1.
List of Byzantine emperors
–
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395. All Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be the rightful Roman emperor in direct succession from Augustus, the title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially Augustus, although other titles such as Dominus were also used. Their names were preceded by Imperator Caesar and followed by Augustus, following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek Basileus, which had formerly meant sovereign but was then used in place of Augustus. Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, in later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the Emperor of the Greeks. Towards the end of the Empire, the standard formula of the Byzantine ruler was in Christ, Emperor. For Roman emperors before Constantine I, see List of Roman emperors, family tree of the Byzantine emperors List of Roman emperors List of Roman usurpers List of Byzantine usurpers List of Roman and Byzantine empresses
List of Byzantine emperors
–
Constantine XI
List of Byzantine emperors
–
Imperial insignia used by the
Palaiologos dynasty
List of Byzantine emperors
–
Constantine I "the Great" (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Α' ὁ Μέγας, Latin: Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus)
List of Byzantine emperors
–
Constantius II (Κωνστάντιος [Β'], Flavius Iulius Constantius)
2.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
3.
Constantine X
–
Constantine X Doukas or Dukas, Latinized as Ducas was emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 24 November 1059 to 22 May 1067. Constantine Doukas was the son of Andronikos Doukas, a Paphlagonian nobleman who may have served as governor of the theme of Moesia. Addicted to endless debates about philosophy and theology, Constantine gained influence after he married, as his wife, Eudokia Makrembolitissa. In 1057, Constantine supported the usurpation of Isaac I Komnenos, in spite of this tacit opposition, Constantine was chosen as successor by the ailing Isaac in November 1059, under the influence of Michael Psellos. Isaac abdicated, and on November 24,1059, Constantine X Doukas was crowned emperor, undoing many of the necessary reforms of Isaac I, he bloated the military bureaucracy with highly paid court officials and crowded the Senate with his supporters. He also became unpopular with the population after he raised taxes to try to pay the army. Already old and unhealthy when he came to power, Constantine died on May 22,1067 and his final act was to demand that only his sons succeed him, forcing his wife Eudokia Makrembolitissa to take a vow not to remarry. By his first wife, a daughter of Constantine Dalassenos, Constantine X Doukas had no known children, by his second wife, Eudokia Makrembolitissa, he had the following issue, Michael VII Doukas, who succeeded as emperor. Andronikos Doukas, co-emperor from 1068 to 1078, konstantios Doukas, co-emperor from c.1060 to 1078, died 1081. Anna Doukaina, a nun Theodora Anna Doukaina, who married Domenico Selvo, zoe Doukaina, who married Adrianos Komnenos, a brother of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, I, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Norwich, John Julius, Byzantium, The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Polemis, Demetrios I. The Doukai, A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography, London, Athlone Press Psellus, Michael, Chronographia Coins of Constantine X Doukas
Constantine X
–
Gold
histamenon of Constantine X.
4.
Michael VII
–
Michael VII Doukas or Dukas/Ducas, nicknamed Parapinakēs, was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. Michael VII was born c.1050 in Constantinople, the eldest son of Constantine X Doukas and he was associated with his father on the throne late in 1059, together with or shortly before his newly born brother Konstantios Doukas. When Constantine X died in 1067, Michael VII was 17 years old and should have been able to rule by himself and he exhibited little interest in politics, however, and his mother Eudokia and uncle John Doukas governed the empire as effective regents. On January 1,1068, Eudokia married the general Romanos Diogenes, who now became senior co-emperor alongside Michael VII, Konstantios, and another brother, Andronikos. They conspired to keep Romanos from regaining power after his release from captivity, after the dispatch of Eudokia to a monastery, Michael VII was crowned again on October 24,1071 as senior emperor. Although still advised by Michael Psellos and John Doukas, Michael VII became increasingly reliant on his finance minister Nikephoritzes, the emperors chief interests, shaped by Psellos, were in academic pursuits, and he allowed Nikephoritzes to increase both taxation and luxury spending without properly financing the army. As an emperor he was incompetent, surrounded by sycophantic court officials, in dire straits, imperial officials resorted to property confiscations and even expropriated some of the wealth of the church. The underpaid army tended to mutiny, and the Byzantines lost Bari, their last possession in Italy, simultaneously, they faced a serious revolt in the Balkans, where they faced an attempt for the restoration of the Bulgarian state. Although this revolt was suppressed by the general Nikephoros Bryennios, the Byzantine Empire was unable to recover its losses in Asia Minor. The problem was made worse by the desertion of the Byzantines western mercenaries and this campaign also ended in failure, and its commander was likewise captured by the enemy. The victorious mercenaries now forced John Doukas to stand as pretender to the throne, the government of Michael VII was forced to recognize the conquests of the Seljuks in Asia Minor in 1074, and to seek their support. A new army under Alexios Komnenos, reinforced by Seljuk troops sent by Malik Shah I, finally defeated the mercenaries and these misfortunes caused widespread dissatisfaction, exacerbated by the devaluation of the currency, which gave the emperor his nickname Parapinakēs, minus a quarter. In 1078 two generals, Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates, simultaneously revolted in the Balkans and Anatolia, Botaneiates gained the support of the Seljuk Turks, and he reached Constantinople first. Michael VII resigned the throne with hardly a struggle on March 31,1078 and he later became metropolitan of Ephesus and died in Constantinople in c. Before his resignation from the throne, Michael VII may have sent an embassy to Song China, the History of Song mentions how the Byzantine diplomat and official named Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-pan offered saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls as tributary gifts to the Song court. Various usurpers attempted to overthrow Michael VII or rule parts of the empire and these included, Nestor – A former slave of Constantine X, Nestor had been promoted to become the dux of Paradounavon, a region bordering the Danube. The troops were eager to plunder the Bulgarians, and Nestor obtained the assistance of one of the chiefs of the Patzinaks before marching onto Constantinople, defeated by Alexios Komnenos in 1078, Nestor remained with the Patzinaks, and retreated with them back to Paradunavum. Philaretos Brachamios Caesar John Doukas Nikephoros Bryennios Nikephoros Botaneiates Michael VII Doukas married Maria of Alania, by her he had at least one son, Constantine Doukas, co-emperor from c.1075 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087/8
Michael VII
–
Nomisma histamenon of Michael VII Doukas. Emperor with attributes.
Michael VII
–
Miliaresion of Michael VII Doukas.
Michael VII
–
Depiction of Michael VII Doukas on the back of the
Holy Crown of Hungary.
5.
