepted record is fastest average speed recorded over any one-mile or one-kilometer distance, bloodhound SSC – Project aiming for 1,050 mph. Rosco McGlashan – Australias fastest man on the land and his Aussie Invader team is building a fully rocket-powered LSR car with an attempt at the record currently on hold pending funding. The Land Speed Record in the Sixties, an on-line collection Land speed Record site for dedicated enthusiasts
18.
Water speed record
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The World Unlimited water speed record is the officially recognised fastest speed achieved by a water-borne vehicle. The current record of 511 km/h was achieved in 1978, from 1909 to 1927 the record was an unofficial listing from the organisers of powerboat races. In 1928 the record category was officially established, from 1930 the rules of the record stipulated that a craft must make two runs over a timed kilometre course in opposite directions, with the record being the average speed of the two runs. The record is ratified by the Union Internationale Motonautique. With an approximate fatality rate of 85% since 1940, the record is one of the worlds most hazardous competitions. Until 1911 the world speed records were held by steam-powered, propeller-driven vehicles,1885, Nathanael Herreshoffs Stiletto,42.2 km/h,1893. Cogswells Feiseen,50.9 km/h,1897, Charles Algernon Parsons Turbinia,62.9 km/h,1903, in 1911 a 12 m stepped planing hull, Dixie IV, designed by Clinton Crane, became the first gasoline powered vessel to break the water speed record. Beginning in 1908 Alexander Graham Bell and engineer Frederick W. Casey Baldwin began experimenting with powered watercraft, in 1919, with Baldwin piloting their HD-4 hydrofoil, a new world water speed record of 114.0 km/h was set on Bras dOr Lake at Baddeck, Nova Scotia. During the 1920s powerboat racing was dominated by American businessman and racer Gar Wood, increased public interest generated by the speeds achieved by Wood and others led to an official speed record being ratified in 1928. The first person to try a record attempt was Gar Woods brother George, on 4 September 1928 he drove Miss America VII to 149.40 km/h on the Detroit River. The next year Gar Wood took the boat up a waterway Indian Creek, Miami. Like the land speed record, the record was destined to become a scrap for national honour between Britain and the USA. American success in setting records spurred Castrol Oil chairman Lord Wakefield to sponsor a project to bring the record to Britain. Famed land speed racer and racing driver Sir Henry Segrave was hired to pilot a new boat, although the boat wasn’t capable of beating Woods Miss America, the British team did gain experience, which was put into an improved boat. Miss England II was powered by two Rolls-Royce aircraft engines and seemed capable of beating Woods record, on 13 June 1930 Segrave piloted Miss England II to a new record of 158.94 km/h average speed during two runs on Windermere, in Britains Lake District. Having set the record, Segrave set off on a run to try to improve the record further. Unfortunately during the run, the boat struck an object in the water and capsized, following Segraves death, Miss England II was salvaged and repaired. Another racing driver, Kaye Don, was chosen as the new driver for 1931, however, during this time Gar Wood recaptured the record for the US at 164.41 km/h
19.
Henry Segrave
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Sir Henry ONeil de Hane Segrave was an early British pioneer in land speed and water speed records. Seagrave, who set three land and one record, was the first person to hold both titles simultaneously and the first person to travel at over 200 miles per hour in a land vehicle. He died in an accident in 1930 shortly after setting a new water speed record on Windermere in the Lake District. The Segrave Trophy was established to commemorate his life, Segrave, who was a British national, was born on 22 September 1896 in Baltimore, Maryland to an American mother and an Irish father. He was raised in Ireland and attended Eton College in England, in 1914 he gained a commission in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. In January 1916 he joined the Royal Flying Corps where he served as a fighter pilot and he sustained wounds in 1915 and 1916. Segrave became a commander as a temporary captain in July 1916. After the war, he transferred to the Royal Air Force Administrative Branch in 1919, after the conclusion of the war, British motor manufacturers were starting to build more reliable and faster vehicles. Although motor racing was in its infancy, Segrave would soon become a winning driver. In 1921 Segrave won the first long-distance car race to be run in Britain, the 200-mile Race, which was organised by the Junior Car Club for 1,500 c. c. light cars, was held at Brooklands in Surrey. Segrave won in a Darracq-made Talbot that were marketed as Talbot-Darracqs, in the same year Segrave competed in his first ever French Grand Prix, Darracq was reorganised as part of the S. T. D. In the 19221922 French Grand Prix, Segrave was forced to retire in his Grand Prix Sunbeams 1922 because of chemical burns, when he won the 1923 French Grand Prix in a Sunbeam, he became the first Briton to win a Grand Prix in a British car. In 1924 he won the San Sebastian Grand Prix at Circuito Lasarte, after a further win at Miramas in France, he retired from racing to concentrate on speed records. On 16 March 1926, Segrave set his first land speed record of 152.33 miles per hour using Ladybird and this record was broken a month later by J. G. Parry-Thomas driving Babs, a car with a 27-litre 450 hp V12 Liberty aero engine. A year later he became the first person to travel over 200 miles per hour when he regained the speed record at the Daytona Beach Road Course on 29 March 1927. Using Mystery, a 1000 HP Sunbeam, he recorded a speed of 203.79 miles per hour, on 11 March 1929, Segrave set his final land speed record again at Daytona Beach. Using a new car designed for him by Captain Jack Irving, the Golden Arrow, which was never used again, has only 18.74 miles on the clock
20.
