1.
Royal Bahraini Air Force
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The Royal Bahraini Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Bahrain Defense Force. Originally formed as the BDF Air Wing in 1977, it became an independent service branch in 1987 and its first combat operations were conducted during the Gulf War. The Bahrain Defence Force, which itself had come into being after the independence from the United Kingdom in 1971. This small force grew gradually and in 1987, the BDF was reorganized into distinct service branches, after the elections on 14 February 2002, the state changed from an emirate to a kingdom resulting in the renaming of the Armed Forces. The BAAF was consequently given its current title, the Royal Bahraini Air Force, the new Air Force was soon involved in its first combat operations during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait subsequent Gulf War. Initially, fifteen F-16 aircraft were deployed as the RBAF contribution to forces in the operation. Bahrains forces remained in Saudi Arabia in assistance of the coalition through 2015, an RBAF F-16 was lost when it crashed after a technical problem in December 2015. The BDF Air Wing was originally equipped with helicopters. These aircraft were of limited capability in comparison with the fighters entering service with other Gulf states such as Iran, Iraq, once this limit was removed, an order for a dozen F-16C/D Fighting Falcons was placed under the Peace Crown program. Deliveries commenced on 23 May 1990, just before the country involved in the Gulf War. The new F-16 unit was based at the newly-constructed Sheik Isa Air Base alongside the F-5s, a second batch of ten F-16s commenced delivery in 2000 under the Peace Crown II program. The new aircraft represented an increase in the air forces combat capabilities, as they were equipped to carry the AMRAAM missile. Air-to-air armament had been limited to the short-range AIM-9M Sidewinder missile, in July 2000, Bahrain signed a deal with BAE Systems to establish a pilot academy based around the Hawk Trainer, similar to the NFTC in Canada. Subsequently, orders were placed for Slingsby T67 Firefly and BAE Hawk trainers, the first trainers were delivered in October 2006. These are designated for use in a variety of roles, including combat search and they were the international launch customer for the UH-60M variant of the venerable S-70 helicopter family. Deliveries commenced on 1 December 2009 A single Sikorsky S-92 VVIP helicopter was purchased by the Air Force in 2007,27 September 2003, F-16C Block 40 Fighting Falcon crashed in the Persian Gulf,75 km north of Bahrain. This was the first F-16 loss for Bahrain and attributed to the pilot becoming disoriented during maneuvers,30 December 2015, An F-16 Fighting Falcon crashed in Jizan Province, Saudi Arabia while supporting the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. The pilot was recovered safely and the crash was attributed to technical issues, the air force had 650 personnel in 1992 and 1,500 in 2009
2.
Boeing 747SP
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The Boeing 747SP is a version of the Boeing 747 jet airliner which was designed for ultra-long-range flights. The SP stands for Special Performance, the 747SP is similar to the 747-100 except for the shortened fuselage, larger tailplane, and simplified trailing edge flaps. The weight saved by the shorter fuselage permits longer range and increased speed relative to other 747 configurations at the time, the aircraft also was intended to provide Boeing with a mid-size wide-body airliner to compete with existing trijet airliners. The 747SP first entered service with Pan Am in 1976, the aircraft was later acquired by VIP and government customers. While in service, the 747SP set several aeronautical performance records, but sales did not meet the expected 200 units, and production ultimately totaled 45 aircraft. The idea for the 747SP came from a request by Pan Am for a 747 variant capable of carrying a full payload non-stop on its longest route between New York and Tehran. Joined with Pan Ams request was Iran Air, their joint interest was for a high capacity airliner capable of covering Pan Ams New York–Middle Eastern routes, the aircraft was launched with Pan Ams first order in 1973 and the first example delivered in 1976. A shorter derivative of the 747-100, the SP was developed to two market requirements. The first was a need to compete with the DC-10 and L-1011 while maintaining commonality with the 747, until the arrival of the 767, Boeing lacked a mid-sized wide-body to compete in this segment. The second market requirement was a suitable for the ultra-long-range routes emerging in the mid-1970s following the joint request. These routes needed not only range, but also higher cruising speeds. Boeing could not afford to develop a design, instead opting to shorten the 747 and optimize it for speed and range. Originally designated 747SB for short body, it later was nicknamed Sutters balloon by employees after 747 chief engineer Joe Sutter, Boeing later changed the production designation to 747SP for special performance, reflecting the aircrafts greater range and higher cruising speed. Production of the 747SP ran from 1976 to 1983, however a VIP order for the Royal Flight of Abu Dhabi led Boeing to produce one last SP in 1987. Pan Am was the customer for the 747SP, taking the first delivery, Clipper Freedom. The 747SP was the longest-range airliner available until the 747-400 entered service in 1989, despite its technical achievements, the SP never sold as well as Boeing hoped. Only 45 were built and of remaining, most are used by operators in the Middle East. However, some of the work on the 747SP was reused with the development of the 747-300 and 747-400
3.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
Rolls-Royce Holdings
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This article is about the Rolls-Royce aircraft engine and power systems business and its owner since 1987. For previous owners, see Rolls-Royce Limited, for the present day manufacturers of automobiles for BMW, see Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. Rolls-Royce is the world’s second-largest maker of engines and has major businesses in the marine propulsion. All of its shares are tradeable on the London Stock Exchange, Rolls-Royce was the worlds 16th-largest defence contractor in 2011 and 2012 when measured by defence revenues. It had an order book of £71.6 billion as of January 2014. Rolls-Royce Holdings plc is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, as of June 2013, it had a market capitalisation of £22.22 billion, the 24th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange. Rolls-Royce grew from the business of F H Royce which was established in 1884 and ten years later began to manufacture dynamos. C S Rolls established a business with F H Royce in 1904 because Royce had developed a range of cars which Rolls wanted to sell. A corporate owner was incorporated in 1906 with the name Rolls-Royce Limited and its business and assets were bought by the government using a company created for the purpose named Rolls-Royce limited. This company remains in existence today and carries on Rolls-Royce business under the name Rolls-Royce plc, Rolls-Royce plc returned to the sharemarkets in 1987 under the government of Margaret Thatcher. In 2003 ownership of Rolls-Royce plc was passed to Rolls-Royce Group plc incorporated 21 March 2003 which issued its own new shares for payment to the previous shareholders. In 2011 in the same way Rolls-Royce Group plc passed ownership on 23 May 2011 to Rolls-Royce Holdings plc a wholly new company incorporated 10 February 2011, Rolls-Royce plc remains the principal trading company. Rolls-Royce Holdings plc, like its predecessor, is merely a holding company. The group included Clarke Chapman, Reyrolle and Parsons, the company was renamed Rolls-Royce Industrial Power Group. It was sold off piecemeal over the decade as the company re-focused on its core aero-engine operations following the recession of the early 1990s. On 21 November 1994, Rolls-Royce announced its intention to acquire the Allison Engine Company, the two companies had a technical association dating back to the Second World War. Rolls-Royce had previously tried to buy the company when General Motors sold it in 1993, owing to Allisons involvement in classified and export restricted technology, the 1994 acquisition was subject to investigation to determine the national security implications. On 27 March 1995, the US Department of Defense announced that the deal between Allison Engine Co. and Rolls-Royce does not endanger national security, in 2000, this restriction was replaced by a more flexible Special Security Arrangement
6.
Boeing 747
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The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, Jumbo Jet. Its distinctive hump upper deck along the part of the aircraft makes it among the worlds most recognizable aircraft. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years, as of January 2017, the 747 has been involved in 60 hull losses, resulting in 3722 fatalities. The four-engine 747 uses a configuration for part of its length. It is available in passenger, freighter and other versions, the 747 was expected to become obsolete after 400 were sold, but it exceeded critics expectations with production passing the 1,000 mark in 1993. By February 2017,1,528 aircraft had been built, the 747-400, the most common passenger version in service, has a high-subsonic cruise speed of Mach 0. 85–0.855 with an intercontinental range of 7,260 nautical miles. The newest version of the aircraft, the 747-8, is in production, deliveries of the 747-8F freighter version began in October 2011, deliveries of the 747-8I passenger version began in May 2012. In 1963, the United States Air Force started a series of projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft. The payload bay had to be 17 feet wide by 13.5 feet high and 100 feet long with access doors at the front. Featuring only four engines, the design required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were given study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric. All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features, as the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. In 1965 Lockheeds aircraft design and General Electrics engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, the nose door and raised cockpit concepts would be carried over to the design of the 747. The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s, the era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, had revolutionized long-distance travel. In 1965, Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeings 737 development team to manage the design studies for a new airliner, Sutter initiated a design study with Pan Am and other airlines, to better understand their requirements. At the time, it was thought that the 747 would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft. Boeing responded by designing the 747 so that it could be adapted easily to carry freight, in the freighter role, the clear need was to support the containerized shipping methodologies that were being widely introduced at about the same time. Standard containers are 8 ft square at the front and available in 20 and 40 ft lengths and this meant that it would be possible to support a 2-wide 2-high stack of containers two or three ranks deep with a fuselage size similar to the earlier CX-HLS project
7.