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
–
Eudokia Makrembolitissa was a Byzantine Empress consort by marriage to the Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas. After his death in 1067 she acted as regent and she married Romanos IV Diogenes in 1068 and he became her co-emperor. She was also the niece of Michael Keroularios, Patriarch of Constantinople and she married Constantine sometime before 1050. By him she had seven children, one died as a child, when Constantine died on May 22,1067 she, as a crowned Augusta, was confirmed as regent for their sons Michael VII and Konstantios, along with Constantines brother, the Caesar John Doukas. Michael VII was just old enough to rule on his own and she had also sworn on Constantines deathbed not to marry again, and had even imprisoned and exiled Romanos Diogenes, who was suspected of aspiring to the throne. The Senate then agreed to the marriage, the wedding took place on January 1,1068, and Romanus was immediately proclaimed co-emperor as Romanos IV. With his assistance Eudokia was able to dispel the impending danger and she had two sons with Romanos IV, Nikephoros and Leo. Another of Eudokia and Constantines sons, Andronikos Doukas, was now made co-emperor by Romanos IV, although he had excluded from power by his own father, mother. However, Eudokia did not live happily with her new husband. John Doukas and the Varangian Guard then compelled Eudokia to leave power to Michael, after Michael VII was deposed in 1078 by Nikephoros III, Eudokia was recalled by the new emperor, who offered to marry her. This plan did not come to pass, due to the opposition of the Caesar John Doukas, the historian Nicephorus Gregoras, a century later, described Eudokia as a second Hypatia. Attributed to Eudokia is a dictionary of history and mythology, called Ἰωνιά, however, the book is now thought to be a modern compilation, falsely attributed to Eudoxia, and compiled by the counterfeiter Constantine Paleocappa around 1540. The sources from which the work was compiled include Diogenes Laërtius, by her second marriage, to Romanos IV Diogenes, Eudokia had, Nikephoros Diogenes Leo Diogenes Michael Psellos was very close to the family, and Eudokia considered him an uncle. According to Psellos she was very noble, beautiful, and intelligent
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
–
Ivory diptych showing Christ crowning Eudokia and
Romanos IV
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
–
Gold
histamenon of
Romanos IV:
Michael VII Doukas flanked by his brothers
Andronikos and
Konstantios on the obverse, Eudokia and Romanos IV crowned by Christ on the reverse
6.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
7.
Doukas
–
A maternally-descended line, the Komnenodoukai, founded the Despotate of Epirus in the 13th century, with another branch ruling over Thessaly. Nothing is known for certain about the familys origin and this tradition is, however, evidently an invention meant to glorify the family, at the time the Empires ruling dynasty, by 11th-century court chroniclers. In fact, it is likely that the surname derives from the relatively common military rank of doux. Nothing is known about the familys origin, the first representative of the family appears in the mid-9th century, during the regency of Empress Theodora, when he was sent to forcibly convert the Paulicians to Orthodoxy. He is only known as the son of Doux, although Skylitzes interpolates the name of Andronikos and this name is also used by some modern sources, e. g. in the Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit. The first branch of the family to prominence was in the early 10th century, with Andronikos Doukas. Both were senior generals during the reign of Emperor Leo VI the Wise, in circa 904, Andronikos engaged in an unsuccessful rebellion and was forced to flee to Baghdad where he was killed in circa 910. Constantine managed to escape and was restored to office, becoming Domestic of the Schools. He was killed, however, along with his son Gregory and nephew Michael and it is likely, as the 12th-century historian Zonaras records, that the Doukai line died out, and that the later bearers of the name were descendants through the female line only. Towards the end of the 10th century, there appeared a second family and its members were Andronikos Doux Lydos and his sons, Christopher and Bardas, the latter known with the sobriquet Mongos. The family was involved in the 976–979 rebellion of Bardas Skleros against Emperor Basil II, Bardas the Mongos is attested as late as 1017, when he led a military expedition against the Khazars. These Doukai seem to have come from Paphlagonia, and were exceedingly wealthy, further dynastic matches were made with the clans of the Anatolian military aristocracy, including the Palaiologoi and the Pegonitai. It is hence impossible to distinguish the numerous holders of the name or to discern their exact relationship with the 11th-century Doukid dynasty. The actual bloodline of Constantine X died out probably before 1100, and the last known descendants of his brother, the Caesar John, lived in the first half of the 12th century. In this way, mingled with other families or adopted de novo even by humble families unrelated to the original lineage. From them the surname Doukas was used by the Greek, and later Serbian, rulers of Epirus, other examples include John III Doukas Vatatzes, Nicaean emperor and his relatives, the late Byzantine historian Doukas, and the megas papias Demetrios Doukas Kabasilas in the mid-14th century. The name spread far and wide across the Greek-speaking world as well as in Albania, several variations also developed, such as Doukakes, Doukopoulos, Doukatos, Makrodoukas or Makrydoukas, etc. Other variants like Doukaites or Doukides seem to derive not from the surname, but from a locality, new York and Oxford, Oxford University Press
Doukas
–
Constantine Doukas escapes from Arab captivity, throwing gold coins behind him to delay his pursuers. Miniature from the
Madrid Skylitzes chronicle.
Doukas
–
Gold
histamenon of Emperor Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067).
8.
Constantine Diogenes (died 1032)
–
Constantine Diogenes was a prominent Byzantine general of the early 11th century, active in the Balkans. Imprisoned and forced to enter a monastery, he committed suicide in 1032 during an inquest on a further conspiracy and he was the father of Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes. Constantine Diogenes is the first notable member of the noble Cappadocian Diogenes family, Diogenes began his career as a commander of one of the western tagmata during the reign of Basil II, in the latters campaigns against Bulgaria. Following the death of Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria in October, Diogenes and Nikephoros Xiphias were dispatched to the region of Moglena as the vanguard of the emperor, during this campaign, Diogenes constructed the fortress of Mylobos, as attested in a founders inscription. The conquest of Moglena was completed in 1015 or 1016, in 1017, Diogenes and David Arianites led troops to plunder the fertile plain of Pelagonia, where they captured many prisoners and livestock. Soon after, Basil II placed Diogenes in charge of the tagmata of the Scholai of the West and of Thessalonica, and tasked him with pursuing Tsar Ivan Vladislav. The Bulgarian ruler set up an ambush for his pursuers, but Basil was informed in time, after Ivan Vladislavs death in February 1018, Diogenes was charged with mopping up the last remaining centres of Bulgarian resistance. He took Sirmium and was named its commander, his authority extended over the vassal Serbian statelets of Raška and his title was possibly that of strategos of Serbia, which is attested in a seal attributed to him. Diogenes was ordered by Basil II to subdue Sermon, the ruler of Sirmium, consequently, Diogenes invited Sermon to a meeting at the estuary of the river Sava in the Danube, where each would only be accompanied by three attendants. Diogenes had hidden his sword in the folds of his clothes and he then marched his army into Sirmium, taking possession of the town. Sermons wife was sent as a captive to Constantinople, around 1022 or 1025, Diogenes succeeded Arianites as overall Byzantine commander of conquered Bulgaria. In this capacity, he repelled a large Pecheneg invasion in 1027 and he was transferred east as strategos of the Thracesian Theme but, as soon as his complicity in the affair was confirmed, was recalled to Constantinople. There he was imprisoned, beaten and publicly paraded in the Mese along with the other conspirators, the plot was leaked to Romanos by Theophanes, metropolitan of Thessalonica, and the conspirators were arrested. Constantines son Romanos Diogenes became a general and eventually rose to become emperor in 1068–71. Byzantine Empresses, Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204, recherches sur les Institutions Byzantines, Tome I. Basil II and the Governance of Empire, new York and Oxford, Oxford University Press. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes, Ludwig, Claudia, Zielke, Beate, Pratsch, Thomas, byzantiums Balkan Frontier, A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900-1204. The Legend of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer
Constantine Diogenes (died 1032)
–
Map of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars in the time of Emperor
Basil II and Tsar
Samuel of Bulgaria
9.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
10.