Malcolm Campbell
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Major Sir Malcolm Campbell MBE was a British racing motorist and motoring journalist. He gained the world speed record on land and on water at times during the 1920s and 1930s using vehicles called Blue Bird. His son, Donald Campbell, carried on the tradition by holding both land speed and water speed records. Malcolm Campbell was born in Chislehurst, Kent on 11 March 1885, the son of William Campbell. He attended the independent Uppingham School, in Germany, learning the diamond trade, he gained an interest in motorbikes and races. Returning to Britain, he worked for two years at Lloyds of London for no pay, then for another year at £1 a week, between 1906 and 1908, he won all three London to Lakes End Trials motorcycle races. In 1910 he began racing cars at Brooklands and he christened his car Blue Bird, painting it blue, after seeing the play The Blue Bird by Maurice Maeterlinck at the Haymarket Theatre. Campbell married Marjorie Dagmar Knott in 1913 but divorced two years later, Campbell then married Dorothy Evelyn Whittall in 1920 and their son Donald was born in 1921, and their daughter, Jean, in 1923. Campbell married Betty Nicory in 1945 in Chelsea, at the outbreak of World War I Campbell initially enlisted as a motorcycle dispatch rider and fought at the Battle of Mons in August 1914. Shortly afterwards he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the 5th Battalion, Queens Own and he was soon drafted into the Royal Flying Corps where he served as a ferry pilot as his instructors believed he was too clumsy to make the grade as a fighter pilot. During the late 1930s he commanded the Provost Company of the 56th Division of the Territorial Army, on 23 January 1943 he was transferred from the Corps of Military Police to the General List. On 16 December 1945, having attained the age limit of 60 and he competed in Grand Prix motor racing, winning the 1927 and 1928 Grand Prix de Boulogne in France driving a Bugatti T37A. He broke the speed record for the first time in 1924 at 146.16 mph at Pendine Sands near Carmarthen Bay in a 350HP V12 Sunbeam, now on display at the National Motor Museum. Campbell broke nine land speed records between 1924 and 1935, with three at Pendine Sands and five at Daytona Beach and his first two records were driving a racing car built by Sunbeam. On 4 February 1927 Campbell set the speed record at Pendine Sands, covering the Flying Kilometre at 174.883 mph. He set his final land speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on 3 September 1935 and he developed and flotation-tested Blue Bird on Tilgate Lake, in Tilgate Park, Crawley. He set the speed record four times, his highest speed being 141.740 mph in the Blue Bird K4. He set the record on 19 August 1939 on Coniston Water, Cumbria and he stood for Parliament without success at the 1935 general election in Deptford for the Conservative Party, despite his links to the British Union of Fascists
21.
Donald Campbell
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Donald Malcolm Campbell CBE was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s. He remains the only person to set world land and water speed records in the same year. He died during an attempt at the Lake District in northern England. Campbell attended St Peters School, Seaford and Uppingham School, at the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer, subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine engineering, producing machine tools. Following his fathers death on New Years Eve,31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolms chief engineer, Leo Villa, Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday. He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club, Campbell was a restless man and seemed driven to emulate, if not surpass, his fathers achievements. He was generally light-hearted and was generally, at least until his 1960 crash at the Bonneville Salt Flats, behind the public façade of speed king, he was a complex character – proud and vulnerable, increasingly anxious about his place in the world. Campbell was a patriot and saw his achievements as being for the greater good of Britain. Campbell began his record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his fathers old boat, Blue Bird K4. His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did close to raising his fathers existing record. The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials, while there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayers, had raised the record from 141 to 160 mph, beyond K4s capabilities without substantial modification. Over the winter of 1950 to 1951, Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a prop-rider as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration. This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag as the third planing point would now be the propeller hub and she now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa. Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayers record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, returning to Coniston in September, they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at 170 mph which wrecked the boat. Sayers raised the record the year to 178 mph in Slo-Mo-Shun IV. Along with Campbell, Britain had another contender for Water Speed Record honours - John Cobb. He had commissioned the worlds first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, Crusader, with a speed of over 200 mph
22.
Rolls-Royce Merlin
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The Rolls-Royce Merlin is a British liquid-cooled V-12 piston aero engine of 27-litres capacity. Rolls-Royce designed the engine and first ran it in 1933 as a private venture, initially known as the PV-12, it was later called Merlin following the company convention of naming its piston aero engines after birds of prey. After several modifications, the first production variants of the PV-12 were completed in 1936, the first operational aircraft to enter service using the Merlin were the Fairey Battle, Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. A series of rapidly applied developments, brought about by wartime needs, markedly improved the engines performance, post-war, the Merlin was largely superseded by the Rolls-Royce Griffon for military use, with most Merlin variants being designed and built for airliners and military transport aircraft. Production ceased in 1950 after 160,000 engines had been delivered, Merlin engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and power many restored aircraft in private ownership worldwide. The PV-12 was first run on 15 October 1933 and first flew in a Hawker Hart biplane on 21 February 1935, the engine was originally designed to use the evaporative cooling system then in vogue. This proved unreliable and when supplies of ethylene glycol from the U. S. became available, the Hart was subsequently delivered to Rolls-Royce where, as a Merlin testbed, it completed over 100 hours of flying with the Merlin C and E engines. In 1935, the Air Ministry issued a specification, F10/35, fortunately, two designs had been developed, the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane, the latter designed in response to another specification, F36/34. Both were designed around the PV-12 instead of the Kestrel, and were the only contemporary British fighters to have been so developed, production contracts for both aircraft were placed in 1936, and development of the PV-12 was given top priority as well as government funding. Following the company convention of naming its piston engines after birds of prey, Rolls-Royce named the engine the Merlin after a small. Two more Rolls-Royce engines developed just prior to the war were added to the companys range and this was to be used in larger aircraft such as the Avro Manchester. Although the Peregrine appeared to be a design, it was never allowed to mature since Rolls-Royces priority was refining the Merlin. As a result, the Peregrine saw use in two aircraft, the Westland Whirlwind fighter and one of the Gloster F. 9/37 prototypes. The Vulture was fitted to the Avro Manchester bomber, but proved unreliable in service and the planned fighter using it – the Hawker Tornado – was cancelled as a result. With the Merlin itself soon pushing into the 1,500 hp range, the Griffon incorporated several design improvements and ultimately superseded the Merlin. Early production Merlins were also unreliable, Common problems were cylinder head cracking, coolant leaks, the prototype, developmental, and early production engine types were the, PV-12 The initial design using an evaporative cooling system. Two built, passed bench type testing in July 1934, generating 740 horsepower at 12, Merlin B Two built, ethylene glycol liquid cooling system introduced. Passed Type Testing February 1935, generating 950 horsepower at 11, Merlin C Development of Merlin B, crankcase and cylinder blocks became three separate castings with bolt-on cylinder heads
23.
