1.
Historical period drama
–
The term, historical period drama refers to a work set in an earlier time period, usually used in the context of film and television. It is an informal term that can apply to several genres and is often heard in the context of historical fiction and romances, adventure films. A period piece may be as long and general as the ages or as limited as one decade, for example. Historical drama film stories are based upon events and famous people. A period film is a film that attempts to depict a specific time period. Examples include movies like Cinderella Man, Schindler’s List, Les Misérables or Lincoln, the most common type of period piece is the historical period piece, both on stage and in movies. This category includes Robin Hood, Barry Lyndon, Amadeus, The Young Victoria, films that are set in the 1930s and 1940s, such as Last Man Standing, can also be placed in this category. Other examples include Marie Antoinette, Middle march, and Pride, many highly successful television series have been known as period pieces. Notable examples include The Tudors, Mad Men, Boardwalk Empire, Call the Midwife, Downton Abbey, Deadwood, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, and Little House on the Prairie
2.
Roots: The Saga of an American Family
–
Roots, The Saga of an American Family is a novel written by Alex Haley and first published in 1976. The novel spent months on The New York Times Best Seller List, the last seven chapters of the novel were later adapted in the form of a second miniseries, Roots, The Next Generations. It stimulated interest in genealogy and appreciation for African American history, following the success of the novel and the miniseries, Haley was accused by two authors of plagiarism of their novels. Harold Courlander was able to prove that Roots was plagiarized from his novel The African, the resulting trial ended with an out-of-court settlement and Haleys admission that some passages within Roots had been copied from Courlanders work, Haley claimed this was unintentional. In a later interview with BBC Television, the judge in Courlanders lawsuit against Haley said. The book was described as faction and was sold in the non-fiction section of bookstores. Haley spent the last chapter of the book describing his research in archives and libraries to support his familys oral tradition with written records, however, historians and genealogists have found critical errors in his research work. Most of the novel is either unsupported or contradicted by the available evidence, Kunta has a typically difficult but free childhood in his village, Juffure. His village subsists on farming, and sometimes they do not have enough food, yet Kunta is surrounded by love and traditions. Ominously, the village had heard of the recent arrival of toubob, one morning when Kunta is cutting wood to make a drum, he is captured by several toubob slave-traders. After a nightmarish journey across the Atlantic on board the British slave ship Lord Ligonier, John Waller of Spotsylvania County, Virginia purchases Kunta at an auction and gives him the name Toby. However, Kunta is headstrong and tries to run four times. When he is captured for the last time, slave hunters cut off part of his foot to cripple him. Kunta is then bought by his masters brother, Dr. William Waller and he becomes a gardener and eventually his masters buggy driver. He marries Bell, Wallers cook, and together they have a daughter, Kizzys childhood as a slave is as happy as her parents can make it. She is close friends with John Wallers daughter Missy Anne, yet her life changes when she forges a traveling pass for her beau Noah, a field hand. When he is caught and confesses, she is away from her family at the age of sixteen. Kizzy is bought by Tom Lea, a farmer and chicken fighter who rose from poor beginnings and he rapes and impregnates her, and she gives birth to George, who later becomes known as Chicken George when he becomes his fathers cockfighting trainer
3.