List of Byzantine Emperors
–
This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395. All Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be the rightful Roman emperor in direct succession from Augustus, the title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially Augustus, although other titles such as Dominus were also used. Their names were preceded by Imperator Caesar and followed by Augustus, following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek Basileus, which had formerly meant sovereign but was then used in place of Augustus. Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, in later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the Emperor of the Greeks. Towards the end of the Empire, the standard formula of the Byzantine ruler was in Christ, Emperor. For Roman emperors before Constantine I, see List of Roman emperors, family tree of the Byzantine emperors List of Roman emperors List of Roman usurpers List of Byzantine usurpers List of Roman and Byzantine empresses
List of Byzantine Emperors
–
Constantine XI
List of Byzantine Emperors
–
Imperial insignia used by the
Palaiologos dynasty
List of Byzantine Emperors
–
Constantine I "the Great" (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Α' ὁ Μέγας, Latin: Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus)
List of Byzantine Emperors
–
Constantius II (Κωνστάντιος [Β'], Flavius Iulius Constantius)
11.
Battle of Manzikert
–
The Battle of Manzikert was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks on August 26,1071 near Manzikert. Many of the Turks, who had been, during the 11th century, travelling westward, the brunt of the battle was borne by the professional soldiers from the eastern and western tagmata, as large numbers of mercenaries and Anatolian levies fled early and survived the battle. This led to the movement of Turks into central Anatolia—by 1080. It took three decades of internal strife before Alexius I restored stability to Byzantium and it was the first time in history a Byzantine Emperor had become the prisoner of a Muslim commander. Under Constantine IX the Byzantines first came into contact with the Seljuk Turks when they attempted to annex Ani, Constantine made a truce with the Seljuks that lasted until 1064, but they then took Ani, and in 1067 the rest of Armenia, followed by Caesarea. In 1068 Romanos IV took power, and after some speedy military reforms entrusted Manuel Comnenus to lead an expedition against the Seljuks. Manuel captured Hierapolis Bambyce in Syria, next thwarted a Turkish attack against Iconium with a counter-attack, in February 1071, Romanos sent envoys to Alp Arslan to renew the 1069 treaty, and keen to secure his northern flank against attack, Alp Arslan happily agreed. Abandoning the siege of Edessa, he led his army to attack Fatimid-held Aleppo. However, the treaty had been a deliberate distraction, Romanos now led a large army into Armenia to recover the lost fortresses before the Seljuks had time to respond. Accompanying Romanos was Andronicus Ducas, son of his rival, John Ducas, the expedition rested at Sebasteia on the river Halys, reaching Theodosiopolis in June 1071. There, some of his generals suggested continuing the march into Seljuk territory, others, including Nicephorus Bryennius, suggested they wait and fortify their position. It was decided to continue the march, Alp Arslan was already in the area, however, with allies and 30,000 cavalry from Aleppo and Mosul. Alp Arslans scouts knew exactly where Romanos was, while Romanos was completely unaware of his opponents movements and this split the forces in half, each taking about 20,000 men. Either way, Romanos army was reduced to less than half his planned 40,000 to 70,000 men, Alp Arslan summoned his army and delivered a speech by appearing in a white robe, as in an Islamic funeral shroud, in the morning of the battle. This was a message that he was ready to die in battle. Romanos was unaware of the loss of Tarchaneiotes and continued to Manzikert, which he captured on August 23. The next day some foraging parties under Bryennios discovered the Seljuk army and were forced to back to Manzikert. The Armenian general Basilakes was sent out some cavalry, as Romanos did not believe this was Alp Arslans full army
Battle of Manzikert
–
In this 15th-century French miniature depicting the Battle of Manzikert, the combatants are clad in contemporary Western European armour.
Battle of Manzikert
–
Alp Arslan humiliating Emperor
Romanos IV. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of
Boccaccio 's
De Casibus Virorum Illustrium.
12.
Cappadocia
–
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in the Nevşehir, Kayseri, Kırşehir, Aksaray, and Niğde Provinces in Turkey. According to Herodotus, in the time of the Ionian Revolt, in these lists of countries, the Old Persian name is Haspaduya, which according to some researchers is derived from Iranian Huw-aspa-dahyu- the land/country of beautiful horses. Others proposed that Kat-patuka came from the Luwian language, meaning Low Country, subsequent research suggests that the adverb katta meaning down, below is exclusively Hittite, while its Luwian equivalent is zanta. Therefore the recent modification of this proposal operates with the Hittite katta peda-, Herodotus tells us that the name of the Cappadocians was applied to them by the Persians, while they were termed by the Greeks Syrians or White Syrians Leucosyri. Cappadocia appears in the account given in the book of Acts 2,9. The Cappadocians were named as one group hearing the Gospel account from Galileans in their own language on the day of Pentecost shortly after the resurrection of Jesus Christ, Acts 2,5 seems to suggest that the Cappadocians in this account were God-fearing Jews. The region is mentioned in the Jewish Mishnah, in Ketubot 13,11. This division had come about before the time of Xenophon. The kingdom of Cappadocia still existed in the time of Strabo as a independent state. Cilicia was the given to the district in which Caesarea. The only two cities of Cappadocia considered by Strabo to deserve that appellation were Caesarea and Tyana, not far from the foot of the Taurus, Cappadocia lies in central Anatolia, in the heartland of what is now Turkey. The relief consists of a plateau over 1000 m in altitude that is pierced by volcanic peaks. The boundaries of historical Cappadocia are vague, particularly towards the west, to the south, the Taurus Mountains form the boundary with Cilicia and separate Cappadocia from the Mediterranean Sea. To the west, Cappadocia is bounded by the regions of Lycaonia to the southwest. This results in an area approximately 400 km east–west and 250 km north–south, due to its inland location and high altitude, Cappadocia has a markedly continental climate, with hot dry summers and cold snowy winters. Rainfall is sparse and the region is largely semi-arid, Cappadocia was known as Hatti in the late Bronze Age, and was the homeland of the Hittite power centred at Hattusa. After ending the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great tried to rule the area one of his military commanders. But Ariarathes, a Persian aristocrat, somehow became king of the Cappadocians, as Ariarathes I, he was a successful ruler, and he extended the borders of the Cappadocian Kingdom as far as to the Black Sea
Cappadocia
–
Ancient Region of Anatolia Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia
–
Fairy Chimneys rock formation near Göreme, in Cappadocia
Cappadocia
–
16th-century map of Anatolia from
Münster's Cosmographia showing "Capadocia"
13.
Asia Minor
–
Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
Asia Minor
–
The traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey
Asia Minor
–
The location of
Turkey (within the rectangle) in reference to the
European continent. Anatolia roughly corresponds to the
Asian part of Turkey, except the eastern parts historically known as the
Armenian Highlands
Asia Minor
–
1907 map of Asia Minor, showing the local ancient kingdoms
Asia Minor
–
Mural of
aurochs, a
deer, and humans in
Çatalhöyük, which is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It was registered as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.
14.