Supermarine Spitfire
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The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries before, during and after World War II. The Spitfire was built in many variants, using several wing configurations and it was also the only British fighter to be in continuous production throughout the war. The Spitfire continues to be popular among enthusiasts, about 54 remain airworthy, Spitfire units, however, had a lower attrition rate and a higher victory-to-loss ratio than those flying Hurricanes because of its higher performance. Spitfires in general were tasked with engaging Luftwaffe fighters during the Battle, much loved by its pilots, the Spitfire served in several roles, including interceptor, photo-reconnaissance, fighter-bomber and trainer, and it continued to serve in these roles until the 1950s. The Seafire was an adaptation of the Spitfire which served in the Fleet Air Arm from 1942 through to the mid-1950s. As a consequence of this, the Spitfires performance and capabilities improved over the course of its service life and this made its first flight in February 1934. Of the seven designs tendered to F7/30, the Gloster Gladiator biplane was accepted for service and this led to the Type 300, with retractable undercarriage and the wingspan reduced by 6 ft. This was submitted to the Air Ministry in July 1934, but was not accepted, on 3 January 1935, they formalised the contract with a new specification, F10/35, written around the aircraft. On 5 March 1936, the prototype took off on its first flight from Eastleigh Aerodrome, at the controls was Captain Joseph Mutt Summers, chief test pilot for Vickers, who is quoted as saying Dont touch anything on landing. This eight-minute flight came four months after the flight of the contemporary Hurricane. K5054 was fitted with a new propeller, and Summers flew the aircraft on 10 March 1936, after the fourth flight, a new engine was fitted, and Summers left the test-flying to his assistants, Jeffrey Quill and George Pickering. They soon discovered that the Spitfire was a good aircraft. The rudder was over-sensitive and the top speed was just 330 mph, here, Flight Lieutenant Humphrey Edwardes-Jones took over the prototype for the RAF. He had been orders to fly the aircraft and then to make his report to the Air Ministry on landing. Edwardes-Joness report was positive, his only request was that the Spitfire be equipped with a position indicator. A week later, on 3 June 1936, the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 Spitfires, before any formal report had been issued by the A&AEE, the British public first saw the Spitfire at the RAF Hendon air-display on Saturday 27 June 1936. The first and most immediate problem was that the main Supermarine factory at Woolston was already working at full capacity fulfilling orders for Walrus and Stranraer flying boats. In February 1936 the director of Vickers-Armstrongs, Sir Robert MacLean, guaranteed production of five aircraft a week, on 3 June 1936, the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 aircraft, for a price of £1,395,000
24.
Rolls-Royce Griffon
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The Rolls-Royce Griffon is a British 37-litre capacity, 60-degree V-12, liquid-cooled aero engine designed and built by Rolls-Royce Limited. In keeping with convention, the Griffon was named after a bird of prey. Design work on the Griffon started in 1938 at the request of the Fleet Air Arm, in 1939 it was also decided that the engine could be adapted for use in the Spitfire. However, development was put on hold to concentrate efforts on the smaller Merlin and the 24-cylinder Vulture. The Griffon was the last in the line of V-12 aero engines to be produced by Rolls-Royce with production ceasing in 1955, Griffon engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and power the last remaining airworthy Avro Shackleton. According to Arthur Rubbras memoirs, a version of the R engine. This engine, R11, which was never flown, was used for Moderately Supercharged Buzzard development, in 1938 the Fleet Air Arm approached Rolls-Royce and asked whether a larger version of the Merlin could be designed. The requirements were that the new engine have good power at low altitude, work began on the design of the engine soon afterwards. The design process was relatively smooth compared with that of the Merlin, although the Griffon was designed for naval aircraft, on 8 November 1939 N E Rowe of the Air Ministry suggested fitting the Griffon in a Spitfire. Three weeks later permission was given to Supermarine to explore the possibilities of adapting the Griffon to the Spitfire and this decision led to a change in the disposition of the engine accessories to reduce the frontal area of the engine as much as possible. As a result the area of the bare Griffon engine was 7.9 square feet compared with 7.5 square feet of the Merlin. This redesigned engine first ran on 26 June 1940 and went into production as the Griffon II, the drive for the supercharger was also taken off the front of the engine, which required a long shaft to run to its location at the back of the engine. Production of the version of the Griffon ended in December 1955, while a marine version. Cylinders Twelve cylinders consisting of steel, floating wet liners set in two, two-piece cylinder blocks of cast aluminium alloy having separate heads and skirts. Cylinder liners chromium plated in the bores for 2 1⁄2 inches from the head, cylinder blocks mounted with an included 60-degree angle onto inclined upper faces of a two-piece crankcase. Cylinder heads fitted with cast-iron inlet valve guides, phosphor bronze exhaust valve guides, Two diametrically opposed spark plugs protrude into each combustion chamber. Pistons Machined from R. R.59 alloy forgings, fully floating gudgeon pins of hardened nickel-chrome steel. Two compression and one drilled oil-control ring above the gudgeon pin, connecting rods H-section machined nickel-steel forgings, each pair consisting of a plain and a forked rod
25.