Alex Haley
–
Alexander Murray Palmer Alex Haley was an American writer and the author of the 1976 book Roots, The Saga of an American Family. ABC adapted the book as a miniseries of the same name. In the United States the book and miniseries raised the awareness of African American history and inspired a broad interest in genealogy. Haleys first book was The Autobiography of Malcolm X, published in 1965, a collaboration through numerous interviews with the subject. He was working on a family history novel at his death. Haley had requested that David Stevens, a screenwriter, complete it and it was adapted as a film of the same name released in 1992. Alex Haley was born in Ithaca, New York, on August 11,1921, Haley lived with his family in Henning, Tennessee, before returning to Ithaca with his family when he was five years old. Haleys father was Simon Haley, a professor of agriculture at Alabama A&M University, and his mother was Bertha George Haley, the family had African American, Mandinka, Cherokee, Scottish, and Scots-Irish roots. The younger Haley always spoke proudly of his father and the obstacles of racism he had overcome, the following year he returned to his father and stepmother to tell them he had withdrawn from college. His father felt that Alex needed discipline and growth, and convinced him to enlist in the military when he turned 18, on May 24,1939, Alex Haley began what became a 20-year career in the United States Coast Guard. Haley traced back his maternal ancestry, through research, to Jufureh. Haley enlisted as a mess attendant, later he was promoted to the rate of petty officer third-class in the rating of steward, one of the few ratings open to African Americans at that time. It was during his service in the Pacific theater of operations that Haley taught himself the craft of writing stories, during his enlistment other sailors often paid him to write love letters to their girlfriends. He said that the greatest enemy he and his crew faced during their long voyages was not the Japanese forces, after World War II, Haley petitioned the U. S. Coast Guard to allow him to transfer into the field of journalism. By 1949 he had become a petty officer first-class in the rating of journalist and he later advanced to chief petty officer and held this grade until his retirement from the Coast Guard in 1959. He was the first chief journalist in the Coast Guard, the rating having been created for him in recognition of his literary ability. Further, the Republic of Korea awarded him the War Service Medal 10 years after he died, after retiring from the U. S. Coast Guard, Haley began another phase of his journalism career. He eventually became an editor for Readers Digest magazine
4.
Marvin J. Chomsky
–
Marvin J. Chomsky is an American television and film director. He has also worked as a producer, born in New York City, Chomsky graduated from Syracuse University in 1950. Chomskys early jobs in the picture and television industries included work as an art director, set decorator. Chomskys feature film directing credits include Evel Knievel, Live A Little, Steal A Lot, Mackintosh, good Luck, Miss Wyckoff and Tank. Chomsky is a television director, and his career spanned from 1964-1995. During the late 1960s, Chomsky directed eleven episodes of the television series The Wild Wild West and he also directed episodes of Star Trek and Gunsmoke. Besides directing individual episodes for series, Chomsky directed made-for-TV movies such as Brinks, The Great Robbery, Victory at Entebbe, Attica. During the 1970s, Chomsky served as one of the directors for the miniseries Roots, Marvin J. Chomsky at the Internet Movie Database Marvin J. Chomsky at FilmReference. com
5.
John Amos
–
John A. Amos, Jr. is an American actor who is best known for his role as James Evans, Sr. on the CBS television series Good Times. Amos also played the father of Will Smiths characters girlfriend, Lisa Wilkes, in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Amos played the Father of Tommy Strawn on the long running sitcom, Martin, as Sgt. Strawn, and another recurring role on Two and a Half Men as Chelseas dads new lover, Amos also played Major Grant, the US Special forces officer in Die Hard 2. Amos has also appeared on Broadway and in films in a career that spans four decades. He has received nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award and NAACP Image Award, John A. Amos, Jr. was born in Newark, New Jersey, the son of Annabelle P. and John A. Amos, Sr. who was an auto mechanic. He grew up in East Orange, New Jersey, and graduated from East Orange High School in 1958 and he enrolled at Long Beach City College and graduated from Colorado State University qualifying as a social worker with a degree in sociology. Amos also played on the Colorado State Rams football team, Amos was a Golden Gloves boxing champion. In 1964, he signed an agent contract with the American Football Leagues Denver Broncos. Unable to run the 40-yard dash because of a pulled hamstring and he then played with Joliet Explorers of the United Football League. In 1965, he played with the Norfolk Neptunes and Wheeling Ironmen of the Continental Football League, in 1966, he played with the Jersey City Jets and Waterbury Orbits of the Atlantic Coast Football League. In 1967, he had signed an agent contract with the American Football Leagues Kansas City Chiefs. Coach Hank Stram told John youre not a player, youre a man who is trying to play football. John approached Coach Stram with a poem he wrote about the creature that passed the door of all players who are cut from the team. He read it to the team and received an ovation from all the players. Amos said Coach Stram pushed him in the direction of writing after he was released from training camp and he returned to the Continental League where he played that year with the Victoria Steelers. Amos became well known in his first major TV role, playing character Gordy Howard from 1970 until 1973, in 1971, he appeared with a young Anson Williams in a commercial for McDonalds. Amos was fired from the show after the season ended because he had issues with Norman Lear. His character James Evans died in a car accident in the first episode of the season
6.