Romanos III
–
Romanos III Argyros, or Romanus III Argyrus, was Byzantine emperor from 15 November 1028 until his death. Romanos father was the son of another Romanos Argyros, who had married Agatha, Romanos served as krites in Opsikion, with the rank of protospatharios. In this capacity he persecuted heretics at Akmoneia and he was then promoted to the post of quaestor, and became one of the judges of the Hippodrome. In this role he is mentioned in the Peira, a compendium of legal decisions compiled by the notable jurist Eustathios Rhomaios and he was promoted further to the rank of patrikios and the post of oikonomos of the Great Church, while continuing to preside over a tribunal. At the time of the death of Basil IIs successor, Emperor Constantine VIII, in 1028, Romanos attracted the attention of Constantine VIII, who forced him to divorce his wife and to marry the emperors daughter Zoe Porphyrogenita. The marriage took place on 12 November 1028, and three days later Constantine VIII died, leaving Romanos III as emperor, the new emperor showed great eagerness to make his mark as a ruler, but was mostly unfortunate in his enterprises. He spent large sums upon new buildings and in endowing the monks and his endeavour to relieve the pressure of taxation disorganized the finances of the state. Idealizing Marcus Aurelius, Romanos aspired to be a new philosopher king, in a vain attempt to reduce expenditure, Romanos limited his wifes expenses, which merely exacerbated the alienation between the two. At home Romanos III faced several conspiracies, mostly centered on his sister-in-law Theodora and he was buried in the Church of St. Mary Peribleptos, which he built. By his first wife Helena, Romanos III Argyros had a daughter and he had no children by his second wife Zoe. List of Byzantine emperors Michael Psellus, Chronographia, the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press,1991. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. The Miliaresion Poet, the inscription on a silver coin of Romanos III Argyros. Media related to Romanos III Argyros at Wikimedia Commons Romanus coinage
Romanos III
–
Silver
miliaresion of Romanos III
Romanos III
–
The murder of Romanos III Argyros in a bath, from the Chronicle of
John Skylitzes.
15.
Seljuk Turks
–
The Seljuqs established both the Seljuk Empire and Sultanate of Rum, which at their heights stretched from Anatolia through Iran and were targets of the First Crusade. During the 10th century, due to events, the Oghuz had come into close contact with Muslim cities. Around 985, Seljuq converted to Islam, in the 11th century the Seljuqs migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia, in the province of Khurasan, where they encountered the Ghaznavid empire. In 1025,40,000 families of Oghuz Turks migrated to the area of Caucasian Albania, the Seljuqs defeated the Ghaznavids at the battle of Nasa plains in 1035. Tughril, Chaghri, and Yabghu received the insignias of governor, grants of land, at the battle of Dandanaqan they defeated a Ghaznavid army, and after a successful siege of Isfahan by Tughril in 1050/51, they established an empire later called the Great Seljuk Empire. The Seljuqs mixed with the population and adopted the Persian culture. The Great Seljuqs were heads of the family, in theory their authority extended over all the other Seljuq lines, turkish custom called for the senior member of the family to be the Great Seljuq, although usually the position was associated with the ruler of western Persia. Muhammads son Mahmud II succeeded him in western Persia, but Ahmad Sanjar, the rulers of western Persia, who maintained a very loose grip on the Abbasids of Baghdad. Several Turkic emirs gained a level of influence in the region. Kerman was a province in southern Persia, between 1053 and 1154, the territory also included Umman. Kerman was eventually annexed by the Khwarezmid Empire in 1196, the Empire of the Steppes, a History of Central Asia. Early Seljuq History, A New Interpretation, New York, NY, Routledge,2010 Previté-Orton, C. W
Seljuk Turks
–
History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Seljuk Turks
–
Seljuq dynasty
Seljuk Turks
16.
Kayseri
–
Kayseri is a large and industrialised city in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Kayseri Province, Kayseri is located at the foot of the extinct volcano Mount Erciyes that towers 3,916 metres over the city. The city is cited in the first ranks among Turkeys cities that fit the definition of Anatolian Tigers. The city retains a number of monuments, including several from the Seljuk period. Kayseri is served by Erkilet International Airport and is home to Erciyes University, according to the Turkish Statistical Institute, as of 2011 the city of Kayseri had a population of 844,656, while Kayseri Province had a population of 1,234,651. The name was changed again by Archelaus, last King of Cappadocia, the city has been continuously inhabited since perhaps c.3000 BC with the establishment of the ancient trading colony at Kultepe which is associated with the Hittites. The city has always been a trade centre as it is located on major trade routes. Kültepe, one of the oldest cities in Asia Minor, lies nearby, as Mazaca, the city served as the residence of the kings of Cappadocia. In Roman times, a route from Ephesus to the East also crossed the city. The city stood on a low spur on the side of Mount Erciyes. Only a few traces of the ancient site survive in the old town, in the ensuing period, the city came under the sway of Hellenistic influence, and was given the Greek name of Eusebia in honor of the Cappadocian king Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator of Cappadocia. Under the new name of Caesarea, by which it has since been known, given to it by the last Cappadocian King Archelaus or perhaps by Tiberius, Caesarea was destroyed by the Sassanid king Shapur I after his victory over the Emperor Valerian I in AD260. At the time it was recorded to have around 400,000 inhabitants, the city gradually recovered, and became home to several early Christian saints, saints Dorothea and Theophilus the martyrs, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa and Basil of Caesarea. In the 4th century, bishop Basil established a centre on the plain, about one mile to the northeast. It included a system of almshouses, an orphanage, old homes. A 10th-century list gives it 15 suffragans, Caesarea was also the seat of an Armenian diocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Caesarea in Cappadocia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a see of the Armenian Catholic Church. A portion of Basils new city was surrounded with strong walls, Caesarea in the 9th century became a Byzantine administrative centre as the capital of the Byzantine Theme of Charsianon
Kayseri
–
Door detail from the
Seljuk era Hunat Hatun
Mosque and
Külliye, built in 1238 by
Sultana Hunat Hatun, wife of the
Anatolian Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I and mother of Sultan
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev II.
Kayseri
–
Top:
Kadir Has Stadium, 2nd left: Sivas Avenue, 2nd right:
Atatürk Statue and the city walls of Kayseri in the background, 3rd: Tekin
business district and Oto Park, Bottom left: Kayseri Castle at night, Bottom right:
Kayseray.
Kayseri
–
Walls of the
Seljuk era Sahabiye
Medresesi, built in 1267 by the Seljuk
vizier Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali.
Kayseri
–
Kayseri city walls in 2006
17.
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history. The ecumenical patriarchs in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity, in the Middle Ages they played a major role in the affairs of the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as in the politics of the Orthodox world, and in spreading Christianity among the Slavs. Within the five sees of the Pentarchy, the Ecumenical Patriarch is regarded as the successor of Andrew the Apostle. The current holder of the office is Bartholomew I, the 270th holder of the title, in his role as head of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, he also holds the title Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome. The see of Byzantium, whose foundation was ascribed to Andrew the Apostle, was originally a common bishopric. It gained importance when Emperor Constantine elevated Byzantium to a second capital alongside Rome, the sees ecclesiastical status as the second of five Patriarchates were developed by the Ecumenical Councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451. The Turkish government recognizes him as the leader of the Greek minority in Turkey. The Patriarch was subject to the authority of the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, today, according to Turkish law, he is subject to the authority of the state of Turkey and is required to be a citizen of Turkey to be Patriarch. The Patriarch of Constantinople has been dubbed the Ecumenical Patriarch since the 6th century, the monastic communities of Mount Athos are stauropegic and are directly under the jurisdiction of Ecumenical Patriarch, who is the only bishop with jurisdiction thereover. The Ecumenical Patriarch has a role among Orthodox bishops, though it is not without its controversy. He is primus inter pares, as he is senior among all Orthodox bishops and this primacy, expressed in canonical literature as presbeia, grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to preside at pan-Orthodox synods. Additionally, the literature of the Orthodox Church grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to hear appeals in cases of dispute between bishops. Historically, the Ecumenical Patriarch has heard such appeals and sometimes was invited to intervene in other disputes and difficulties. Even as early as the 4th century, Constantinople was instrumental in the deposition of multiple bishops outside its traditional jurisdiction. This still occurs today, as when in 2006 the patriarchate was invited to assist in declaring the archbishop of the Church of Cyprus incompetent due to his having Alzheimers disease. Additionally, in 2005, the Ecumenical Patriarchate convoked a synod to express the Orthodox worlds confirmation of the deposition of Patriarch Irenaios of Jerusalem. That is, his role is one of promoting and sustaining Church unity. Such a title is acceptable if it refers to this unique role, the five patriarchs of the ancient Pentarchy are to be given seniority of honour, but have no actual power over other bishops other than the power of the synod they are chairing
Patriarch of Constantinople
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Ecumenical Patriarch of
Constantinople
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Emblem found atop the front entrance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Patriarch of Constantinople
–
Throne room inside the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The
Gospel is enthroned on the
dais; the Patriarch sits on the lower throne in front.