Napier Lion
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The Napier Lion was a 12-cylinder broad arrow W12 configuration aircraft engine built by D. Napier & Son from 1917 until the 1930s. A number of advanced features made it the most powerful engine of its day and it is particularly well known for its use on a number of racing designs, in aircraft, boats and cars. Early in the First World War, Napier were contracted to build engines to designs from other companies, initially a Royal Aircraft Factory model. Both engines proved to be unreliable and in 1916 Napier decided to design an engine with power, light weight. Napiers engineers laid out the engine with its 12 cylinders in what they called a broad arrow—three banks of four cylinders sharing a common crankcase and this suggested the designs first name, the Triple-Four. The configuration is known as a W engine. Under Arthur Rowledge, the design of the engine, renamed Lion, was completed in 1917 and it was fitted to an Airco DH.9 in early 1918 and many cooling problems were observed during testing. The milled block was difficult to build with the required accuracy, both problems were solved by the middle of the year and the engine entered production in June 1918. The first Lion I versions delivered 450 horsepower from their 24 litres, the power output made the Lion the most powerful Allied aircraft engine, which had previously been the Liberty L-12, which produced 400 horsepower. As the most powerful available, the Lion went on to commercial success. Through the years between the wars the Lion was ubiquitous and Napier manufactured little else and they stopped making cars in 1925 and little thought was given to replacing their world-famous product. Between the wars the Lion engine powered over 160 different aircraft types, the record had been held by British drivers for 32 years. During the 1930s a new generation of much larger and more powerful engines appeared, by the time the Bristol Hercules and the Rolls-Royce Merlin arrived in the late 1930s, the Lion was obsolete. The Sea Lion, a version of the Lion, was used to power high speed RAF Rescue Launches. The Lion aero engine was adapted to power propeller-driven motor sleighs. Turning away from the broad arrow layout, Napier designed new engines using the more compact H engine layout, the 16-cylinder Napier Rapier produced 400 hp and the 24-cylinder Napier Dagger delivered just under 1,000 hp. Contemporary technical description of the Lion with photographs and drawings
26.
Supermarine S.5
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The Supermarine S.5 was a 1920s British single-engined single-seat racing seaplane built by Supermarine. Designed specifically for the Schneider Trophy competition, the S.5 was the progenitor of a line of racing aircraft that led to the Supermarine Spitfire. The Supermarine S.5 was designed by Reginald Mitchell for the 1927 Schneider Trophy, following the earlier loss of the S.4 before the 1925 Schneider Trophy event Mitchell designed a new all-metal monoplane racer. Unlike the S. 4s all-wood structure, the S.5 featured composite construction with the semi-monocoque fuselage mainly duralumin including the engine cowlings, the S.5 had a low, braced wing with spruce spars and spuce-ply ribs and a plywood skin. The wing surface made up of corrugated copper sheets replaced the Lamblin type radiators of the S.4. Three aircraft were built, one with a direct drive 900 hp Napier Lion VIIA engine, the first aircraft flew for the first time on 7 June 1927. The S. 5s came 1st and 2nd in the 1927 race held at Venice, one S.5, N221 crashed during an attempt on the world air speed record on 12 March 1928, killing the pilot Flight Lieutenant Samuel Kinkead.6. Concern over the unreliability of the Gloster VI, led to the High Speed Flight entering one S.5 along with the two S. 6s for the race. The S.5 flown by Flight Lieutenant DArcy Greig finished third in 46 minutes 15 seconds at a speed of 282.11 mph, behind the winning S.6 flown by Flying Officer H. R. Waghorn and a Macchi M.52. Ray Hilborne of Leisure Sports designed and built a full-scale S.5 replica which flew for the first time on 28 August 1975.5, in the song Bill Hosie by Archie Fisher, the protagonist rebuilds an S.5 Supermarine that survived the 1927 Schneider Trophy Race
27.
R. J. Mitchell
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Reginald Joseph Mitchell CBE, FRAeS, was an English aeronautical engineer, who worked for Supermarine Aviation. Between 1920 and 1936 he designed many aircraft and he is best remembered for his racing seaplanes, which culminated in the Supermarine S. 6B, and the iconic Second World War fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire. Mitchell was born at 115 Congleton Road, Butt Lane, Kidsgrove, Staffordshire, after leaving Hanley High School, a co-educational grammar school in Stoke-on-Trent, at the age of 16, he gained an apprenticeship at Kerr Stuart & Co. of Fenton, a locomotive engineering works. At the end of his apprenticeship he worked in the office at Kerr Stuart and studied engineering. In 1917 he joined the Supermarine Aviation Works at Southampton, advancing quickly within the company, Mitchell was appointed Chief Designer in 1919. He was made Chief Engineer in 1920 and Technical Director in 1927 and he was so highly regarded that when Vickers took over Supermarine in 1928, one of the conditions was that Mitchell stay as a designer for the next five years. Between 1920 and 1936, Mitchell designed 24 aircraft, Mitchell also designed light aircraft, fighters, and bombers. He was first noted in this period for his work on a series of racing seaplanes, the Supermarine S.4 was entered in 1925, but crashed before the race. Two Supermarine S.5 aircraft were entered in 1927, and finished first, the Supermarine S.6 won in 1929. The final entry in the series, the Supermarine S. 6B, the S. 6B won the Trophy in 1931 and broke the world air speed record 17 days later. Mitchell was awarded the CBE on 29 December 1931 for services in connection with the Schneider Trophy Contest, the technical skill that Mitchell used in the design of the Spitfire was developed in the evolution of the Schneider Trophy seaplanes. In 1931 the Air Ministry issued specification F7/30 for an aircraft to replace the Gloster Gauntlet. Mitchells proposed design, the Type 224 was one of three designs for which the Air Ministry ordered prototypes, the Type 224 first flew on 19 February 1934, but was eventually rejected by the RAF for unsatisfactory performance. While the 224 was being built, Mitchell was authorised by Supermarine in 1933 to proceed with a new design, the Type 300 and this was originally a private venture by Supermarine, but the RAF quickly became interested and the Air Ministry financed a prototype. Mitchells genius was bringing it all together with his experience of high speed flight, the first prototype Spitfire, serial K5054, flew for the first time on 5 March 1936 at Eastleigh, Hampshire. In later tests, it reached 349 mph, consequently, before the prototype had completed its official trials, Mitchell is reported to have said that Spitfire was just the sort of bloody silly name they would choose. In August 1933, Mitchell underwent a colostomy to treat rectal cancer, despite this, he continued to work, not only on the Spitfire, but also on a four-engined bomber, the Type 317. Unusually for a designer in those days, he took flying lessons
28.