Ben Vereen
–
Ben Vereen is an American actor, dancer, and singer who has appeared in numerous Broadway theatre shows. Vereen graduated from Manhattans High School of Performing Arts, Vereen was born Benjamin Augustus Middleton on October 10,1946, in Miami, Florida. While still an infant, Vereen and his family relocated to the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood in Brooklyn and he was adopted by James Vereen, a paint-factory worker, and his wife, Pauline, who worked as a maid and theatre wardrobe mistress. He discovered he was adopted when he applied for a passport to join Sammy Davis, during his pre-teen years, he exhibited an innate talent for drama and dance and often performed in local variety shows. At the age of 14, Vereen enrolled at the High School of Performing Arts, where he studied under world-renowned choreographers Martha Graham, George Balanchine, upon his graduation, he struggled to find suitable stage work and was often forced to take odd jobs to supplement his income. He was 18 years old when he made his New York stage bow off-off Broadway in The Prodigal Son at the Greenwich Mews Theater. By the following year, he was in Las Vegas, performing in Bob Fosses production of Sweet Charity and he returned to New York City to play Claude in Hair in the Broadway production, before joining the national touring company. The following year, he was cast opposite Davis in the adaptation of Sweet Charity. After developing a rapport with Davis, Vereen was cast as his understudy in the production of Golden Boy. He was nominated for a Tony Award for Jesus Christ Superstar in 1972, Vereen appeared in the Broadway musical Wicked as the Wizard of Oz in 2005. Vereen has also performed in shows and actively lectures on black history. Vereens four-week summer variety series, Ben Vereen, comin At Ya, aired on NBC in August 1975 and featured regulars Lola Falana, Avery Schreiber and Liz Torres. In 1981, Vereen performed at Ronald Reagans first inauguration, the performance generated controversy as Vereen performed the first part of the show in blackface. Before the finale, ABC cut the performance, generating confusion. He was cast opposite Jeff Goldblum in the detective series Tenspeed. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Vereen worked steadily on television with projects ranging from the sitcom Webster to the drama Silk Stalkings, in 1985, Vereen starred in the Faerie Tale Theatre series as Puss in Boots alongside Gregory Hines. He appeared on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air episode, “Papa’s Got a Brand New Excuse, in which he played Will Smiths biological father and he made several appearances on the 1980s sitcom Webster as the title characters biological uncle. He also appeared as Mayor Ben on the childrens program Zoobilee Zoo, in 1993 he appeared in the Star Trek, The Next Generation episode Interface, as the father of Roots co-star LeVar Burtons Geordi LaForge - fellow Roots star Madge Sinclair portrayed his wife as well
7.