Boeing 757
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The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the manufacturers largest single-aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004. Intended to replace the smaller three-engine 727 on short and medium routes, the 757 was designed concurrently with a wide-body twinjet, the 767, and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft. The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original 757-200 entered service in 1983, the 757-200PF, a package freighter variant, and the 757-200M, a passenger-freighter combi model, debuted in the late 1980s. The stretched 757-300, the longest narrow-body twinjet ever produced, began service in 1999, passenger 757-200s have been modified to special freighter specification for cargo use, while military derivatives include the C-32 transport, VIP carriers, and other multi-purpose aircraft. Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research, all 757s are powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans. Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983, the narrow-body twinjet succeeded earlier single-aisle airliners, and became commonly used for short and mid-range domestic routes, shuttle services, and transcontinental U. S. flights. After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water in 1986, major customers for the 757 included U. S. mainline carriers, European charter airlines, and cargo companies. The airliner has recorded eight hull-loss accidents, including seven fatal crashes, production of the 757 ended in October 2004, after 1,050 had been built for 54 customers. The 757-200 was by far the most popular model, with 913 built, diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement, in favor of the 737 family. The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005, in July 2015,738 of the narrow-body twinjets were in airline service, Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft. In the early 1970s, following the launch of the wide-body 747, designed for short and medium length routes, the three-engined 727 was the best-selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U. S. domestic airline market. Studies focused on improving the 189-seat 727-200, the most successful 727 variant, two approaches were considered, a stretched 727-300, and an all-new aircraft code-named 7N7. United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727-300, which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975, although the 727-300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers, customer interest remained insufficient for further development. Instead, airlines were drawn to the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight technologies, lower weight, improved aerodynamics. These features were included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size wide-body airliner, code-named 7X7. Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s, by 1978, development studies focused on two variants, a 7N7-100 with seating for 160, and a 7N7-200 with room for over 180 seats. New features included a wing, under-wing engines, and lighter materials, while the forward fuselage, cockpit layout
8.
Boeing 767
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The Boeing 767 is a mid- to large-size, long-range, wide-body twin-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It was Boeings first wide-body twinjet and its first airliner with a glass cockpit. The aircraft has two engines, a conventional tail, and, for reduced aerodynamic drag, a supercritical wing design. Development of the 767 occurred in tandem with a narrow-body twinjet, the 767 is produced in three fuselage lengths. The original 767-200 entered service in 1982, followed by the 767-300 in 1986 and the 767-400ER, the extended-range 767-200ER and 767-300ER models entered service in 1984 and 1988, respectively, while a production freighter version, the 767-300F, debuted in 1995. Engines featured on the 767 include the General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000, United Airlines first placed the 767 in commercial service in 1982. The aircraft was flown on domestic and transcontinental routes, during which it demonstrated the reliability of its twinjet design. In 1985, the 767 became the first twin-engined airliner to receive approval for extended overseas flights. The aircraft was used to expand non-stop service on medium- to long-haul intercontinental routes. In 1986, Boeing initiated studies for a higher-capacity 767, ultimately leading to the development of the 777, in the 1990s, the 767 became the most frequently used airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe. The 767 is the first twinjet wide-body type to reach 1,000 aircraft delivered, as of February 2017, Boeing has received 1,204 orders for the 767 from 74 customers,1,097 have been delivered. A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2016, competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200, while a successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in October 2011. Despite this, the 767 still remains in production, in 1970, Boeings 747 became the first wide-body jetliner to enter service. The 747 was the first passenger jet that was enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body aircraft intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body jets. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and this marked the manufacturers first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. At this stage the aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By 1976, a layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300
9.
Lockheed L-1011 TriStar
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The Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, commonly referred to as the L-1011 or TriStar, is a medium-to-long-range, wide-body trijet airliner by Lockheed Corporation. It was the third wide-body airliner to enter commercial operations, after the Boeing 747, the airliner has a seating capacity up to 400 passengers and a range over 4,000 nautical miles. Its trijet configuration has three Rolls-Royce RB211 engines with one engine under each wing, and an engine, center-mounted with an S-duct air inlet embedded in the tail. The aircraft has a capability, an automated descent control system. The L-1011 TriStar was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original L-1011-1 first flew in November 1970, and entered service with Eastern Air Lines in 1972. The shortened, longer range L-1011-500 first flew in 1978, the original-length TriStar was also produced as the high gross weight L-1011-100, up-rated engine L-1011-200, and further upgraded L-1011-250. Post-production conversions for the L-1011-1 with increased takeoff weights included the L-1011-50 and L-1011-150, between 1968 and 1984, Lockheed manufactured a total of 250 TriStars, assembled at the Lockheed plant located at the Palmdale Regional Airport in southern California north of Los Angeles. The aircrafts sales were hampered by two years of delays due to developmental and financial problems at Rolls-Royce plc, the manufacturer of the TriStars engines. After production ended, Lockheed withdrew from the aircraft business due to its below-target sales. Lockheed had not produced civilian airliners since 1961 with the L-188 Electra, in the 1950s the Electra was designed for turboprop propulsion, which Lockheed had successfully used on the C-130 Hercules military transport. Lockheed won contracts for jet military transports with the C-141 StarLifter, Boeing lost the military contract, but its private venture 747 captured what would become a much larger civilian airliner market for wide-body airliners. Having experienced difficulties with some of their programs, Lockheed was eager to re-enter the civilian market with a smaller wide-body jet. The aircraft was conceived as a jumbo twin, but a three-engine design was ultimately chosen to give the aircraft enough thrust to take off from existing runways. The design featured an interior with a maximum of 400 passengers, a three-engine layout, low noise emissions, improved reliability. A further major difference between the L-1011 and the DC-10 was Lockheeds selection of the Rolls-Royce RB211 as the engine for the L-1011. As originally designed, the RB211 turbofan was an advanced design with a carbon fiber fan. This made the L-1011 more efficient, a selling point. The L-1011 and DC-10s engineering approach differed greatly, by contrast Lockheed would take the most advanced technology of the day and when that technology was lacking, Lockheed created it for the L-1011
10.
Tupolev Tu-204
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The Tupolev Tu-204 is a twin-engined medium-range jet airliner capable of carrying 210 passengers, designed by Tupolev and produced by Aviastar SP and Kazan Aircraft Production Association. First introduced in 1989, it is intended to be equivalent to the Boeing 757, with slightly lower range and payload. It was developed for Aeroflot as a replacement for the medium-range Tupolev Tu-154 trijet, the latest version, with significant upgrades and improvements, is the Tu-204SM, which made its maiden flight on 29 December 2010. The Tu-204 was designed as a family of aircraft incorporating passenger, cargo, combi and it is powered by either two Aviadvigatel PS-90 or Rolls-Royce RB211 engines. The Tu-204 is produced at two of the largest Russian aircraft manufacturing plants in Ulyanovsk and Kazan, the Tu-204 cabin is available in several layouts, including the baseline single-class layout seating for 210 passengers and a two- or three-class layout designed for 164–193 passengers. A cargo version of the Tu-204 is being operated by several airlines in Europe. Seating configuration is 3-3 in economy and 2-2 in Business class, the business class cabin has a seat pitch of 810 millimetres. The passenger cabin can be divided into compartments according to class with removable bulkheads, compartments are illuminated by reflected light. Hidden lights located over and under the overhead bins create uniform, overhead bins for passenger baggage and coats are of the closed type. The volume of baggage per passenger is 0.052 cubic metres, in 1994, the first certificate for Tu-204 aircraft was issued. Subsequently issued certificates have extended estimated operational conditions and improved overall aircraft type design and it is currently undergoing the certification process with JAA. The Tu-204-100 variant, certified with PS-90A engines, complies with noise regulations described in Chapter 4 of Supplement 16 to ICAO which means it is quieter, the aircraft was certified to Russian standards AP-25. The Tu-204 is part of a new generation of Russian aircraft, the Tu-204 features many technological innovations such as fly-by-wire control systems, a glass cockpit, supercritical wings with winglets, and is available with Russian or foreign avionics. The wings and tails are relatively resistant to ice build-up, among todays airliners the Tu-204 is the only one which does not require wing anti-icing systems. During the test flight safety has been confirmed without the system on the bearing surfaces. The Tu-204 is the passenger airline model, and the Tu-204C is the basic freight or cargo model. The most-used models are the -100C and the -120C, certified in January 1995, this initial version is powered by Soloviev PS90 turbofans with 157 kN of thrust, and uses Russian avionics in addition to its Russian engines. The Tu-204-200 is a version with extra fuel for more range
11.