18.
Byzantine Senate
–
The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries, but even with its limited power that it theoretically possessed. Constantine offered free land and grain to any Roman Senators who were willing to move to the East, when Constantine founded the Eastern Senate in Byzantium, it initially resembled the councils of important cities like Antioch rather than the Roman Senate. His son Constantius II raised it from the position of a municipal to that of an Imperial body, Constantius II increased the number of Senators to 2,000 by including his friends, courtiers, and various provincial officials. The traditional principles that Senatorial rank was hereditary and that the way of becoming a member of the Senate itself was by holding a magistracy still remained in full force. By the time of the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395 and their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. The Praetorship was a position to hold as Praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties. There are known to have been eight Praetors in the Eastern Roman Empire who shared the burden between them. The Emperor or the Senate itself could also issue a decree to grant a man not born into the Senatorial order a seat in the Senate, exemption from the expensive position of praetor would also often be conferred on such persons that had become Senators in this way. The senatorial families in Constantinople tended to be less affluent and less distinguished than those in the West, some aristocrats attempted to become senators in order to escape the difficult conditions that were imposed on them by late Roman Emperors such as Diocletian. The Senate was led by the Prefect of the City, who conducted all of its communications with the Emperor and it was composed of three orders, the illustres, spectabiles and clarissimi. The members of the illustres were those who held the highest offices in Eastern Rome, such as the Master of Soldiers, the spectabiles formed the middle class of the Senate and consisted of important statesmen such as proconsuls, vicars and military governors of the provinces. The clarissimi was the class of the senate and was attached to the governors of the provinces. Members of the two orders were permitted to live anywhere within the Empire and were generally inactive Senators. The majority of members in the Senate were the illustres, whose important offices were usually based in Constantinople. By the end of the 5th century the two classes were completely excluded from sitting in the Senate. As a result, a new order, the gloriosi, was created to accommodate the highest ranking senators, whilst the powers of the Senate were limited, it could pass resolutions which the Emperor might adopt and issue in the form of edicts. It could thus suggest Imperial legislation, and it acted from time to time as a consultative body, some Imperial laws took the form of Orations to the Senate, and were read aloud before the body
Byzantine Senate
–
Personification of the Senate. From the
consular diptych of Theodore Philoxenus, 525 AD
Byzantine Senate
–
Consul Anastasius, from his consular diptych, 517 AD. He holds a consular sceptre topped by an eagle and the mappa, a piece of cloth that was thrown to signify the start of the Hippodrome races that marked the beginning of a consulship
Byzantine Senate
–
Solidus celebrating emperorship of
Leo II. The emperor is coined as "Saviour of the
Republic " — which the Empire continued to be in theory.
Byzantine Senate
–
Gold
solidus of the two Heraclii in consular robes, struck during their revolt against Phocas in 608
19.
Histamenon
–
Histamenon was the name given to the gold Byzantine solidus when the slightly lighter tetarteron was introduced in the 960s. To distinguish the two, the histamenon was changed in form from the solidus, becoming wider and thinner. Later usually shortened to stamenon, it was discontinued after 1092, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the name stamenon came to be applied to the concave billon and copper trachea coins. The Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas, however, introduced a new coin, the latter now became known as the histamenon, from the Greek verb ἵστημι, to stand up, implying that these followed the traditional standard. Initially, the two coins were virtually indistinguishable except in weight, during the later reign of Basil II, the tetarteron began to be minted in a thicker and smaller form, while the histamenon became correspondingly thinner and wider. Only during the rule of Constantine VIII, however, did the two coins become iconographically distinct as well. In addition, under Michael IV the Paphlagonian, it began to be minted in a concave form, possibly to increase the thin coins strength. Flat coins were struck at times, but scyphate ones came to predominate from Constantine IX on. These concave coins were known as histamena trachea or simply trachea from their shape, starting with Michael IV, who was a former money lender, the gold content began to be increasingly lowered and the coins debased. After a period of stability in circa 1055–1070, the gold content declined dramatically in the disastrous 1070s and 1080s. The michaelata of Michael VII Doukas still contained some 16 carats of gold, but by the time of Alexios I Komnenos, the nomismata struck contained almost no gold at all
Histamenon
–
Histamenon of Emperor
Constantine VIII (r. 1025–1028).
Histamenon
–
Histamenon of Emperor
Isaac I Komnenos (r. 1057–1059), with its by then characteristic concave form.
Histamenon
–
An example of the greatly debased later histamena: an
electrum coin of the first years of Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118).
20.
Michael VII Doukas
–
Michael VII Doukas or Dukas/Ducas, nicknamed Parapinakēs, was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. Michael VII was born c.1050 in Constantinople, the eldest son of Constantine X Doukas and he was associated with his father on the throne late in 1059, together with or shortly before his newly born brother Konstantios Doukas. When Constantine X died in 1067, Michael VII was 17 years old and should have been able to rule by himself and he exhibited little interest in politics, however, and his mother Eudokia and uncle John Doukas governed the empire as effective regents. On January 1,1068, Eudokia married the general Romanos Diogenes, who now became senior co-emperor alongside Michael VII, Konstantios, and another brother, Andronikos. They conspired to keep Romanos from regaining power after his release from captivity, after the dispatch of Eudokia to a monastery, Michael VII was crowned again on October 24,1071 as senior emperor. Although still advised by Michael Psellos and John Doukas, Michael VII became increasingly reliant on his finance minister Nikephoritzes, the emperors chief interests, shaped by Psellos, were in academic pursuits, and he allowed Nikephoritzes to increase both taxation and luxury spending without properly financing the army. As an emperor he was incompetent, surrounded by sycophantic court officials, in dire straits, imperial officials resorted to property confiscations and even expropriated some of the wealth of the church. The underpaid army tended to mutiny, and the Byzantines lost Bari, their last possession in Italy, simultaneously, they faced a serious revolt in the Balkans, where they faced an attempt for the restoration of the Bulgarian state. Although this revolt was suppressed by the general Nikephoros Bryennios, the Byzantine Empire was unable to recover its losses in Asia Minor. The problem was made worse by the desertion of the Byzantines western mercenaries and this campaign also ended in failure, and its commander was likewise captured by the enemy. The victorious mercenaries now forced John Doukas to stand as pretender to the throne, the government of Michael VII was forced to recognize the conquests of the Seljuks in Asia Minor in 1074, and to seek their support. A new army under Alexios Komnenos, reinforced by Seljuk troops sent by Malik Shah I, finally defeated the mercenaries and these misfortunes caused widespread dissatisfaction, exacerbated by the devaluation of the currency, which gave the emperor his nickname Parapinakēs, minus a quarter. In 1078 two generals, Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates, simultaneously revolted in the Balkans and Anatolia, Botaneiates gained the support of the Seljuk Turks, and he reached Constantinople first. Michael VII resigned the throne with hardly a struggle on March 31,1078 and he later became metropolitan of Ephesus and died in Constantinople in c. Before his resignation from the throne, Michael VII may have sent an embassy to Song China, the History of Song mentions how the Byzantine diplomat and official named Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-pan offered saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls as tributary gifts to the Song court. Various usurpers attempted to overthrow Michael VII or rule parts of the empire and these included, Nestor – A former slave of Constantine X, Nestor had been promoted to become the dux of Paradounavon, a region bordering the Danube. The troops were eager to plunder the Bulgarians, and Nestor obtained the assistance of one of the chiefs of the Patzinaks before marching onto Constantinople, defeated by Alexios Komnenos in 1078, Nestor remained with the Patzinaks, and retreated with them back to Paradunavum. Philaretos Brachamios Caesar John Doukas Nikephoros Bryennios Nikephoros Botaneiates Michael VII Doukas married Maria of Alania, by her he had at least one son, Constantine Doukas, co-emperor from c.1075 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087/8
Michael VII Doukas
–
Nomisma histamenon of Michael VII Doukas. Emperor with attributes.