LeVar Burton
–
Levardis Robert Martyn LeVar Burton Jr. is an American actor, presenter, director, and author. He has also directed a number of episodes for various iterations of Star Trek. Burton was born to American parents at the U. S. Army Landstuhl Regional Medical Center in West Germany and his mother, Erma Gene, was a social worker, administrator, and educator. His father, Levardis Robert Martyn Burton, was a photographer for the U. S. Army Signal Corps at the time he was stationed at Landstuhl, Burton and his two sisters were raised by his mother in Sacramento, California. Burton was raised Roman Catholic and, at the age of thirteen, entered St. Pius X seminary in Galt, California, Burton attended St. Pius X Seminary in Galt and graduated in the class of 1974. While in seminary, he works by the philosophers Lao-Tzu, Nietzsche. At seventeen, Burton left the seminary to enroll at the University of Southern California with a drama scholarship, while at the University of Southern California, Burton was a member of the Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity. He is a graduate of the University of Southern Californias School of Theatre, LeVar Burton made his acting debut in 1977 when he played Kunta Kinte in the ABC award-winning drama series Roots, based on the novel by Alex Haley. Burtons audition for the role of Kinte was the first of his professional career, as a result of his performance, he was nominated for the Emmy for Best Actor in a Drama Series. Burton reprised the role of Kunta Kinte in the 1988 television film Roots, when asked about the societal impacts of Roots, Burton is quoted as saying, It expanded the consciousness of people. Blacks and whites began to see each other as human beings, and if you throw a pebble into the pond, youre going to get ripples. I think the constant is change, and its always slow. Anything that happens overnight is lacking in foundation, Roots is part of a changing trend, and its still being played out. In 1986, he appeared in the video for the song Word Up. by the funk/R&B group Cameo. Burton accepted an invitation to host Rebop, a series designed for young people ages 9–15. Burton was the host and executive producer of Reading Rainbow starting in 1983 for PBS, the series ran for 23 seasons, making it one of the longest-running childrens programs on the network. Furthermore, the series garnered over 200 broadcast awards over its run, Burton himself won 12 Emmy awards as host and producer of the show. After Reading Rainbow went off the air in 2006, Burton and his business partner, Mark Wolfe, acquired the rights to the brand and formed RRKIDZ
8.
Louis Gossett Jr.
–
Louis Cameron Gossett Jr. is an American actor. Gossett has also starred in film productions including A Raisin In The Sun. Gossett was born in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York, on May 27,1936, to Hellen Rebecca, a nurse and he is an alumnus of Mark Twain Intermediate School 239 and Abraham Lincoln High School. His stage debut came at the age of 17, in a production of You Cant Take It with You when a sports injury resulted in the decision to take an acting class. Polio had already delayed his graduation, after graduating from Abraham Lincoln High School in 1954, he attended New York University, declining an athletic scholarship. Standing 64, he was offered the opportunity to play varsity basketball during his years at NYU. Gossett replaced Bill Gunn as Spencer Scott in Broadways Take a Giant Step and he was 17, and still a student at Abraham Lincoln High School, with no formal drama training. Gossetts Broadway theatre credits include A Raisin in the Sun, Gossett stepped into the world of cinema in the Sidney Poitier vehicle A Raisin in the Sun in 1961. Also in 1961, Gossett appeared in the original cast of Jean Genets The Blacks, the original cast also featured James Earl Jones, Roscoe Lee Browne, Cicely Tyson, Godfrey Cambridge, Maya Angelou and Charles Gordone. In 1965, Gossett appeared in the play, Zulu. Gossett wrote the antiwar folk song Handsome Johnny with Richie Havens which Havens recorded in 1966 and his Emmy Award-winning role of Fiddler in the 1977 television miniseries Roots first brought Gossett to the audiences attention. In 1983, he was cast in the role in Sadat. While filming An Officer and a Gentleman, Gossett was also starring in the 1982–1983 science fiction series and his role as drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley in the 1982 film An Officer and a Gentleman won him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was the first African-American male to win an Oscar in a role, the second black male to win for acting. In 1986, Gossett starred in another role as a man in the film Iron Eagle. It was followed by three sequels, Gossett is the voice of the Vortigaunts in the video game Half-Life 2 and is the Free Jaffa Leader Gerak in Season 9 of the sci-fi television series Stargate SG-1. He provides the voice of Lucius Fox in The Batman animated series and he recorded several commercials for a Nashville-based diabetic company, AmMed Direct, LLC. In 1997, Gossett presented When Animals Attack,4, a one-hour special on Fox
9.