Rolls-Royce Trent
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Rolls-Royce Trent is a British family of three spool, high bypass turbofan aircraft engines manufactured by Rolls-Royce plc. All are developments of the RB211 with thrust ratings of 53,000 to 97,000 pounds-force, versions of the Trent are in service on the Airbus A330, A340, A350, A380, Boeing 777, and 787. The Trent has also adapted for marine and industrial applications. Its overall share of the markets in which it competes is around 40%, sales of the Trent family of engines have made Rolls-Royce the second biggest supplier of large civil turbofans after General Electric, relegating rival Pratt & Whitney to third position. In keeping with Rolls-Royces tradition of naming its jet engines after rivers, despite increasing sales success with the RB211, General Electric and Pratt & Whitney still dominated the market. At that time, the manufacturers were proposing new planes that would require unprecedented levels of thrust. Rolls-Royce decided that to succeed in the engine market of the future. In view of the development costs required to bring a new engine to market. Rolls decided to launch a new family of engines, which was announced at the 1988 Farnborough Airshow. Reviving a name last used 30 years earlier, the new engine was named the Trent. The name had been used for two previous Rolls-Royce engines, the first Trent was the worlds first turboprop engine, the second Trent was the 1960s RB203 bypass turbofan, designed to replace the Spey. Rated at 9,980 lbf it was the first three-spool engine, forerunner of the RB211 series, no aid was sought for Trent 1000. Launch investment is repaid to the government by a royalty on each engine sold, the basis for the Trent was the RB. 211-524L, work on which began in 1987. Like its RB211 predecessor, the Trent uses a design rather than the more common two-spool configuration. Although more complex, the engine is shorter and more rigid, the advantage three spools gives is that the front-most fan can be tuned to rotate at its optimal speed, the two compressors are driven by the two other turbines via their spools. Similarly, core size changes enable the turbine inlet temperature to be kept as low as possible. Trent engines use hollow titanium fan blades with an internal Warren-girder structure to achieve strength, for the Trent 800, the 110-inch diameter fan can rotate at 3300 rpm with a tip speed of about 483 m/s, well above the speed of sound. Each blade removes up to 560 kW from the gas stream, the completely redesigned core turbomachinery delivers better performance, noise and pollution levels than the RB211
12.
Rolls-Royce Limited
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This article covers from 1904 to 1987 when this business by then owned by Rolls-Royce plc was again listed on the Stock Exchange. For the present day owners of the business enterprise, see Rolls-Royce Holdings for aero-engines etc. Rolls-Royce Limited owned a British luxury-car and aero engine manufacturing business founded in 1904 by Charles Stewart Rolls, Rolls-Royce Limited was incorporated on 15 March 1906 as a vehicle for their ownership of their Rolls-Royce business. Their business quickly developed a reputation for superior engineering quality, best car in the world, Rolls-Royce became a leading manufacturer of piston aero-engines after it was brought into building them by the First World War. In the late 1960s, Rolls-Royce Limited became hopelessly crippled by its mismanagement of development of its advanced RB211 jet engine and the consequent cost over-runs. In 1971 their financial collapse was dealt with by sale, at a price which took years to negotiate, of the entire business to a new government-owned company. Insolvent Rolls-Royce Limited was put into liquidation, everything that could be sold off was sold off but more than 45 years later there are still assets remaining to be sold. Rolls-Royce Limited continued to trade and realise the surplus assets bought from the former company, in 1977 Rolls-Royce Limited, given the necessary consent, was re-named Rolls-Royce Limited. It remained nationalised until 1987 when, re-named Rolls-Royce plc, the government sold its shares to the public, today it owns and operates Rolls-Royces principal business though it is no longer listed on the stock exchange. Instead it has been a subsidiary of a holding company currently Rolls-Royce Holdings plc since 2003. A marketing survey in 1987 showed there was one brand name more widely known than Rolls-Royce. In 1884 Henry Royce started an electrical and mechanical business and he made his first car, a two-cylinder Royce 10, in his Manchester factory in 1904. Henry Royce was introduced to Charles Rolls at the Midland Hotel, Rolls was proprietor of an early motor car dealership, C. S. Rolls & Co. in Fulham. In spite of his preference for three- or four-cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the Royce 10, the first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. During 1906 Royce had been developing an improved model with more power than the Rolls-Royce 30 hp. Initially designated the 40/50 hp, this was Rolls-Royces first all-new model, the new 40/50 was responsible for Rolls-Royces early reputation with over 6,000 built. Its chassis was used as a basis for the first British armoured car used in world wars Aero-engine manufacture began in 1914 because the government requested it. After the First World War, Rolls-Royce successfully avoided attempts to encourage British car manufacturers to merge, faced with falling sales of the 40/50 Rolls-Royce introduced the smaller, cheaper Twenty in 1922, effectively ending the one-model policy followed since 1908
13.
Thrust
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Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Isaac Newtons second and third laws. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction, the mass will cause a force of equal magnitude. The force applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular or normal to the surface is called thrust. Force, and thus thrust, is measured in the International System of Units as the newton, in mechanical engineering, force orthogonal to the main load is referred to as thrust. A fixed-wing aircraft generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the blades of a propeller, or a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet engine. The forward thrust is proportional to the mass of the airstream multiplied by the difference in velocity of the airstream, reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, a motorboat generates thrust when the propellers are turned to accelerate water backwards. The resulting thrust pushes the boat in the direction from the combustion chamber through the rocket engine nozzle. For vertical launch of a rocket the initial thrust at liftoff must be more than the weight. Each of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines could produce a thrust of 1.8 MN, and each of the Space Shuttles two Solid Rocket Boosters 14.7 MN, together 29.4 MN. By contrast, the simplified Aid For EVA Rescue has 24 thrusters of 3.56 N each, in the air-breathing category, the AMT-USA AT-180 jet engine developed for radio-controlled aircraft produce 90 N of thrust. The GE90-115B engine fitted on the Boeing 777-300ER, recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the Worlds Most Powerful Commercial Jet Engine, has a thrust of 569 kN. The power needed to generate thrust and the force of the thrust can be related in a non-linear way and this helps to explain why moving through water is easier and why aircraft have much larger propellers than watercraft do. A very common question is how to contrast the thrust rating of a jet engine with the rating of a piston engine. Such comparison is difficult, as quantities are not equivalent. A piston engine does not move the aircraft by itself, so piston engines are rated by how much power they deliver to the propeller. Except for changes in temperature and air pressure, this quantity depends basically on the throttle setting, a jet engine has no propeller, so the propulsive power of a jet engine is determined from its thrust as follows
14.
American Airlines
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American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
15.
Eastern Air Lines
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Eastern Air Lines was a major American airline from 1926 to 1991. Before its dissolution it was headquartered at Miami International Airport in an area of Miami-Dade County. Eastern was one of the Big Four domestic airlines created by the Spoils Conferences of 1930 and it had a near monopoly in air travel between New York and Florida from the 1930s and 1940s and dominated this market for decades afterward. Labor disputes and high debt loads strained the company in the late 1970s, Frank Lorenzo acquired Eastern in 1985 and moved many of its assets to his other airlines, including Continental Airlines and Texas Air. After continued labor disputes and a strike in 1989, Eastern ran out of money and was liquidated in 1991. USAir acquired 11 of Easterns 25 Boeing 757-225s, Eastern pioneered hourly air shuttle service between New York City, Washington, DC and Boston in 1961 as the Eastern Air Lines Shuttle. It took over the South American route network of Braniff International in 1982 and also served London, Eastern Air Lines was a composite of assorted air travel corporations, including Florida Airways and Pitcairn Aviation. In the late 1920s, Pitcairn Aviation won a contract to fly mail between New York City and Atlanta, Georgia on Mailwing single-engine aircraft, in 1929, Clement Keys, the owner of North American Aviation, purchased Pitcairn. In 1930, Keys changed the name to Eastern Air Transport. After being purchased by General Motors and experiencing a change in leadership after the Airmail Act of 1934, in 1938 World War I flying ace Eddie Rickenbacker bought Eastern from General Motors. The complex deal was concluded when Rickenbacker presented Alfred P. Sloan with a check for $3.5 million. In March 1939 Eastern had 15 weekday departures from Newark, two from Chicago to Miami, one from Tampa to Atlanta and one from Tallahassee to Memphis and those flights and their returns were Easterns whole scheduled operation. It fit on one page in the Airways Guide, then as later, Eastern was the fourth largest airline in the country by passenger-miles. Rickenbacker pushed Eastern into a period of growth and innovation, for a time, Eastern was the most profitable airline in the post-war era, never needing state subsidy. In the late 1950s, Easterns position was eroded by subsidies to rival airlines, on October 1,1959, Rickenbackers position as CEO was taken over by Malcolm A. MacIntyre, a brilliant lawyer but inexperienced in airline operations. Rickenbackers ouster was due to his reluctance to acquire jets. Like many others, he underestimated their appeal to the public, a new management team headed by Floyd D. Hall took over on 16 December 1963, and Rickenbacker left his position as Director and Chairman of the Board on December 31,1963, aged 73. In 1956 Eastern bought Colonial Airlines, giving the airline its first routes to Canada, in November 1959, Eastern Air Lines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 at New York Citys Idlewild International Airport
16.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
17.