Michael VII Doukas
–
Miliaresion of Michael VII Doukas.
Michael VII Doukas
–
Depiction of Michael VII Doukas on the back of the
Holy Crown of Hungary.
21.
Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)
–
Andronikos Doukas, Latinized as Andronicus Ducas, was the third son of Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas and younger brother of Byzantine emperor Michael VII Doukas. Unlike his other brothers, he was not named junior co-emperor by his father and he is otherwise relatively insignificant, and was not involved in the affairs of state to any degree. Andronikos Doukas was born circa 1057, the son of Constantine X Doukas. Psellos also compiled a laudatory monody on Andronikos after the latters death, unlike his other two surviving brothers, he was not raised by his father to the position of co-emperor. Thus, and unlike them, he did not participate in the regency of Eudokia that followed his fathers death in 1068. Furthermore, during his absence from Constantinople on campaign in the East soon after his accession, during the reign of his elder brother Michael VII, Andronikos continued as co-emperor, and was even possibly raised above Konstantios in precedence. Curiously, despite his apparent lack of ability and purely decorative function as co-emperor, Andronikos is included in some lists of Byzantine emperors. It is unknown when he died, D. Polemis surmised that it was after 1081, but Thomas Conley argues that he died in early 1077, since he is not mentioned during Nikephoros Botaneiatess attack on Constantinople in the same year. According to Pselloss monody, Andronikos was married to an unnamed woman, who died soon after his own death
Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)
–
Gold
histamenon of
Romanos IV:
Michael VII flanked by his brothers Andronikos and
Konstantios on the obverse, Romanos IV and
Eudokia Makrembolitissa crowned by Christ on the reverse.
22.
Konstantios Doukas
–
Konstantios Doukas, Latinized as Constantius Ducas, was the son of Byzantine Emperor Constantine X Doukas and younger brother of Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas. He reigned as junior co-emperor from his birth, but was unable to establish himself as sole emperor against Nikephoros III when Michael VII abdicated in 1078, Konstantios was the youngest son of Constantine X Doukas and was born a porphyrogennetos. Upon his birth he was made co-emperor, alongside his brother Michael VII Doukas and his other brother, Andronikos Doukas, was also elevated some eight years later. He retained the title during the reigns of Romanos IV Diogenes and his elder brother, Michael VII. In 1078, when Michaels reign came to an end by an insurrection at Constantinople, he abdicated in favour of Konstantios and his only rival was Nikephoros III, who was on his way to Constantinople when news arrived of Michaels overthrow. It was soon evident that Konstantios was completely incapable of leading the empire. By 1081, he was recalled into service by Alexios I Komnenos. Sent to the war against the Normans, he perished while fighting them at Dyrrhachium in 1082
Konstantios Doukas
–
Gold
histamenon of
Romanos IV:
Michael VII flanked by his brothers
Andronikos and Konstantios on the obverse, Romanos IV and
Eudokia Makrembolitissa crowned by Christ on the reverse
23.
Caesar (title)
–
Caesar is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, the change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman Emperors can be dated to about AD 68/69, the so-called Year of the Four Emperors. For political and personal reasons Octavian chose to emphasize his relationship with Caesar by styling himself simply Imperator Caesar, without any of the other elements of his full name. His successor as emperor, his stepson Tiberius, also bore the name as a matter of course, born Tiberius Claudius Nero, he was adopted by Caesar Augustus on June 26,4 AD, as Tiberius Julius Caesar. The precedent was set, the Emperor designated his successor by adopting him, Claudius in turn adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name Caesar in the traditional way, his stepson would rule as the Emperor Nero. Galba helped solidify Caesar as the title of the heir by giving it to his own adopted heir. Galbas reign did not last long and he was deposed by Marcus Otho. Otho did not at first use the title Caesar and occasionally used the title Nero as emperor, Otho was then defeated by Aulus Vitellius who acceded with the name Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus. Vitellius did not adopt the cognomen Caesar as part of his name, vespasians son, Titus Flavius Vespasianus became Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus. By this point the status of Caesar had been regularised into that of a given to the Emperor-designate. After some variation among the earliest emperors, the style of the Emperor-designate on coins was usually Nobilissimus Caesar Most Noble Caesar, on March 1,293, Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior Emperors and two junior sub-Emperors. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as Imperator Caesar NN, pius Felix Invictus Augustus, and were called the Augusti, while the two junior sub-Emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as Nobilissimus Caesar. Likewise, the junior sub-Emperors retained the title Caesar upon accession to the senior position, an exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II who had helped him regain his throne in 705. The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, according to the Klētorologion of 899, the Byzantine Caesars insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a Caesars creation, is included in De Ceremoniis I.43. The title remained the highest in the hierarchy until the introduction of the sebastokratōr by Alexios I Komnenos. The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire, in the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the sebastokratōr. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the forms of another form of hat, the domed skaranikon, and of the mantle. In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as Caesar
Caesar (title)
–
Bust of
Julius Caesar from the
Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Caesar (title)
–
Ancient Rome
Caesar (title)
–
The Byzantine emperor
Constantine the Great, mosaic in
Hagia Sophia,
Constantinople
Caesar (title)
24.