Leslie Uggams
–
Leslie Marian Uggams is an American actress and singer. She had earlier been highly acclaimed for the Broadway musical Hallelujah, winning a Theatre World Award in 1967 and the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 1968. She attended the Professional Childrens School of New York and Juilliard and she met her husband, Grahame Pratt while she was performing in Sydney, they married in 1965. After their wedding, the decided to reside in New York. Uggams started in business as a child in 1951, playing the niece of Ethel Waters on Beulah. Uggams made her debut on The Lawrence Welk Show and was a regular on Sing Along with Mitch. In 1960, she sang, off-screen, Give Me That Old Time Religion in the film Inherit the Wind. Uggams came to be recognized by TV audiences as an upcoming teen talent in 1954 on the NBC/CBS hit musical quiz show series Name That Tune and her records One More Sunrise and House Built on Sand made Billboard magazines charts. She appeared in her own variety show, The Leslie Uggams Show in 1969. This was the first network variety show to be hosted by an African American since The Nat King Cole Show of the mid-1950s and she had a lead role in the 1977 miniseries Roots, for which she received an Emmy nomination, as Kizzy. In 1979, she starred as Lillian Rogers Parks in Backstairs at the White House and she also made guest appearances on such television programs as I Spy, Hollywood Squares, Fantasy, The Muppet Show, The Love Boat and Magnum, P. I. In 1996, Uggams played the role of Rose Keefer on All My Children and she later appeared in Sugar Hill opposite Wesley Snipes, and played Blind Al in Deadpool in February 2016. In April 2016, she portrayed Leah Walker, the mother of Lucious Lyon in the hit Fox series Empire. Uggams was picked to star in Hallelujah, Baby, after Lena Horne declined the role of Georgina. The musical premiered on Broadway in 1967 and created a new star in Uggams and she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a musical. She appeared on Broadway in the revue Blues in the Night in 1982 and in the revue of the works of Jerry Herman. Uggams replaced Patti LuPone as Reno Sweeney in the Lincoln Center revival of Cole Porters musical Anything Goes on Broadway in March 1989 and she had played Reno in a US tour in 1988–1989. Later Broadway roles include Muzzy in Thoroughly Modern Millie and Ethel Thayer in On Golden Pond at the Kennedy Center in 2004, in 2001, she appeared in the August Wilson play King Hedley II, receiving a nomination for the Tony Award, Best Actress in a Play
10.
Quincy Jones
–
His career spans six decades in the entertainment industry and a record 79 Grammy Award nominations, and 28 Grammys, including a Grammy Legend Award in 1991. He is best known for the role of himself in Yakety Yak, Take it Back, Trash Talk, Jones came to prominence in the 1950s as a jazz arranger and conductor, before moving on to work prolifically in pop music and film scores. In 1971, Jones was the first African American to be named as the director and conductor of the Academy Awards ceremony. In 1995, he was the first African American to receive the Academys Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award and he is tied with sound designer Willie D. Burton as the African American who has been nominated for the most Oscars, each has received seven nominations. In 2013, Jones was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame as the winner, alongside Lou Adler, among his awards, Jones was named by Time Magazine as one of the most influential jazz musicians of the 20th century. Jones was born in 1933, on the South Side of Chicago, to Sarah Frances and Quincy Delight Jones and his father was a semi-professional baseball player and carpenter from Kentucky, his paternal grandmother was an ex-slave in Louisville. They had gone to Chicago as part of the Great Migration out of the South, Sarah was a bank officer and apartment complex manager. Jones later discovered that his paternal grandfather Caesar Jones was the son of a white American man of Welsh descent, Quincy had a younger brother, Lloyd, later an engineer for the Seattle station, KOMO-TV, Lloyd died in 1998. Quincy was introduced to music by his mother, who sang religious songs. When Jones was five or six, Jackson played stride piano next door, Lucy Jackson recalled that after he heard her that one day, she could not get him off her piano if she tried. When the boys were young, their mother suffered from a breakdown and was committed to a mental institution. His father obtained a divorce and remarried, Joness stepmother, Elvera, had three children of her own, Waymond, who became a friend of the young Quincy, Theresa, and Katherine. In 1943, when Jones was ten, his family moved to Bremerton, Washington, after the war, the Jones family moved to Seattle, the major regional city, where Jones attended Garfield High School near his home. He had discovered music when he was 12 and became deeply involved in high school. Classmates included Charles Taylor, who played saxophone and whose mother, the youths began playing with a band. At the age of 14, they were playing with a National Reserve band, Jones has said he got much more experience with music growing up in a smaller city, otherwise, he would have faced too much competition. At the age of 14, Jones introduced himself to a 16-year-old musician from Florida, Ray Charles, Jones cites Ray Charles as an early inspiration for his own music career. He noted that Charles overcame a disability to achieve his musical goals and he has credited his fathers sturdy work ethic with giving him the means to proceed, and his loving strength with holding the family together
11.