Douglas Aircraft Company
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The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace manufacturer based in Southern California. It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. Douglas Aircraft Company largely operated as a division of McDonnell Douglas after the merger. MD later merged with Boeing in 1997, the Douglas Aircraft Company was founded by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. on July 22,1921 in Santa Monica, California, following dissolution of the Davis-Douglas Company. An early claim to fame was the first circumnavigation of the world by air in Douglas airplanes in 1924. In 1923, the U. S. Army Air Service was interested in carrying out a mission to circumnavigate the Earth for the first time by aircraft, Donald Douglas proposed a modified Douglas DT to meet the Armys needs. The two-place, open cockpit DT biplane torpedo bomber had previously produced for the U. S. Navy. The DTs were taken from the lines at the companys manufacturing plants in Rock Island, Illinois and Dayton. The modified aircraft known as the Douglas World Cruiser, also was the first major project for Jack Northrop who designed the system for the series. After the prototype was delivered in November 1923, upon the completion of tests on 19 November. Due to the expedition ahead, spare parts, including 15 extra Liberty L-12 engines,14 extra sets of pontoons. These were sent to airports along the route, the last of these aircraft was delivered to the U. S. Army on 11 March 1924. After the success of the World Cruiser, the Army Air Service ordered six similar aircraft as observation aircraft. The success of the DWC established the Douglas Aircraft Company among the aircraft companies of the world. Douglas adopted a logo that showed aircraft circling a globe, replacing the original winged heart logo, the logo evolved into an aircraft, a rocket, and a globe. It was later adopted by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation, and then became the basis of the current logo of the Boeing Company after their 1997 merger, many Douglas aircraft had long service lives. Douglas Aircraft designed and built a variety of aircraft for the U. S. military, including the Navy, Army Air Forces, Marine Corps, Air Force. The company initially built torpedo bombers for the U. S. Navy, within five years, the company was building about 100 aircraft annually. Among the early employees at Douglas were Ed Heinemann, Dutch Kindelberger, and Jack Northrop, the company retained its military market and expanded into amphibian airplanes in the late 1920s, also moving its facilities to Clover Field at Santa Monica, California
18.
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
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The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 is a three-engine wide-body jet airliner manufactured by McDonnell Douglas. The DC-10 has range for medium- to long-haul flights, capable of carrying a maximum of 380 passengers and it features two turbofan engines mounted on underwing pylons and a third engine at the base of the vertical stabilizer. The model was a successor to McDonnell Douglass DC-8 for long-range operations, and competed in the markets as the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar. In its early years the DC-10 had a safety record, however. Production of the DC-10 ended in 1989 with 386 delivered to airlines and 60 to the U. S. Air Force as air-to-air refueling tankers, the largest operator of the DC-10 is U. S. cargo airline FedEx Express. The DC-10 was succeeded by the related McDonnell Douglas MD-11, the DC-10s last commercial passenger flight took place in February 2014, although freighter versions continue to operate. Despite the airliners popularity, only a few DC-10s are on display, DC-10s are also used for specialist services, such as the Orbis International Flying Eye Hospital, which has a compartment for performing eye surgery. Following an unsuccessful proposal for the U. S. Air Forces CX-HLS in 1965, the DC-10 became McDonnell Douglass first commercial airliner after the merger between McDonnell Aircraft Corporation and Douglas Aircraft Company in 1967. An early DC-10 design proposal was for a four-engine double-deck wide-body jet airliner with a seating capacity of 550 passengers similar in length of a DC-8. The proposal was shelved in favor of a trijet single-deck wide-body airliner with a seating capacity of 399 passengers. The DC-10 was first ordered by launch customers American Airlines with 25 orders, the first DC-10, a series 10, made its maiden flight on August 29,1970. Following a test program with 929 flights covering 1,551 hours and it entered commercial service with American Airlines on August 5,1971 on a round trip flight between Los Angeles and Chicago. United Airlines began DC-10 service on August 16,1971, americans DC-10s had 206 seats and Uniteds had 222, both had six-across seating in first-class and eight-across in coach. The DC-10s similarity to the Lockheed L-1011 in design, passenger capacity, the first DC-10 version was the domestic series 10 with a range of 3,800 miles with a typical passenger load and a range of 2,710 miles with maximum payload. The series 15 had a typical range of 4,350 miles. The series 20 was powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engines, before delivery of its aircraft, Northwests president asked that the series 20 aircraft be redesignated series 40 because the aircraft was much improved over the original design. The FAA issued the series 40 certificate on October 27,1972, the series 30 and 40 were the longer-range international versions. The main visible difference between the models is that the series 10 has three sets of landing gear while the series 30 and 40 have an additional centerline main gear, the center main two-wheel landing gear was added to distribute the extra weight and for additional braking
19.
Wide-body aircraft
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A wide-body aircraft is a jet airliner having a fuselage wide enough to accommodate two passenger aisles, also known as twin-aisle aircraft, with seven or more seats abreast. The typical fuselage diameter is 5 to 6 m, in the typical wide-body economy cabin, passengers are seated seven to ten abreast, allowing a total capacity of 200 to 850 passengers. The largest wide-body aircraft are over 6 m wide, and can accommodate up to eleven passengers abreast in high-density configurations, by comparison, a typical narrow-body airliner has a diameter of 3 to 4 m, with a single aisle, and seats between two and six people abreast. Wide-body aircraft were designed for a combination of efficiency and passenger comfort. However, airlines quickly gave in to economic factors, and reduced the passenger space in order to maximize revenue. Wide-body aircraft are used for the transport of commercial freight and cargo and other special uses. The biggest wide-body aircraft are known as jumbo jets due to their large size, examples include the Boeing 747, Airbus A380. The phrase, jumbo jet, derives from Jumbo, a circus elephant in the 19th century. 7-abreast aircraft seats typically 160 to 260 passengers, 8-abreast 250 to 380,9, following the success of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 in the late 1950s and early 1960s, airlines began seeking larger aircraft to meet the rising global demand for air travel. Engineers were faced with many challenges as airlines demanded more seats per aircraft, longer ranges. Early jet aircraft such as the 707 and DC-8 seated passengers along either side of a single aisle, larger aircraft would have to be longer, higher, or wider in order to accommodate a greater number of passenger seats. Engineers realized having two decks created difficulties in meeting emergency evacuation regulations with the available at that time. During the 1960s, it was believed that supersonic airliners would succeed larger, slower planes. Thus, it was believed that most subsonic aircraft would become obsolete for passenger travel, as a result, airline manufacturers opted for a wider fuselage rather than a taller one. By adding an aisle, the wider aircraft could accommodate as many as 10 seats across. The full length double-deck solution was not realized until the twenty-first century, the widebody age began in 1970 with the entry into service of the first widebody airliner, the four-engined, partial double-deck Boeing 747. New trijet widebody aircraft soon followed, including the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, the first widebody twinjet, the Airbus A300, entered service in 1974. This period came to be known as the widebody wars, in the jumbo category, the capacity of the Boeing 747 was not surpassed until October 2007, when the Airbus A380 entered commercial service with the nickname Superjumbo
20.