Supermarine
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Supermarine was a British aircraft manufacturer that produced, among the others, a range of seaplanes and the Supermarine Spitfire fighter. Noel Pemberton Billing set up a company, Pemberton-Billing Ltd, in 1913 to produce sea-going aircraft and its telegraphic address, used for sending telegrams and cables to the company, was, Supermarine, Southampton. It produced a couple of prototypes using quadruplane designs to shoot down zeppelins, the Supermarine P. B.29, the aircraft were fitted with the recoilless Davis gun and the Nighthawk had a separate powerplant to power a searchlight. Upon election as an MP in 1916 Pemberton-Billing sold the company to his factory manager, the company became famous for its successes in the Schneider Trophy for seaplanes, especially the three wins in a row of 1927,1929 and 1931. The phrase Vickers Supermarine was applied to the aircraft, the first Supermarine landplane design to go into production was the famous and successful Spitfire. While the Hurricane was available in numbers and consequently played a larger role. It went on to play a part in the remainder of the war, in a number of variants and marks. Other planes from World War II include the Seafire, Supermarine also developed the Spiteful and Seafang, the successors of the Spitfire and Seafire, respectively, and the Walrus flying boat. The Supermarine main works was in Woolston, Southampton which led to the city being bombed in 1940. This curtailed work on their first heavy bomber design, the Supermarine B. 12/36 which was replaced by the Short Stirling, after the end of World War Two, the Supermarine division built the Royal Navys first jet fighter, the Attacker, developed from the final Spitfire type. It served front line squadrons aboard aircraft carriers and RNVR squadrons at shore bases, the Attacker was followed by the more advanced Swift which served in the fighter and photo-reconnaissance roles. The last of the Supermarine aircraft was the Scimitar, in the shakeup of British aircraft manufacturing, Vickers-Armstrongs became a part of the British Aircraft Corporation and the individual manufacturing heritage names were lost. Northshore Marine Motor Yachts now builds a range of motorboats under the Supermarine name in Chichester, Portsmouth, the name is also used for Spitfire replicas made by an Australian company in Cisco, Texas. The name was revived in 1990 by a company in Burslem called Supermarine Aero Engineering Ltd. that handbuilds parts for Spitfire planes, Supermarine Aircraft since 1914, Second edition. Beyond the Spitfire - The Unseen Designs of R. J. Mitchell, Schneider Trophy to Spitfire – The Design Career of R. J. Mitchell
29.
Ernest Hives, 1st Baron Hives
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Ernest Walter Hives, 1st Baron Hives CH MBE, was the one-time head of the Rolls-Royce Aero Engine division and chairman of Rolls-Royce Ltd. Hives was born in Reading, Berkshire, during the Second World War he was closely involved with the design of the Merlin engine as well as numerous later Rolls-Royce jet engines. He began his life in a local garage. However, in 1903 he got a job working at C. S, Rolls car company, after fixing Rolls car. After becoming a chief test driver in 1908, he led the RR team in the Austrian Alpine Trial in 1913. During the First World War the company designed its first aero-engine, the Eagle, in 1919 the Eagle powered the twin-engined Vickers Vimy bomber on the first direct flight across the Atlantic. Other notable engines were developed under Hives’ lead. In 1936 he became the works manager of the factory. Lived at 37, St. Chads Rd. Derby until around 1937, in 1937, thinking war would soon be inevitable, he prepared the firm for a massive production increase in Merlin engines by splitting facilities between engineering and production. As the Merlin powered Hurricanes and Spitfires, this was a decision of vital strategic significance when war did come and it was thanks to Hives that a total of a hundred and sixty thousand Merlins were produced by 1945. In 1941 Hives quickly decided ‘to go all out for the gas turbine’, ensuring the company’s leading role in developing jet engines for civil and military aviation. He was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour in the 1943 Birthday Honours and on 7 July 1950 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Hives and he played a critical role in the UK Nuclear Submarine programme. When the highly irascible but utterly pivotal Admiral Rickover visited the UK in 1957 to inspect the British nuclear design team at Rolls Rickover was “at his obnoxious worst”, after one particularly difficult morning he was introduced to Lord Hives. He died in April 1965, aged 79, and was succeeded in the barony by his son John and his younger daughter, Philippa Hives, married Judge Alexander Morrison in 1978
30.