David L. Wolper
–
Wolper directed the 1959 documentary The Race for Space, which was nominated for an Academy Award. His 1971 film about the study of insects, The Hellstrom Chronicle, Wolper was born in New York City, the son of Anna and Irving S. Wolper. For his work on television, he had received his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the pre-1968 library is owned by Cube Entertainment, the post-1970 library is owned by Warner Bros. The filmed segment was recovered in the wreckage and was broadcast in the television series Primal Man, the cause of the crash remains unsolved. In 1988, Wolper was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame, Wolper died on August 10,2010, of congestive heart disease and complications of Parkinsons disease at his Beverly Hills home. He was survived by his wife of 36 years, Gloria Hill, Wolper was also survived by ten grandchildren. His company was involved in the following productions and he was a distributor of the early shows, and became an executive producer with The Race for Space in 1958. Official website David L. Wolper at the Internet Movie Database David L. Wolper interview video at the Archive of American Television
12.
Warner Bros. Television
–
Television is the television production arm of Warner Bros. Entertainment, itself part of Time Warner, as of 2015, it is the worlds largest television production company measured by revenue and library. Its most notable TV shows include Friends, ER, The West Wing, Smallville, Supernatural, The Big Bang Theory, The Wire and Full House. The division was started on March 21,1955 with its first and most successful head being Jack L. Warners son-in-law William T. Orr. ABC had major success against its competition with Walt Disneys Disneyland TV series, WB formally entered television production with the premiere of its self-titled anthology series Warner Bros. The one-hour weekly show featured rotating episodes of series based on the WB films, Casablanca and Kings Row. One such segment for Rebel Without a Cause featured Gig Young notably talking about road safety with James Dean, with only Cheyenne being a success, Warner Bros. ended the ten-minute promotions of new films and replaced Warner Bros. Presents with a series titled Conflict. It was felt that Conflict was what the series lacked. Conflict showed the pilots for Maverick and 77 Sunset Strip, the company also produced Jack Webbs Red Nightmare for the U. S. Department of Defense that was later shown on American television on Jack Webbs General Electric True. During a Hollywood television writers strike, Warner Bros. reused many plots from its films and this was another example of imitating Warner Bros B Pictures who would remake an A film and switch the setting. Two of the most popular stars, James Garner and Clint Walker, Garner never returned to the Warners fold during this period. Successful Warners television stars found themselves in leading roles of many of the films with no increase in salary. Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. was simultaneously the lead of 77 Sunset Strip, in a role on Maverick. Edd Byrnes and Troy Donahue would go on to become teen heartthrobs, Warners also contracted established stars such as Ray Danton, Peter Breck, Jeanne Cooper and Grant Williams. These stars often appeared as guest stars, sometimes reprising their series role in another TV series, the stars appeared in Warner Bros. Some stars such as Connie Stevens, Edd Byrnes, Robert Conrad, depending on the particular show, William Lava or David Buttolph would compose the music, with lyrics by Stan Jones or Paul Francis Webster, among others. For the crime shows, it was up to the team of Jerry Livingston and Mack David, who also scored the themes for the sitcom Room for One More
13.