Hawker Siddeley Trident
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The Hawker Siddeley HS121 Trident was a British short and medium-range airliner. It was the first T-tail rear-engined three-engined jet airliner to be designed and it was also the first airliner to make a blind landing in revenue service in 1965. The Trident emerged in response to a call by the state-owned British European Airways Corporation for a jet airliner for its premier West European routes, BEA had been induced by the government to issue this call despite its unwillingness to buy a large jet fleet. The airlines requirements fluctuated greatly in the 1950s and a decade later evolved radically away from what the Trident could offer, adherence to BEAs changing specification was widely seen as limiting the Tridents appeal to other airlines and delaying its service entry. During its gestation, the Trident was also involved in a government drive to rationalise the British aircraft industry, by the end of the programme in 1978,117 Tridents had been produced. BEAs successor British Airways withdrew its Tridents by the mid-1980s, Trident services ended in China in the early 1990s. Following the entry service of jet airliners in 1952, many airline managers and economists remained sceptical. As a result of BAEs specification, Vickers developed a derivative of the Viscount for BEA, the Vickers Vanguard. In April 1956, Anthony Milward, chief executive of BEA stated that he would rather do without, in July 1956, BEA had announced what it called outline requirements for a short-haul second generation jet airliner, to work alongside its turboprop fleet. According to aviation author Derek Woods, BEA wanted something that was faster than the Caravelle which was threatening to be highly competitive, while not intended as an express requirement, commentators ever since have taken these figures to constitute a definite call to industry. Four companies prepared projects to match the BEA outline, Bristol proposed the initially-four-engined Bristol Type 200. Avro proposed the futuristic Avro 740 trijet before shelving it and joining forces with Bristol, Vickers proposed the VC11 four-engined airliner, derived from its in-development VC10. The D. H.121 was to be the worlds first trijet airliner, each of the three engines would drive its own hydraulic system, offering triple redundancy in case of any of the other systems failing. The engines were to be 13,790 lbf Medway engines. The D. H.121 was to have a weight of 123,000 lb or optionally, up to 150,000 pounds, a range of 2,070 miles. The design initially included a cruciform tail layout similar to that of the Caravelle, from the outset, the D. H.121 was planned to employ avionics which were very advanced for the period. Among other capabilities, they would offer automatic approach and landing within a few years of service entry, the avionics were also to have triplicated components for reliability and to allow majority 2,1 voting for aircraft guidance during automatic approach and landing. H. 121s longitudinal axis. During the time that the D. H. de Havilland was keen to retain their independence, companies vigorously competed to be selected by BEA due to the lure of its £30 million contract, as well as the likelihood of lucrative overseas export sales
21.
Airbus A300
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The Airbus A300 is a short- to medium-range wide-body twin-engine jet airliner that was developed and manufactured by Airbus. The A300 can typically seat 266 passengers in a layout, with a maximum range of 4,070 nautical miles when fully loaded. Development of the A300 began during the 1960s as a European collaborative project between various aircraft manufacturers in Britain, France, and West Germany, in September 1967, the participating nations signed a Memorandum of Understanding to manufacture the aircraft. The British withdrew from the project on 10 April 1969, a new agreement was reached between Germany and France on 29 May 1969, and Airbus Industrie was formally created on 18 December 1970 to develop and produce the A300. The type first flew on 28 October 1972, Air France, the launch customer for the A300, introduced the type into service on 30 May 1974. During the 1990s, the A300 became popular with freight operators. Production of the A300 ceased in July 2007, along with its smaller A310 derivative, the freighter sales for which the A300 had previously competed in later life are instead fulfilled by the A330-200F, a derivative of the newer Airbus A330. To overcome this factor, the report recommended the pursuit of multinational collaborative projects between the leading aircraft manufacturers. European manufacturers were keen to explore prospective programs, the proposed 260-seat wide-body HBN100 between Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation being one such example. During the mid-1960s, both Air France and American Airlines had expressed interest in a twin-engine wide-body aircraft, indicating a market demand for such an aircraft to be produced. The word airbus at this point was an aviation term for a larger commercial aircraft. Addition work included moving elements of the wings being produced in the Netherlands, as such, the A300 would feature the first use of composite materials of any passenger aircraft, the leading and trailing edges of the tail fin being composed of glass fibre reinforced plastic. Béteille opted for English as the language for the developing aircraft, as well against using Metric instrumentation and measurements. According to Airbus, this approach to market research had been crucial to the companys long term success. On 26 September 1967, the British, French, and West German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A300, at this point, the A300 was only the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, the first being the Anglo-French Concorde. Under the terms of the memorandum, Britain and France were each to receive a 37.5 per cent work share on the project, sud Aviation was recognized as the lead company for A300, with Hawker Siddeley being selected as the British partner company. In December 1968, the French and British partner companies proposed a revised configuration and it had been feared that the original 300-seat proposal was too large for the market, thus it had been scaled down to produce the A250. The dimensional changes involved in the reduced the length of the fuselage by 5.62 meters
22.
Rolls-Royce Conway
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The Rolls-Royce RB.80 Conway was the first by-pass engine in the world to enter service. Development started at Rolls-Royce in the 1940s, but it was used briefly in the late 1950s. The Conway powered versions of the Handley Page Victor, Vickers VC10, Boeing 707-420, the name Conway is an Anglo-Saxon permutation of River Conwy, in Wales, in keeping with Rolls use of river names for gas turbine engines. In early jet engines the exhaust was much faster and hotter than it had to be for efficient thrust, the turboprop is an obvious example, which uses a series of additional turbine stages to capture this energy to power a propeller. However, there is a tradeoff in propeller efficiency compared to speed, so while the turboprops are efficient engines. This meant there was a spot between the high efficiencies of the turboprop at low speeds and the jet at high speeds that was not being directly addressed. This spot, between about 450 mph and 700 mph, was precisely where the vast majority of commercial jet aircraft spent most of their time, the basic concept of bypass had been studied from the earliest days of jet engine design. Frank Whittles Power Jets also studied a number of bypass configurations, however, the need to get jet engines into service during the war meant this work had to be put aside in favour of the simpler turbojet designs with shorter introduction times. Rolls-Royce termed the design a Bypass Turbojet, griffith suggested building a purely experimental bypass design using parts of the Avon and another experimental jet engine, the AJ.25 Tweed.2 low-level version of the Vickers Valiant bomber. A go-ahead to start construction of larger design was given in October, under the RB.80 name. During development it was decided to improve the basic design by adding another feature then becoming common. Earlier engines generally consisted of a series of compressor stages connected via a shaft to one or more turbine stages, although this arrangement is mechanically simple, it has the disadvantage of lowering the efficiency of the compressor. Compressor stages run at their maximum efficiency when spinning at a speed for any given input air pressure - in a perfect compressor each stage would run at a separate speed. Two- and three-spool designs are common, beyond that the complexity is too great. The new version had a four-stage low-pressure compressor driven by a two-stage turbine and an eight stage high-pressure compressor driven by another two-stage turbine. Now known by the Ministry of Supply designation as the RCo.2, design work was completed in January 1950, by this time, the low-level Valiant Pathfinder had been abandoned and so the first example was also destined to be the last. Nevertheless, it proved the concept sound and ran perfectly for the whole of its 133 hours life. The work on the RCo.2 was soon put to good use, Vickers also planned on developing a passenger version of the same basic design as the VC-7
23.
Turbine
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A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating power when combined with a generator or producing thrust. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels, gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine. A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy, the resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades, as in the case of a steam or gas turbine. Before reaching the turbine, the pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively, Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newtons second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines, Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluids pressure or mass, the pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the stage or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow. The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines, reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head is low. In practice, modern designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible
24.
Axial compressor
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An axial compressor is a compressor that can continuously pressurise gases. It is a rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, the energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of flow into pressure, compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or a steam or a gas turbine. Axial flow compressors produce a flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a pressure rise, making them complex. Axial compressors are integral to the design of gas turbines such as jet engines, high speed ship engines. They are also used in applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air. Due to high performance, high reliability and flexible operation during the flight envelope, Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil rows attached usually in pairs, one rotating, a pair of rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid, the cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an optimum Mach number using variable geometry as the fluid is compressed. As the fluid enters and leaves in the direction, the centrifugal component in the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is based on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the velocity of the fluid. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can produce a rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and this is the reaction principle in turbomachines. If 50% of the rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section. The increase in pressure produced by a stage is limited by the relative velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils
25.
Rolls-Royce Spey
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The Rolls-Royce Spey is a low-bypass turbofan engine originally designed and manufactured by Rolls-Royce that has been in widespread service for over 40 years. A co-development version of the Spey between Rolls-Royce and Allison in the 1960s is the Allison TF41, aviation versions of the base model Spey have accumulated over 50 million hours of flight time. In keeping with Rolls-Royce naming practices, the engine is named after the River Spey, in 1954 Rolls-Royce introduced the first commercial bypass engine, the Rolls-Royce Conway, with a 21,000 lbf thrust aimed at what was then the large end of the market. This was far too large for smaller aircraft such as the Sud Caravelle, designed by a team under Frederick Morley, the first versions of what had become the Spey entered service in 1964, powering both the 1-11 and Trident. Spey-powered airliners continued in service until the 1980s, when noise limitations in European airports forced them from service. In the late 1950s the Soviet Union started the development of the Sverdlov-class cruisers that would put the Royal Navy at serious risk, the winning design was the Blackburn Buccaneer, which had an emphasis on low altitude performance as opposed to outright speed. This presented a problem for aircraft such as the Buccaneer. The early pre-production versions, powered by the de Havilland Gyron Junior, Rolls-Royce attacked this problem by offering a militarized version of the Spey, which emerged as the RB.168. The resulting Spey-powered Buccaneer S.2 served into the 1990s, the Spey proved so successful in this role that it was produced under license in the United States as the TF41 and F113, and was used in a number of British and US designs. These provided extra thrust for operation from smaller British aircraft carriers, the air intake area was increased by twenty percent, while the aft fuselage under the engines had to be redesigned. During its lifetime the Spey has garnered a safety record. Its relatively low maintenance costs provide one of the reasons it continued in service even when newer designs were available. A fully updated version of the military RB.168 was also built to power the AMX International AMX attack aircraft, RB. 168-62 RB.168 Mk.101 Blackburn Buccaneer RB.168 Mk.202 McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II modified F4J for British service. It was used to power the Xian JH-7 and JH-7A, world Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition. Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited
26.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
27.