Varangian Guard
–
The Varangian Guard was an elite unit of the Byzantine Army, from the 10th to the 14th centuries, whose members served as personal bodyguards to the Byzantine Emperors. They are known for being composed of Germanic peoples, specifically Norsemen. The Rus provided the earliest members of the Varangian Guard and they were in Byzantine service from as early as 874. The Guard was first formally constituted under Emperor Basil II in 988, Vladimir, who had recently usurped power in Kiev with an army of Varangian warriors, sent 6,000 men to Basil as part of a military assistance agreement. Immigrants from Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Iceland kept a predominantly Norse cast to the organization until the late 11th century, composed primarily of Norsemen and Rus for the first 100 years, the Guard began to see increased numbers of Anglo-Saxons after the Norman conquest of England. By the late 13th century, Varangians were mostly assimilated by the Byzantine Greeks. In 1400, there were some people identifying themselves as Varangians in Constantinople. The earliest members of the Varangian guard came from Kievan Rus, a treaty between Rus and the Byzantine empire under Basil I was agreed in 874 after a period of hostilities. A clause in the treaty obliged Rus to provide men for Byzantine service, renewed hostilities between 907 and 911 ended with a new treaty under which any Rus who chose could serve Byzantium as a right. As early as 911, Varangians are mentioned as fighting as mercenaries for the Byzantines, a unit of 415 Varangians was involved in the Italian expedition of 936. It is also recorded there were Varangian contingents among the forces that fought the Arabs in Syria in 955. During this period, the Varangian mercenaries were included in the Great Companions, in 988, Basil II requested military assistance from Vladimir I of Kiev to help defend his throne. In compliance with the treaty made by his father after the Siege of Dorostolon, Vladimir took the opportunity to rid himself of his most unruly warriors which in any case he was unable to pay. This is the date for the formal, permanent institution of an elite guard. In exchange for the warriors, Vladimir was given Basils sister, Anna, Vladimir also agreed to convert to Christianity and to bring his people into the Christian faith. In 989, these Varangians, led by Basil II himself, on the field of battle, Phokas died of a stroke in full view of his opponent, upon the death of their leader, Phokas troops turned and fled. The brutality of the Varangians was noted when they pursued the fleeing army and these men formed the nucleus of the Varangian Guard, which saw extensive service in southern Italy in the eleventh century, as the Normans and Lombards worked to extinguish Byzantine authority there. In 1018, Basil II received a request from his catepan of Italy, Basil Boioannes, a detachment of the Varangian Guard was sent and in the Battle of Cannae, the Byzantines achieved a decisive victory
Varangian Guard
–
Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the
Skylitzis Chronicle
Varangian Guard
–
An illumination of a scene from the
Skylitzes Chronicle, depicting a
Thracesian woman killing a Varangian who tried to rape her, whereupon his comrades praised her and gave her his possessions
Varangian Guard
–
Viking expeditions: depicting the immense breadth of their voyages through most of
Europe, the
Mediterranean Sea, Northern
Africa,
Asia Minor, the
Arctic and
North America
Varangian Guard
–
The
Byzantine cross, on
U 161, a cross which is today the coat of arms of the municipality of
Täby
25.
Mesopotamia
–
In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires. The Sumerians and Akkadians dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of history to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD226, eastern part of it fell to the Sassanid Persians, division of Mesopotamia between Roman and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. The regional toponym Mesopotamia comes from the ancient Greek root words μέσος middle and ποταμός river and it is used throughout the Greek Septuagint to translate the Hebrew equivalent Naharaim. In the Anabasis, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria, the Aramaic term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is made between Northern or Upper Mesopotamia and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jazira, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad, Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran. In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation and it is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like Syria, Jazirah, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments, Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Armenian Highlands. Both rivers are fed by tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000 square kilometres region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, in the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times, periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and these trends have continued to the present day in Iraq
Mesopotamia
–
Known world of the Mesopotamian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures from documentary sources
Mesopotamia
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Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
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One of 18
Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BC
Mesopotamia
–
One of the
Nimrud ivories shows a lion eating a man. Neo-Assyrian period, 9th to 7th centuries BC.
26.
Melitene
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Malatya is a large city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province. The city has been a settlement for thousands of years. The Assyrians called the city Meliddu, Strabo says that the city was known to the ancients as Melitene, a name adopted by the Romans following Roman expansion into the east. According to Strabo, the inhabitants of Melitene shared with the nearby Cappadocians and Cataonians the same language, the site of ancient Melitene lies a few kilometres from the modern city in what is now the village of Arslantepe and near the dependant district center of Battalgazi. Present-day Battalgazi was the location of the city of Malatya until the 19th century, battalgazis official name was Eskimalatya, until recently, it was a name used locally. Arslantepe has been inhabited since the development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent, from the Bronze Age, the site became an administrative center of a larger region in the kingdom of Isuwa. The city was fortified, probably due to the Hittite menace from the west. The Hittites conquered the city in the fourteenth century B. C, in Hittite, melid or milit means honey, offering a possible etymology for the name, which was mentioned in the contemporary sources of the time under several variations. After the end of the Hittite empire, the city became the center of the Neo-Hittite state of Kammanu, the city continued old Hittite traditions and styles. Researchers have discovered a palace inside the city walls with statues, the people erected a palace, accompanied by monumental stone sculptures of lions and the ruler. Kammanu was vassal state of Urartu between 804 and 743, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I forced the kingdom of Malidiya to pay tribute to Assyria. Malidiya continued to prosper until the Assyrian king Sargon II sacked the city in 712 BC, at the same time, the Cimmerians and Scythians invaded Asia Minor and the city declined. Some occupation continued on the site into the Hellenistic and Roman periods — a smithy with four ovens has been excavated from the Roman period, there was a long gap in occupation between the mid-7th century and renewed use of the site in the late 12th or early 13th century. Archeologists first began to excavate the site of Arslantepe in the 1930s, since 1961, an Italian team of archaeologists, today led by Marcella Frangipane, has been working at the site. The Kingdom of Cappadocia, ruled by the House of Ariobarzanes, after the Kingdoms annexation by the Roman Empire in 17 AD, the settlement was re-established as Melitene in 72 AD on a different site, as the base camp of Legio XII Fulminata. The legionary base of Melitene controlled access to southern Armenia and the upper Tigris and it was the end point of the important highway running east from Caesarea. The camp attracted a population and was probably granted city status by Trajan in the early 2nd century AD. It is known for being a source of imperial coins minted from the 3rd to the early 5th centuries
Melitene
–
A general view of the city
Melitene
–
Şelale Parkı (Cascade Park) in Malatya
Melitene
–
Capture of Melitene by the Byzantines in 934
Melitene
–
Apricot products in Malatya
27.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
Syria
–
Female figurine, 5000 BC.
Ancient Orient Museum.
Syria
–
Flag
Syria
–
God head, the kingdom of
Yamhad (c. 1600 BC)
Syria
–
Ebla royal palace c. 2400 BC
28.