American Broadcasting Company
–
The network is headquartered on Columbus Avenue and West 66th Street in Manhattan, New York City. There are additional offices and production facilities elsewhere in New York City, as well as in Los Angeles and Burbank. Since 2007, when ABC Radio was sold to Citadel Broadcasting, ABC originally launched on October 12,1943, as a radio network, separated from and serving as the successor to the NBC Blue Network, which had been purchased by Edward J. Noble. It extended its operations to television in 1948, following in the footsteps of established broadcast networks CBS, in the mid-1950s, ABC merged with United Paramount Theatres, a chain of movie theaters that formerly operated as a subsidiary of Paramount Pictures. Leonard Goldenson, who had been the head of UPT, made the new television network profitable by helping develop, in 1996, most of Capital Cities/ABCs assets were purchased by The Walt Disney Company. The television network has eight owned-and-operated and over 232 affiliated television stations throughout the United States, most Canadians have access to at least one U. S. ABC News provides news and features content for radio stations owned by Citadel Broadcasting. In the 1930s, radio in the United States was dominated by three companies, the Columbia Broadcasting System, the Mutual Broadcasting System and the National Broadcasting Company. The last was owned by electronics manufacturer Radio Corporation of America, in 1938, the FCC began a series of investigations into the practices of radio networks and published its report on the broadcasting of network radio programs in 1940. The report recommended that RCA give up control of either NBC Red or NBC Blue, at that time, the NBC Red Network was the principal radio network in the United States and, according to the FCC, RCA was using NBC Blue to eliminate any hint of competition. Once Mutuals appeals against the FCC were rejected, RCA decided to sell NBC Blue in 1941, the newly separated NBC Red and NBC Blue divided their respective corporate assets. Investment firm Dillon, Read & Co. offered $7.5 million to purchase the network, Edward John Noble, the owner of Life Savers candy, drugstore chain Rexall and New York City radio station WMCA, purchased the network for $8 million. Due to FCC ownership rules, the transaction, which was to include the purchase of three RCA stations by Noble, would require him to resell his station with the FCCs approval, the Commission authorized the transaction on October 12,1943. Soon afterward, the Blue Network was purchased by the new company Noble founded, Noble subsequently acquired the rights to the American Broadcasting Company name from George B. Meanwhile, in August 1944, the West Coast division of the Blue Network, both stations were then managed by Don Searle, the vice-president of the Blue Networks West Coast division. The ABC Radio Network created its audience slowly, the network also became known for such suspenseful dramas as Sherlock Holmes, Gang Busters and Counterspy, as well as several mid-afternoon youth-oriented programs. S. From Nazi Germany after its conquest, to pre-record its programming, while its radio network was undergoing reconstruction, ABC found it difficult to avoid falling behind on the new medium of television. To ensure a space, in 1947, ABC submitted five applications for television station licenses, the ABC television network made its debut on April 19,1948, with WFIL-TV in Philadelphia becoming its first primary affiliate
14.