Royal Aircraft Establishment
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The first site was at Farnborough Airfield in Hampshire to which was added a second site RAE Bedford in 1946. In 1988 it was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment before merging with other entities to become part of the new Defence Research Agency in 1991. Templers place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908, besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Codys war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough, in 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn OGorman, in 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory. Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company, one of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater powers from piston engines. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind, green, G. S. Wilkinson, James E. Jimmy Ellor, Prof. A. H. Gibson, and A. A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited, during WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE. In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford, engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963. In 1961, the worlds first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed, in 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA. On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment, on 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency, the MODs new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation, the Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994. In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, and the privatised company QinetiQ, ฿ Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few went into mass production. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type, S. E. = Blériot Experimental F. E. = Farman Experimental From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed, = Armed or Armoured Experimental C. E. = Scout experimental fast single-seat aircraft, the B. S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems, Blériot Scout. & T. E. were also used for one off prototypes
28.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
29.
Pratt & Whitney
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Pratt & Whitney is an American aerospace manufacturer with global service operations. It is a subsidiary of United Technologies, Pratt & Whitneys aircraft engines are widely used in both civil aviation and military aviation. Its headquarters are in East Hartford, Connecticut, as one of the big three aero-engine manufacturers, it competes with General Electric and Rolls-Royce, although it has also formed joint ventures with both of these companies. In addition to engines, Pratt & Whitney manufactures gas turbines for industrial and power generation. As of 2014, the company reported having 31,500 employees supporting more than 11,000 customers in 180 countries around the world, in 2013, Pratt & Whitneys revenue totaled $14.5 billion. In April 1925, Frederick Rentschler, an Ohio native and former executive at Wright Aeronautical, was determined to start a business of his own. Frederick Rentschler approached these men as he sought capital and assets for his new venture, deeds and G. Mead, and colleagues, all formerly of Wright Aeronautical. Conceived and designed by Mead, the new engine would be a large, air-cooled, Pratt & Whitney Machine Tool was going through a period of self-revision at the time to prepare itself for the post–Great War era, discontinuing old product lines and incubating new ones. P&WMTs future growth would depend on innovation and it lent Rentschler $250,000, the use of the Pratt & Whitney name, and space in their building. This was the beginning of the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company, Pratt & Whitney Aircrafts first engine, the 425 horsepower R-1340 Wasp, was completed on Christmas Eve 1925. On its third test run it easily passed the Navy qualification test in March 1926, by October, the Wasp exhibited performance and reliability that revolutionized American aviation. The R-1340 powered the aircraft of Wiley Post, Amelia Earhart, the R-1340 was followed by another very successful engine, the R-985 Wasp Junior. Eventually a whole Wasp series was developed, both engines are still in use in agricultural aircraft around the world and produce more power than their original design criteria. George Mead soon led the next step in the field of large, state-of-the-art, air-cooled and it was basically a bigger Wasp. In 1929, Rentschler ended his association with Pratt & Whitney Machine Tool and merged Pratt & Whitney Aircraft with Boeing and other companies to form the United Aircraft and his agreement allowed him to carry the Pratt & Whitney name with him to his new corporation. In October 2014, Pratt & Whitney was awarded a million contract with US Defense Department to supply 36 F135 engines for the F-35 fighter. In January 2017,10 employees reportedly left the company, including the head of the F135 engine program, incurred expenses used to transport South Korean officials to the companys West Palm Beach facility in 2012 were deemed unethical, which lead to the departure of the employees. In 2015, the stadium was renamed to Pratt & Whitney Stadium at Rentschler Field in time for the 2015-2016 University of Connecticut football season
30.
Carbon fibers
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Carbon fibers or carbon fibres are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together to form a tow, however, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers. Carbon fibers are usually combined with materials to form a composite. When combined with a resin and wound or molded it forms carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio. However, carbon fibers are also composited with other materials, such as graphite, to form carbon-carbon composites, in 1860 Joseph Swan produced carbon fibres for the first time, for use in light bulbs. In 1880, Lewis Latimer developed a reliable carbon wire filament for the incandescent light bulb, in 1958, Roger Bacon created high-performance carbon fibers at the Union Carbide Parma Technical Center, now GrafTech International Holdings, Inc. located outside of Cleveland, Ohio. Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands of rayon until they carbonized and this process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting fibers contained only about 20% carbon and had low strength and stiffness properties. In the early 1960s, a process was developed by Dr. Akio Shindo at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Japan and this had produced a carbon fiber that contained about 55% carbon. In 1960 Richard Millington of H. I. Thompson Fiberglas Co. developed a process for producing a carbon content fiber using rayon as a precursor. Watt, L. N. Phillips, and W. Johnson at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, the process was patented by the UK Ministry of Defence, then licensed by the NRDC to three British companies, Rolls-Royce already making carbon fiber, Morganite, and Courtaulds. Unfortunately, the blades proved vulnerable to damage from bird impact and this problem and others caused Rolls-Royce such setbacks that the company was nationalized in 1971. The carbon-fiber production plant was sold off to form Bristol Composites, in the late 1960s, the Japanese took the lead in manufacturing PAN-based carbon fibers. The 1970 joint technology agreement allowed Union Carbide to manufacture the Japan’s Toray Industries superior product, Morganite decided that carbon-fiber production was peripheral to its core business, leaving Courtaulds as the only big UK manufacturer. However Courtauldss big advantage as manufacturer of the Courtelle precursor now became a weakness, the investment did not generate the anticipated returns, leading to a decision to pull out of the area and Courtaulds ceased carbon-fiber production in 1991. Ironically the one surviving UK carbon-fiber manufacturer continued to thrive making fiber based on Courtauldss precursor, inverness-based RK Carbon Fibres Ltd concentrated on producing carbon fiber for industrial applications, removing the need to compete at the quality levels reached by overseas manufacturers. During the 1960s, experimental work to find alternative raw materials led to the introduction of carbon fibers made from a petroleum pitch derived from oil processing and these fibers contained about 85% carbon and had excellent flexural strength. These companies included Hercules, BASF and Celanese USA and Akzo in Europe, since the late 1970s, further types of carbon fiber yarn entered the global market, offering higher tensile strength and higher elastic modulus. For example, T400 from Toray with a strength of 4,000 MPa and M40
31.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
32.
Adrian Lombard
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Adrian Albert Lom Lombard, CBE was an English aeronautical engineer. Despite having no training in aerodynamics, he became one of the worlds foremost designers of jet engines. He was involved with the Rolls-Royce company in a variety of roles for almost 30 years, adrian Lombard was born in the city of Coventry, Warwickshire, on 19 January 1915. He was the second of three sons of Arthur, a toolmaker, and Louisa, Lombard was taught at the John Gulson Central Advanced School, and later attended evening classes at the Coventry Technical College. After leaving school at the age of 15, he began training in the office of the Rover Company. After spending five years with Rover, Lombard took a job with Morris Motors Limited where he was put in charge of engine stress calculations, however, he returned to Rover in 1936 and within four years was part of Maurice Wilks design team. In April 1940 Lombard began his work with jet engines when the team was entrusted with the task of preparing the Whittle W. 2B jet engine for production. In 1943, Rover and Rolls-Royce completed a deal in which the latter took over interest in the jet engine production factories in Clitheroe, Lombard subsequently joined Rolls-Royce and was appointed chief engine designer of factories in the north of England. He assembled a team that built 100 of the W. 2B engines for use in Gloster Meteor fighter planes, in October 1945, a Meteor equipped with Derwent V engines broke the world speed record at 603 mph. The design centre was relocated to Derby in 1946, and there Lombard became chief projects designer, in 1949, Lombard was promoted to chief designer at the Derby plant, and was made Rolls-Royces chief aeronautical designer three years later. He also joined the council of the Royal Aeronautical Society, and was involved with the Air Registration Board. Lombard became the director of the Rolls-Royce aeronautical engine division in 1958, under his guidance, the company worked on new technology for building jet engines solely from reinforced plastics. This technology was used in the production of the RB211 engine. In November 1962, Lombard visited Japan to meet with several companies that had expressed an interest in Rolls-Royces vertical take-off aircraft engines, during the trip, he predicted that such engines would be in general civil use within ten years. Following his death in July 1967, it was written that Rolls-Royce had been deprived of one of the finest trouble-shooting engineers in the industry, Lombard was married to Joan Taylor on 18 April 1940 and the couple had three children, one of whom died in infancy. He was awarded a CBE in the Queens Birthday Honours in June 1967, Lombard died suddenly of a brain haemorrhage at the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary in Derby on 13 July 1967, at the age of 52. The Lombard Award was established by Rolls-Royce in Sir Adrians memory, with those in the final year of a company apprenticeship eligible for consideration
33.