Cilicia
–
In antiquity, Cilicia was the south coastal region of Asia Minor and existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia during the late Byzantine Empire. Extending inland from the southeastern coast of modern Turkey, Cilicia is due north and northeast of the island of Cyprus, Cilicia extended along the Mediterranean coast east from Pamphylia, to the Nur Mountains, which separated it from Syria. North and east of Cilicia lie the rugged Taurus Mountains that separate it from the central plateau of Anatolia. Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachaea and Cilicia Pedias by the Limonlu River, salamis, the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in its administrative jurisdiction. Homer mentions the people of Mopsus, identified as Cilices, as from the Troad in the northernwesternmost part of Anatolia, the English spelling Cilicia is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form Κιλικία. The palatalization of c occurring in the west in later Vulgar Latin accounts for its pronunciation in English. The district is watered by the Calycadnus and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to Phoenicia, many of its high places were fortified. The plain is watered by the three rivers, the Cydnus, the Sarus and the Pyramus, each of which brings down much silt from the deforested interior. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus. Through the rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west, on which stood the cities of Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus, Cilicia was settled from the Neolithic period onwards. Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows, Aceramic/Neolithic, 8th and 7th millennia BC, Early Chalcolithic,5800 BC, Middle Chalcolithic, c. 3400 BC, and Early Bronze Age IA, 3400–3000 BC, EBA IB, 3000–2700 BC, EBA II, 2700–2400 BC, EBA III A-B, the area had been known as Kizzuwatna in the earlier Hittite era. The region was divided into two parts, Uru Adaniya, a plain, and rough Cilicia, in the mountainous west. The Cilicians appear as Hilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the part of the first millennium BC were one of the four chief powers of Western Asia. Homer mentions the plain as the Aleian plain in which Bellerophon wandered, the Cilician cities unknown to Homer already bore their pre-Greek names, Tarzu, Ingira, Danuna-Adana, which retains its ancient name, Pahri, Kundu and Karatepe. After the death of Murshili around 1595 BC, Hurrians wrested control from the Hitties, the first king of free Cilicia, Išputahšu, son of Pariyawatri, was recorded as a great king in both cuneiform and Hittite hieroglyphs. Another record of Hittite origins, a treaty between Išputahšu and Telipinu, king of the Hittites, is recorded in both Hittite and Akkadian. Niqmepa, who succeeded Idrimi as king of Alalakh, went so far as to ask for help from a Hurrian rival, Shaushtatar of Mitanni, to try and reduce Cilicias power in the region
Cilicia
–
Fugitive slave treaty between Idrimi of
Alalakh (now
Tell Atchana) and Pillia of
Kizzuwatna (now Cilicia), (c. 1480 BC) Ref: 131447.
Cilicia
–
Cilicia
Cilicia
–
The Persian
Pharnabazus, pictured, as Satrap of Cilicia (379-374 BC).
British Museum.
Cilicia
–
A Roman-period triumphal arch at
Anazarbus, later converted into the city's south gate
29.
Caesarea Mazaca
–
Kayseri is a large and industrialised city in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Kayseri Province, Kayseri is located at the foot of the extinct volcano Mount Erciyes that towers 3,916 metres over the city. The city is cited in the first ranks among Turkeys cities that fit the definition of Anatolian Tigers. The city retains a number of monuments, including several from the Seljuk period. Kayseri is served by Erkilet International Airport and is home to Erciyes University, according to the Turkish Statistical Institute, as of 2011 the city of Kayseri had a population of 844,656, while Kayseri Province had a population of 1,234,651. The name was changed again by Archelaus, last King of Cappadocia, the city has been continuously inhabited since perhaps c.3000 BC with the establishment of the ancient trading colony at Kultepe which is associated with the Hittites. The city has always been a trade centre as it is located on major trade routes. Kültepe, one of the oldest cities in Asia Minor, lies nearby, as Mazaca, the city served as the residence of the kings of Cappadocia. In Roman times, a route from Ephesus to the East also crossed the city. The city stood on a low spur on the side of Mount Erciyes. Only a few traces of the ancient site survive in the old town, in the ensuing period, the city came under the sway of Hellenistic influence, and was given the Greek name of Eusebia in honor of the Cappadocian king Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator of Cappadocia. Under the new name of Caesarea, by which it has since been known, given to it by the last Cappadocian King Archelaus or perhaps by Tiberius, Caesarea was destroyed by the Sassanid king Shapur I after his victory over the Emperor Valerian I in AD260. At the time it was recorded to have around 400,000 inhabitants, the city gradually recovered, and became home to several early Christian saints, saints Dorothea and Theophilus the martyrs, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa and Basil of Caesarea. In the 4th century, bishop Basil established a centre on the plain, about one mile to the northeast. It included a system of almshouses, an orphanage, old homes. A 10th-century list gives it 15 suffragans, Caesarea was also the seat of an Armenian diocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Caesarea in Cappadocia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a see of the Armenian Catholic Church. A portion of Basils new city was surrounded with strong walls, Caesarea in the 9th century became a Byzantine administrative centre as the capital of the Byzantine Theme of Charsianon
Caesarea Mazaca
–
Door detail from the
Seljuk era Hunat Hatun
Mosque and
Külliye, built in 1238 by
Sultana Hunat Hatun, wife of the
Anatolian Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I and mother of Sultan
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev II.
Caesarea Mazaca
–
Top:
Kadir Has Stadium, 2nd left: Sivas Avenue, 2nd right:
Atatürk Statue and the city walls of Kayseri in the background, 3rd: Tekin
business district and Oto Park, Bottom left: Kayseri Castle at night, Bottom right:
Kayseray.
Caesarea Mazaca
–
Walls of the
Seljuk era Sahabiye
Medresesi, built in 1267 by the Seljuk
vizier Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali.
Caesarea Mazaca
–
Kayseri city walls in 2006
30.
St Basil
–
Basil of Caesarea, also called Saint Basil the Great, was the Greek bishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia, Asia Minor. He was a theologian who supported the Nicene Creed and opposed the heresies of the early Christian church. His ability to balance his theological convictions with his connections made Basil a powerful advocate for the Nicene position. In addition to his work as a theologian, Basil was known for his care of the poor, Basil established guidelines for monastic life which focus on community life, liturgical prayer, and manual labour. Together with Pachomius, he is remembered as a father of communal monasticism in Eastern Christianity and he is considered a saint by the traditions of both Eastern and Western Christianity. Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa are collectively referred to as the Cappadocian Fathers, the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches have given him, together with Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom, the title of Great Hierarch. He is recognised as a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church and he is sometimes referred to by the epithet Ouranophantor, revealer of heavenly mysteries. Basil was born into the family of Basil the Elder. His parents were known for their piety and his maternal grandfather was a Christian martyr, executed in the years prior to Constantine Is conversion. His pious widow, Macrina, herself a follower of Gregory Thaumaturgus, raised Basil and his four siblings, Macrina the Younger, Naucratius, Peter of Sebaste, Basil received more formal education in Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia around 350-51. There he met Gregory of Nazianzus, who would become a lifetime friend, together, Basil and Gregory went to Constantinople for further studies, including the lectures of Libanius. The two also spent almost six years in Athens starting around 349, where met a fellow student who would become the emperor Julian the Apostate. Basil left Athens in 356, and after travels in Egypt and Syria, he returned to Caesarea, Basils life changed radically after he encountered Eustathius of Sebaste, a charismatic bishop and ascetic. Abandoning his legal and teaching career, Basil devoted his life to God, a letter described his spiritual awakening, After his baptism, Basil traveled in 357 to Palestine, Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia to study ascetics and monasticism. He distributed his fortunes among the poor, then went briefly into solitude near Neocaesarea of Pontus on the Iris, Basil eventually realized that while he respected the ascetics piety and prayerfulness, the solitary life did not call him. Eustathius of Sebaste, a prominent anchorite near Pontus, had mentored Basil, however, they also eventually differed over dogma. Basil instead felt drawn toward communal religious life, and by 358 he was gathering around him a group of like-minded disciples, together they founded a monastic settlement on his familys estate near Annesi. His widowed mother Emmelia, sister Macrina and several women, joined Basil and devoted themselves to pious lives of prayer
St Basil
–
Icon of St. Basil the Great from the St. Sophia Cathedral of Kiev
St Basil
–
The theology of
Gregory Thaumaturgus, a student of
Origen, influenced Basil through his grandmother
Macrina the Elder.
St Basil
–
Russian icon of Basil of Caesarea
St Basil
–
Icon of the
Three Holy Hierarchs: Basil the Great (left),
John Chrysostom (center) and
Gregory the Theologian (right)—from Lipie, Historic Museum in
Sanok,
Poland.