Henry Royce
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Sir Frederick Henry Royce, 1st Baronet, OBE was an English engineer and car designer who, with Charles Rolls and Claude Johnson, founded the Rolls-Royce company. Frederick Henry Royce was born in Alwalton, Huntingdonshire, near Peterborough, in 1863, to James and Mary Royce and his family ran a flour mill which they leased from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners but the business failed and the family moved to London. His father died in 1872 and Royce had to go out to selling newspapers and delivering telegrams. In 1878 he started an apprenticeship with the Great Northern Railway company at its works in Peterborough thanks to the help of an aunt. After three years the money ran out and, after a time with a tool-making company in Leeds, he returned to London and joined the Electric Light. He moved to their Liverpool office in 1882 working on street, in 1894 they started making dynamos and electric cranes and F. H. Royce & Company was registered as a limited liability company. The company was re-registered in 1899 as Royce Ltd. with a share flotation. With his fascination for all things mechanical he became focused on motor cars and bought first, in 1901. This did not meet his standards and so he first improved it. Of the three, which were called Royce and had two engines, one was given to Ernest Claremont and the other sold to one of the other directors. These would be of two, three, four and six cylinders and would be badged as Rolls-Royce, the first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. Royce thus provided the expertise to complement Rolls financial backing. By 1907 the company was winning awards for the reliability of its cars. Royce & Company remained in business as a company making cranes until 1932 when it was bought by Herbert Morris of Loughborough. The last Royce-designed crane was built in 1964, the partnership ended when Rolls died in 1910 in a crash of his Wright Flyer. Royce had always worked hard and was renowned for never eating proper meals which resulted in his being taken ill first in 1902, ill health had forced his move away from Derby in 1912. In the same year, he had an operation in London and was given only a few months to live by the doctors. In spite of this he returned to work but was prevented from visiting the factory and he insisted on checking all new designs and engineers and draughtsmen had to take the drawings to be personally checked by him, a daunting prospect with his well-known perfectionism
31.
Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
32.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
33.
Connecting rod
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In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, historically, before the development of engines, they were first used in this way. As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull, earlier mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is required to push. Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines and these are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives. The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the late 3rd century AD Roman Hierapolis sawmill and it also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw mills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a − albeit mechanically misunderstood − compound crank, a sound understanding of the motion involved is displayed by the painter Pisanello who showed a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods. The first steam engines, Newcomens atmospheric engine, was single-acting, its piston only did work in one direction and their output rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously. Steam engines after this are usually double-acting, their internal pressure works on each side of the piston in turn. This requires a seal around the rod and so the hinge between the piston and connecting rod is placed outside the cylinder, in a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead. In a steam locomotive, the pins are usually mounted directly on one or more pairs of driving wheels. The connecting rods, run between the pins and crossheads, where they connect to the piston rods. Crossheads or trunk guides are used on large diesel engines manufactured for marine service. The connecting rods of smaller steam locomotives are usually of rectangular cross-section but, on small locomotives, stephen Lewin, who built both locomotive and marine engines, was a frequent user of round rods. Gresleys A4 Pacifics, such as Mallard, had an alloy steel connecting rod in the form of an I-beam with a web that was only 0.375 in thick. On Western Rivers steamboats, the rods are properly called pitmans
34.
Cylinder block
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A cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder of a reciprocating engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures. The term engine block is used synonymously with cylinder block. In the basic terms of elements, the various main parts of an engine are conceptually distinct. However, it is no longer the way of building most petrol engines and diesel engines, because for any given engine configuration. These generally involve integrating multiple machine elements into one discrete part and this yields lower unit cost of production. Thus engine block, cylinder block, or simply block are the likely to be heard in the garage or on the street. This evolution has occurred throughout the history of reciprocating engines, with instances of every conceptual variation coexisting here and there. The increase in prevalence of ever-more-integrated designs relied on the development of foundry. For example, a practical low-cost V8 engine was not feasible until Ford developed the techniques used to build the Ford flathead V8 engine, which soon also disseminated to the larger society. Today the foundry and machining processes for manufacturing engines are highly automated. A cylinder block is a unit comprising several cylinders, in the earliest decades of internal combustion engine development, monobloc cylinder construction was rare, cylinders were usually cast individually. Combining their castings into pairs or triples was a win of monobloc design. A wet liner cylinder block features cylinder walls that are entirely removable and they are referred to as wet liners because their outer sides come in direct contact with the engines coolant. In other words, the liner is the wall, rather than being merely a sleeve. Wet liner designs are popular with European manufacturers, most notably Renault and Peugeot, dry liner designs use either the blocks material or a discrete liner inserted into the block to form the backbone of the cylinder wall. Additional sleeves are inserted within, which dry on their outside. It is likelier to be scrapped, with new equipment—engine or entire vehicle—replacing it, most early engines, particularly those with more than four cylinders, had their cylinders cast as pairs or triplets of cylinders, then bolted to a single crankcase. As casting techniques improved, a cylinder block of 4,6
35.
Crankcase
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In an internal combustion engine of the reciprocating type, the crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft. The enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder, crankcases have often been discrete parts, but more often they are integral with the cylinder bank, forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area around the crankshaft is still called the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine components are typically made of cast iron or cast aluminium via sand casting. Today the foundry processes are highly automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands of parts. A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with a bolted joint. Some crankcase designs fully surround the main bearing journals, whereas many others form only one half. Some crankcase areas require no structural strength from the oil pan itself, besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves other functions, depending on engine type. A large number of small engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for their mixture. These are hugely common as petrol or gasoline engines for motorcycles, generator sets. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces, the side is the power piston. As the piston rises, it pushes out exhaust gases and produces a vacuum in the crankcase. As the piston downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase into the cylinder. Unlike larger engines, the crankcase does not contain only engine oil because it handles the fuel/air mixture, instead, oil is mixed in with the fuel supply as petroil, and this mixture provides splash lubrication for the cylinder walls, crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. These engines have used in larger sizes for small cars. Small diesel engines may use this type of crankcase compression. Such engines are uncommon, compared to petrol engines, but they are used for generators. Large two stroke engines do not use compression, but instead a separate scavenge blower or supercharger
36.