Insolvency
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Insolvency is the state of being unable to pay the money owed, by a person or company, on time, those in a state of insolvency are said to be insolvent. There are two forms, cash-flow insolvency and balance-sheet insolvency, cash-flow insolvency is when a person or company has enough assets to pay what is owed, but does not have the appropriate form of payment. For example, a person may own a house and a valuable car. Cash-flow insolvency can usually be resolved by negotiation, for example, the bill collector may wait until the car is sold and the debtor agrees to pay a penalty. Balance-sheet insolvency is when a person or company does not have enough assets to pay all of their debts, the person or company might enter bankruptcy, but not necessarily. Once a loss is accepted by all parties, negotiation is often able to resolve the situation without bankruptcy, a company that is balance-sheet insolvent may still have enough cash to pay its next bill on time. However, most laws will not let the company pay that bill unless it will help all their creditors. For example, an insolvent farmer may be allowed to people to help harvest the crop. While technical insolvency is a synonym for insolvency, cash-flow insolvency. The term cash-flow insolvent carries a connotation that the debtor is balance-sheet solvent. Cash-flow insolvency involves a lack of liquidity to pay debts as they fall due, balance sheet insolvency involves having negative net assets—where liabilities exceed assets. Insolvency is not a synonym for bankruptcy, which is a determination of insolvency made by a court of law with resulting legal orders intended to resolve the insolvency, accounting insolvency happens when total liabilities exceed total assets. This is known as business turnaround or business recovery, implementing a business turnaround may take many forms, including keep and restructure, sale as a going concern, or wind-down and exit. In some jurisdictions, it is an offence under the laws for a corporation to continue in business while insolvent. In others, the business may continue under a declared protective arrangement while alternative options to achieve recovery are worked out, increasingly, legislatures have favored alternatives to winding up companies for good. It can be, in several jurisdictions, grounds for an action or even an offence. Debt restructurings are typically handled by professional insolvency and restructuring practitioners, and are less expensive. Although the term bankrupt may be used referring to a government and this is so because bankruptcy is governed by national law, there exists no entity to take over such a government and distribute assets to creditors
34.
Conservative Party (UK)
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The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a political party in the United Kingdom. It is currently the party, having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election. The partys leader, Theresa May, is serving as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in government with 8,702 councillors. The Conservative Party is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, the other being its modern rival. The Conservative Partys platform involves support for market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defence, deregulation. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives main rivals, Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century, including Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Thatchers tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation, the Conservative Partys domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world. The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament, with twenty MEPs, the party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe Europarty and the International Democrat Union. The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly, the party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction, rooted in the 18th century Whig Party and they were known as Independent Whigs, Friends of Mr Pitt, or Pittites. After Pitts death the term Tory came into use and this was an allusion to the Tories, a political grouping that had existed from 1678, but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party. From about 1812 on the name Tory was commonly used for the newer party, the term Conservative was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830. The name immediately caught on and was adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834. Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party, which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto, the term Conservative Party rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative Party, in Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922. The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I, keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914, especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses
35.
Edward Heath
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It was, says biographer John Campbell, Heaths finest hour. Although he planned to be an innovator as Prime Minister, his government foundered on economic difficulties, including high inflation and he led his party to defeat by the Labour Party twice in 1974. He became a vehement opponent of Margaret Thatcher, who supplanted him as party leader in 1975, Heaths lower middle-class origins were quite unusual for a Conservative Party leader. However, he was a leader in student politics at Oxford University and he worked briefly in the Civil Service, but resigned in order to stand for Parliament, and was elected for Bexley in the 1950 general election. He was the Chief Whip from 1955 to 1959, having entered the Cabinet as Minister of Labour in 1959, he was promoted to Lord Privy Seal and later became President of the Board of Trade. Heath was elected leader of the Conservative Party in 1965, he retained that position despite losing the 1966 general election, Heath became Prime Minister after winning the 1970 election. Possibly most significantly, he took Britain into the European Economic Community in 1973, Heaths premiership also oversaw the height of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with the suspension of the Stormont Parliament and the imposition of direct British rule. Heath also tried to curb the trade unions with the Industrial Relations Act 1971, however, rising unemployment in 1972 led him to reflate the economy, he attempted to control the resulting high inflation by a prices and incomes policy. Two miners strikes, in 1972 and at the start of 1974, damaged the government, Heath resigned as Prime Minister after trying in vain to form a coalition with the Liberal Party. Despite losing a general election in October that year, he vowed to continue as leader of his party. In February 1975, however, Margaret Thatcher challenged and defeated him to win the leadership, returning to the backbenches, Heath became an active critic of Thatchers policies. He remained a backbench MP until retiring at the 2001 election, outside politics, Heath was a world-class yachtsman and a talented musician. He was one of only four British prime ministers never to have married, in August 2015, the Wiltshire Police announced the beginning of Operation Conifer, a posthumous investigation of Heath for historical incidences of sex abuse. Edward Heath was born at 54 Albion Road, Broadstairs, Kent on 9 July 1916, the son of William George Heath, a carpenter and builder, and Edith Anne Heath and his father was later a successful small businessman. Heath was educated at Chatham House Grammar School in Ramsgate, and in 1935 with the aid of a county scholarship he went up to study at Balliol College, while at university Heath became active in Conservative politics. On the key issue of the day, foreign policy. His first Paper Speech at the Oxford Union, in Michaelmas 1936, was in opposition to the appeasement of Germany by returning her colonies, confiscated during the First World War. In June 1937 he was elected President of the Oxford University Conservative Association as a pro-Spanish Republic candidate, in 1937–38 he was chairman of the national Federation of University Conservative Associations, and in the same year he was Secretary and then Librarian of the Oxford Union
36.
Stanley Hooker
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Stanley George Hooker was born at Sheerness and educated at Borden Grammar School. He won a scholarship for Imperial College London to study mathematics and he became more interested in aerodynamics, won the Busk studentship in aeronautics in 1928 and moved to Brasenose College, Oxford where he received his DPhil in this area in 1935. In late 1937 while working at the Admiralty he applied for a job at Rolls-Royce and he was permitted to study anything that caught his fancy, and soon moved into the supercharger design department. He started researching the superchargers used on the Merlin engine, and his recommendations were put into the production line for newer versions, notably the Merlin 45, improving its power by approximately 30%, and then the Merlin 61. The Merlin 45 went into the Spitfire Mk V in October 1940, the same year the Air Ministry made a request for a turbocharged Merlin for use in the planned high altitude Wellington VI bomber. The Merlin 61 arrived in time to give the Spitfire a desperately needed advantage in rate of climb, one major outcome of his work introduced a generalised method of predicting and comparing aircraft engine performance under flight conditions. The status of work was summarized in an internal Rolls-Royce Report in March,1941. In 1940 Hooker was introduced to Frank Whittle, who was setting up production of his first production-quality jet engine, Hooker was excited, and in turn brought Rolls-Royce chairman Ernest Hives to visit Rovers factory in Barnoldswick. Whittle mentioned his frustrations, and Hives told Whittle to send him the plans for the engine, soon Rolls Derby engine and supercharger factories were supplying the needed parts. Rover was no happier with the state of affairs than Whittle, in 1942 Maurice Wilks of Rover met Hives and Hooker in a pub. Hooker soon found himself as engineer of the new factory. Wellands went on to power the earliest models of the Gloster Meteor, Whittle had moved to the US in 1942 to help General Electric get the W.2 into production there, returning in early 1943. Hooker also visited in 1943, and was surprised to find they had extensive changes. On his return to England he decided that Rolls should recapture the power lead and this set off a major political row, and soon the MiG-15, powered by a copy of the Nene, was outperforming anything the British or US had to counter it. This did not turn out well at first, and Hooker felt he was being blamed for its problems, at the same time Rolls decided that their existing piston engines were a dead end, and moved all future jet work from Barnoldswick to Derby, their main engine site. This reduced Hookers role in the company, and after an emotional falling-out with Hives, in January 1949 Hooker went to work at the Bristol Aero Engine company. He immediately started work on sorting out the problems of Bristols turboprop design, the Proteus. The task of rectifying the many faults of the Proteus was immense, sadly this was the last communication between the two great men
37.