Propeller speed reduction unit
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A propeller speed reduction unit is a gearbox or a belt and pulley device used to reduce the output revolutions per minute from the higher input rpm of the powerplant. This allows the use of small displacement internal combustion engines to turn aircraft propellers within an efficient speed range. The Wright brothers recognised the need for reduction gearing in 1903. Large engines with high speeds and power outputs demanded propeller reduction. The challenge with coupling gearboxes to internal combustion engines is primarily the torsional resonance that can develop at certain speeds, the load of a propeller and reduction unit can alter the resonant frequencies of the crankshaft, allowing torsional vibration to increase rapidly to high levels at certain rotational speeds. Measures taken by the designer to mitigate torsional resonances in the design of the engine can be rendered ineffective if the resonant frequency is altered by the use of a reduction unit. Clutches and/or flexible couplings are used to prevent torsional resonance from reaching damaging levels. The Continental Tiara series engines were designed to drive their propellers directly from the camshaft, the use of a reduction unit is common in the construction of experimental homebuilt aircraft when automotive engines may be used. These engines, in addition to their lower cost, are smaller in cubic inch displacement and develop peak torque at high revolutions per minute. This speed is considered the maximum rpm for a single engine aircraft propeller due to the need to keep the propeller tip speed below the speed of sound. Factory certified aircraft engines have also used reduction units integral to their design, the Cessna 175 used a geared unit which is part of the Continental GO-300 engine while the Helio Courier and several Beechcraft twins, among others, used the geared Lycoming GO-435 and GO-480. Many light sport aircraft use engines from Rotax such as the Rotax 912 which incorporates a geared reducer
37.
Hiduminium
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The Hiduminium alloys or R. R. alloys are a series of high-strength, high-temperature aluminium alloys, developed for aircraft use by Rolls-Royce before World War II. They were manufactured and later developed by High Duty Alloys Ltd, the name Hi-Du-Minium is derived from that of High Duty Aluminium Alloys. The first of these Hiduminium alloys was termed R. R.50 and this alloy was first developed for motor-racing pistons, and was only later adopted for aircraft engine use. It was a development of the earlier Y alloy, the first of the light aluminium alloys. The alloys were in limited use for aircraft by 1929, being used in the Rolls-Royce R engine that was successful in the Schneider Trophy seaplane races and they quickly spread to other manufacturers, in 1931 being adopted by ABC for their Hornet engine. R. R.50 alloy was used for the crankcase and their first mass production use was in the Armstrong Siddeley Special saloon car of 1933. Armstrong Siddeley already having had experience of the alloy, and financial investment in its manufacturer, advantages of these alloys were recognised worldwide. When 576 pistons in Hiduminium R. R.59 alloy were used for the Italian Marshal Balbos trans-Atlantic flight, High Duty Alloys Ltd. was founded at Farnham Road, Slough in 1927, by Colonel W. C. The company began from the ruins of the World War I aero engine builder, Peter Hooker Limited of Walthamstow, Hookers licence-built the Gnôme engine, amongst other things, and for the aero engines chose to be known as The British Gnôme and Le Rhône Engine Co. They had become expert at working Y alloy, the post-war reduction in demand, and the plentiful supply of war-surplus engines, made times hard for all engine and component makers. After buying it at the beginning of 1920 BSA reviewed its operations, after some years in voluntary liquidation, Hookers operations ended in late 1927 when its workshops were sold. About that time an order was received, of some thousands of pistons for the Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar engine. Armstrong Siddeley had no other source for these pistons, so W. C. Devereux, works manager of Hooker, proposed to set up a new company to complete this order, john Siddeley loaned the money to re-purchase the necessary equipment and re-employ some of the staff from Hooker. As the buildings had already sold, the new company found premises in Slough. Demand from Rolls-Royce later led to expansion into a factory at Redditch and these materials were so crucial to aircraft production that with the outbreak of World War II a shadow factory was established in the remote area of Cumberland, at Distington, near Whitehaven. As well as producing ingots of raw alloy, manufacturing included the initial forging or casting processes, finish machining would be undertaken by the customer. Hiduminium was so successful that during World War II it was in use by all of the major British aero engine makers, in 1934 the Reynolds Tube Co. began production of extruded structural components for airframes, using R. R.56 alloy supplied by High Duty Alloys
38.
Aluminium alloy
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Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin, there are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for products, for example rolled plate, foils. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point, the most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al–Si, where the high levels of silicon contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required. Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal-skinned aircraft. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than aluminium alloys and much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will develop a white, protective layer of aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures, referred to as dissimilar-metal corrosion, this process can occur as exfoliation or as intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be heat treated. This causes internal element separation, and the metal then corrodes from the inside out, Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Aluminium alloys with a range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a system or by names indicating their main alloying constituents. Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its strength, density, ductility, formability, workability, weldability. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is too soft for such uses. Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater deformation in the elastic regime than a steel part of identical size and shape. Though there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, with completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing technology. Extrusions are particularly important in regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al–Mg–Si series
39.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
40.
Rocker arm
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A rocker arm is an oscillating lever that conveys radial movement from the cam lobe into linear movement at the poppet valve to open it. One end is raised and lowered by a lobe of the camshaft while the other end acts on the valve stem. When the camshaft lobe raises the outside of the arm, the inside presses down on the valve stem, when the outside of the arm is permitted to return due to the camshafts rotation, the inside rises, allowing the valve spring to close the valve. The drive cam is driven by the camshaft and this pushes the rocker arm up and down about the trunnion pin or rocker shaft. Friction may be reduced at the point of contact with the stem by a roller tip. A similar arrangement transfers the motion via another roller tip to a second rocker arm and this rotates about the rocker shaft, and transfers the motion via a tappet to the poppet valve. In this case this opens the valve to the cylinder head. Current automotive design favors rocker arm ratios of about 1.5,1 to 1.8,1, however, in the past smaller positive ratios and even negative ratios have been used. Many pre-World War II engines use a 1,1 ratio, for car engines the rocker arms are generally steel stampings, providing a reasonable balance of strength, weight and economical cost. Because the rocker arms are, in part, reciprocating weight, truck engines use stronger and stiffer rocker arms made of cast iron, or forged carbon steel. Dating back to the 19th century, rocker arms have been made with and without roller tips that press upon the valve
41.