Arthur Rubbra
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Arthur Alexander Cecil Rubbra CBE was an English engineer who designed many of Rolls-Royces successful aero engines. Rubbra was born in Northampton on 29 October 1903 to Edmund and Mary Rubbra who ran a watch and it is thought that the rare family surname was a form of Ruborough, the Somerset village near Broomfield where his ancestors came from. His elder brother, Charles Edmund, was a distinguished composer, as a boy Rubbra was fascinated by steam engines and spent many hours at nearby Blisworth watching trains on the London–Crewe line. He was an accomplished artist and often sketched his favourite subjects, Rubbra attended Northampton Grammar School where he played rugby, and then Bristol University leaving in 1925 with a BSc. Rubbras first job was with Armstrong Siddeley although little is known of his time there and he was paid the sum of exactly £1 per week at that time. He worked on the Rolls-Royce Eagle XVI 16-cylinder X engine and the later Rolls-Royce Kestrel, in October 1927, Rubbra was promoted to Designer where he was further involved with the Buzzard, Kestrel and the new Rolls-Royce R. He also became involved in the Goshawk, Merlin and Vulture projects. In 1934 he was appointed Assistant Chief Designer and in July 1940 he was promoted further to Chief Designer Aero Engines. His design work continued with development of the Merlin and he was a contributor to the success of the Rolls-Royce Griffon. In 1943 Rubbra was designing the Eagle and then work on the Welland. In 1944 another promotion to Assistant Chief Engineer saw him working on other emerging turbojet projects, by 1954 Rbr had risen to the position of Technical Director on the company board. In 1966 Rubbra gave up his post as Technical Director due to health reasons, in October 1968 Arthur Rubbra retired from Rolls-Royce by which time he had become Vice Chairman of the company. In 1969 he was awarded the Royal Aeronautical Societys highest honour and his services were required once more in 1971 when he was asked, along with Stanley Hooker, to assist with developmental problems pertaining to the Rolls-Royce RB211 civil turbofan project. A. A. Rubbra died on 24 November 1982, aged 79 and his brother died four years later in 1986. His memoirs, Rubbra, formed the basis of a book published long after his death by the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust. British Piston Engines and their Aircraft
38.
Qantas
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Qantas Airways is the flag carrier airline of Australia and its largest airline by fleet size, international flights and international destinations. It is the third oldest airline in the world, after KLM and Avianca having been founded in November 1920, the Qantas name comes from QANTAS, an acronym for its original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, and it is nicknamed The Flying Kangaroo. Qantas is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance. The airline is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot with its hub at Sydney Airport. As of March 2014, Qantas had a 65% share of the Australian domestic market and carried 14. 9% of all passengers travelling in, various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia under the QantasLink banner. Its subsidiary Jetconnect provides services between Australia and New Zealand, flying under the Qantas brand, Qantas was founded in Winton, Queensland on 16 November 1920 as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited. The airlines first aircraft was an Avro 504K, in 1920 Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd had its headquarters in Winton before moving to Longreach, Queensland in 1921 and Brisbane in 1930. In 1934, QANTAS and Britains Imperial Airways formed a new company, the new airline commenced operations in December 1934, flying between Brisbane and Darwin. QEA flew internationally from May 1935, when the service from Darwin was extended to Singapore, after World War II began, enemy action and accidents destroyed half of the fleet of ten, when most of the fleet was taken over by the Australian government for war service. Flying boat services were resumed in 1943, with flights between Swan River, Perth and Koggala lake in Ceylon and this linked up with the British Overseas Airways Corporation service to London. Qantas kangaroo logo was first used on the Kangaroo Route, begun in 1944, from Sydney to Karachi, in 1947, QEA was nationalised by the Australian government led by Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley. QANTAS Limited was then wound up, after nationalisation, Qantas remaining domestic network, in Queensland, was transferred to the also nationally owned Trans Australian Airlines, leaving Qantas with a purely international network. Shortly after nationalisation, QEA began its first services outside the British Empire – to Tokyo, Services to Hong Kong began around the same time. In 1957 a head office, Qantas House, opened in Sydney, in June 1959 Qantas entered the jet age when the first Boeing 707-138 was delivered. On 14 September 1992, Qantas merged with nationally owned domestic airline, the airline started to be rebranded to Qantas in the following year. Qantas was gradually privatised between 1993 and 1997, under the legislation passed to allow the privatisation, Qantas must be at least 51% owned by Australian shareholders. In 1998, Qantas co-founded the oneworld alliance with American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, the main domestic competitor to Qantas, Ansett Australia, collapsed on 14 September 2001. Market share for Qantas immediately neared 90%, but with the entry of new budget airline Virgin Blue into the domestic market, in 2004, the Qantas group expanded into the Asian budget airline market with Jetstar Asia Airways, in which Qantas owns a minority stake
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Pratt & Whitney JT9D
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The Pratt & Whitney JT9D engine was the first high bypass ratio jet engine to power a wide-body airliner. Its initial application was the Boeing 747-100, the original Jumbo Jet and it was the companys first high-bypass-ratio turbofan. The JT9D was built using titanium and nickel alloys, the JT9D-3, the earliest certified version of the engine, weighed 8,608 lb and produced 43,500 lbf thrust. The original cost of the engine was $800,000 in 1968, the JT9D was developed starting in September 1965 as part of the design of the C-5 Galaxy. A contract was awarded to Pratt & Whitney to study the type of large engine needed, the JT9D was, however, chosen by Boeing to power the 747. The engines first test run took place in a test rig in December 1966 at East Hartford, Connecticut, Pratt & Whitney faced enormous difficulties with the JT9D design during the Boeing 747 test program. Engine failures during the flight test program resulted in thirty aircraft being parked outside the factory with concrete blocks hanging from the pylons, Boeing and Pratt & Whitney worked together in 1969 to solve the problem. The trouble was traced to ovalization, in which stresses during takeoff caused the casing to deform into an oval shape. This was solved by strengthening the engine casing and adding yoke-shaped thrust links, JT9D engines powering USAF E-4A airborne command posts were designated Pratt & Whitney F105. Pratt & Whitneys designated successor to the JT9D family is the PW4000, which features fewer parts, greater reliability, and lower base selling price
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British Airways
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British Airways, often shortened to BA, is the flag carrier and the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on fleet size. When measured by passengers carried, it is second-largest in the United Kingdom behind easyJet, the airline is based in Waterside near its main hub at London Heathrow Airport. On 31 March 1974, all four companies were merged to form British Airways, after almost 13 years as a state company, British Airways was privatised in February 1987 as part of a wider privatisation plan by the Conservative government. The carrier soon expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987, followed by Dan-Air in 1992, British Airways is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and the now defunct Canadian Airlines. The alliance has since grown to become the third-largest, after SkyTeam, IAG is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE100 Index. A long-time Boeing customer, British Airways ordered 59 Airbus A320 family aircraft in August 1998, in 2007 it purchased 12 Airbus A380s and 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners, marking the start of its long-haul fleet replacement. The centrepiece of the airlines fleet is the Boeing 777. British Airways is the largest operator of the Boeing 747-400, with 51 registered to the airline, on 1 September 1972 the management service functions of both BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Group. British Airways was established as an airline on 31 March 1974 by the dissolution of BOAC, British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic airliner Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde, and the worlds first supersonic passenger service flew in January 1976 from London Heathrow to Bahrain. Services to the US began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport, service to Singapore was established in co-operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain. The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 24 October 2003, in 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government. Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed chairman, while many other large airlines struggled, King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world. The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987, British Airways effected the takeover of the UKs second airline, British Caledonian, in July of that same year. The formation of Richard Bransons Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984 created a competitor for BA and this campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers, tampering with private files belonging to Virgin and undermining Virgins reputation in the City. As a result of the case BA management apologised unreservedly, Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy, Colin Marshall, while Bob Ayling took over as CEO. Virgin filed an action in the US that same year regarding BAs domination of the trans-Atlantic routes. In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan-Air, British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei. That same month BA purchased a 25% stake in the Australian airline Qantas and, with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May, in September 1998, British Airways, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and Canadian Airlines, formed the Oneworld airline alliance
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