Aircraft fairing
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An aircraft fairing is a structure whose primary function is to produce a smooth outline and reduce drag. These structures are covers for gaps and spaces between parts of an aircraft to form drag and interference drag, and to improve appearance. On aircraft, fairings are commonly found on, Cockpit fairing Also called a cockpit pod, commonly made from fiberglass, it may also incorporate a windshield. Elevator and horizontal stabilizer tips Elevator and stabilizer tips fairings smooth out airflow at the tips, the inlet and the nozzle in combination lead to an isotropic speed reduction around the cooling fins and due to the speed-squared law to a reduction in cooling drag. Fin and rudder tips fairings reduce drag at low angles of attack, fillets smooth the airflow at the junction between two components like fuselage and wing, or fuselage and fin. Fixed landing gear junctions Landing gear fairings reduce drag at these junctions, flap track fairings Most jet airliners have a cruising speed between Mach 0.8 and 0.85. For aircraft operating in the regime, wave drag can be minimized by having a cross-sectional area which changes smoothly along the length of the aircraft. This is known as the area rule, on subsonic aircraft such as jet airliners, this can be achieved by the addition of smooth pods on the trailing edges of the wings. These pods are known as anti-shock bodies, Küchemann Carrots, or flap track fairings, spinner To cover and streamline the propeller hub. Strut-to-wing and strut-to-fuselage junctions Strut end fairings reduce drag at these junctions, Tail cones Tail cones reduce the form drag of the fuselage, by recovering the pressure behind it. For the design speed they add no friction drag, Wing root Wing roots are often faired to reduce interference drag between the wing and the fuselage. On top and below the wing it consists of small rounded edge to reduce the surface, Wing tips Wing tips are often formed as complex shapes to reduce vortex generation and so also drag, especially at low speed. Wheels on fixed gear aircraft Wheel fairings are often called wheel pants, speed fairings or, in the UK and they also have the important function of preventing mud and stones from being thrown upwards against the wings or fuselage, or into the propeller on a pusher craft. Bicycle fairing Motorcycle fairing Payload fairing
42.
Automobile accessory power
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Automobile accessory power can be transferred by several different means. However, it is ultimately derived from the automobiles internal combustion engine, battery. The advent of high-powered batteries in hybrid and all-electrical vehicles is shifting the balance of technologies even further in the direction of electrically powered accessories, modern vehicles run most accessories on electrical power. Typically, only 2% of a total power output has gone towards powering accessories. Electrical and hybrid vehicles may use a proportion of energy for accessories, due to reduced inefficiencies in the drive train. Some automobile accessories are connected directly to the engine through gears or belts and these usually require large amounts of power. The air conditioning compressor has been an example, though new all-electric refrigerant compressors are starting to be used in production vehicles. Early automobiles used a magneto for ignition, which provided no accessory power, the first electrical accessory connection was supplied by a DC generator. Voltage varied with engine speed and because of limitations, complicated mechanical devices were used to regulate it. Even so, voltage at idle was too low to be useful, a lead-acid battery was used to provide proper voltage when the generator could not, and was recharged at higher engine speed or lower electrical load. The automobile self starter was an engine system to use this. Lighting, which had previously provided by kerosene lamps or gas lamps, was one of the first common electrical accessories. Early systems used 6 volts, but 12 volts became the standard because it provided power with less current. The original DC generator was replaced by a controlled by a voltage regulator. Due to mechanical and electrical properties, it is efficient to first produce alternating current. By regulating the current sent to the rotor and thus the strength of the magnetic field. Starting, lighting and ignition systems of most gasoline-powered vehicles remain as 12 volt systems, diesel-powered vehicles, including mobile construction equipment and heavy trucks use 24 volt electrical systems, as do many military vehicles. The main advantage of higher voltage is that components can be made with less metal, saving weight and cost
43.
Fuselage
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The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
44.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
45.
Crankpin
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In a reciprocating engine, the crankpins, also known as crank journals are the journals of the big end bearings, at the ends of the connecting rods opposite to the pistons. If the engine has a crankshaft, then the crankpins are the journals of the bearings of the crankshaft. In a beam engine, the single crankpin is mounted on the flywheel, In a steam locomotive, big end bearings are commonly bushings or plain bearings, but less commonly may be roller bearings. In a multi-cylinder engine, a crankpin can serve one or many cylinders, for example, In a straight or flat engine, in a V engine, each crankpin usually serves two cylinders, one in each cylinder bank. In a radial engine, each serves a entire row of cylinders. There are three common configurations of big end bearing, If a crankpin serves only one cylinder, then the big end is a simple design. This design is the cheapest to produce, and is used in, If a crankpin serves more than one cylinder, then the corresponding cylinders may have an offset, to simplify the design of the big end bearing. This design is used in, Most V engines, If more than one cylinder is served by a single crankpin but there is no offset, then some or all of the connecting rods must be forked at the big end. Any extra weight added to the big end itself also carries a penalty of adding vibration, as the number of cylinders grows, the effect of the offset on balance becomes less important, and forked connecting rods become less common. They are mainly used in, Single-row radial engines, some V-twin engines, notably including motorcycle engines. Connecting rod Crankshaft Crankshaft deep rolling
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