1080i
–
1080i is an abbreviation referring to a combination of frame resolution and scan type, used in high-definition television and high-definition video. The number 1080 refers to the number of lines on the screen. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9, so the 1080 lines of vertical resolution implies 1920 columns of horizontal resolution. A1920 pixels ×1080 lines screen has a total of 2.1 megapixels and this format is used in the SMPTE 292M standard. The choice of 1080 lines originates with Charles Poynton, who in the early 1990s pushed for square pixels to be used in HD video formats, within the designation 1080i, the i stands for interlaced scan. A frame of 1080i video consists of two fields of 1920 horizontal and 540 vertical pixels. The first field consists of all odd-numbered TV lines and the second all even numbered lines, 1080i differs from 1080p, where the p stands for progressive scan, where all lines in a frame are captured at the same time. In native or pure 1080i, the two fields of a frame correspond to different instants, so motion portrayal is good and this is true for interlaced video in general and can be easily observed in still images taken of fast motion scenes. However, when 1080p material is captured at 25 or 30 frames/second, it is converted to 1080i at 50 or 60 fields/second, respectively, in this situation both fields in a frame do correspond to the same instant. The field-to-instant relation is more complex for the case of 1080p at 24 frames/second converted to 1080i at 60 fields/second. Both field rates can be carried by digital television broadcast formats such as ATSC, DVB. The frame rate can be implied by the context, while the rate is generally specified after the letter i. In this case 1080i60 refers to 60 fields per second, the European Broadcasting Union prefers to use the resolution and frame rate separated by a slash, as in 1080i/30 and 1080i/25, likewise 480i/30 and 576i/25. Resolutions of 1080i60 or 1080i50 often refers to 1080i/30 or 1080i/25 in EBU notation, 1080i is directly compatible with some CRT HDTVs on which it can be displayed natively in interlaced form, but for display on progressive-scan—e. g. Most new LCD and plasma TVs, it must be deinterlaced, depending on the televisions video processing capabilities, the resulting video quality may vary, but may not necessarily suffer. For example, film material at 25fps may be deinterlaced from 1080i50 to restore a full 1080p resolution at the frame rate without any loss. Preferably video material with 50 or 60 motion phases/second is to be converted to 50p or 60p before display, worldwide, most HD channels on satellite and cable broadcast in 1080i. This also allows local newscasts on these ABC affiliates to be produced in the resolution to match the picture quality of their 1080i competitors
15.
Roots: The Next Generations
–
This sequel to the 1977 miniseries is based on the last seven chapters of Haleys novel entitled Roots, The Saga of an American Family plus additional material by Haley. Roots, The Next Generations was produced with a budget of $16.6 million, for the first part of the story, see Roots The story resumes in 1882,12 years after the arrival of Chicken George Moore and his family in Henning, in West Tennessee. George, elderly and showing his age, moves in with Tom Harvey, one of his sons, along with Tom’s wife, Irene, Tom, a great-grandson of Kunta Kinte, has become a leader of the black community in Henning. Col. Warners younger son, Jim, meets and falls in love with Carrie Barden, an attractive young African-American schoolteacher and a graduate of Fisk University, Tom has taken the lead in hiring Carrie for the local school for the black children. Warner disapproves of the relationship between Jim and Carrie, so he seeks to persuade Tom to fire Carrie or to close the school. After an argument between Tom and his daughter, Elizabeth, about his refusal to accept her suitor, John Dolan, because he is half white. Jim and Carrie marry in Memphis, then Col, Warner disinherits Jim, but he says that he will ensure that no harm comes to the couple from the hoodlum white element of the town. Jim, with his new bride, receives a warm welcome to the black church. A year later, Chicken George dies in 1883 at age 83, and the bury his body beside that of his wife, Mathilda Tildy. Cynthia Cinthy, Toms younger daughter, meets and falls in love with Will Palmer, Andrew Warner, an unemployed playboy and the older son of Col. Warner, becomes interested in politics, and he eventually opposes his father in the public arena. While Will works for Bob Campbell at his lumberyard, he does so in such an enthusiastic, industrious, thus the R. Campbell Lumber Company becomes the W. E. By this time Jim and Carrie already have a son, named Frank Frankie, however, in the atmosphere of the growing anti-black attitudes in the South during the 1890s, racial tension increases in Henning too, as several incidents demonstrate. Will and Cinthy rejoice over the birth of their daughter, Bertha George, named in part in honor of Chicken George, Warner, and Andrew Warner, the colonels older son, now serves as a member of the US House of Representatives. Dr. Frank Warner, the son of Jim and Carrie Warner, has completed undergraduate college, medical school, an internship, and a residency, Cinthy calls him the first colored doctor in the county. Will has prospered well enough that Will and Cynthia send their daughter, Bertha, to Lane College, Col. Warner, frail and confused, collapses on a street while Jim, Carrie, and Frank are present nearby. They rush to him, and Frank starts to treat him, Simon, who greatly admires Booker T. Referring to Washington, Simon says, I have formed my life in his image, the Ku Klux Klan resurges in Henning. They burn a cross, hold a parade, and burn down the store of a Jewish merchant, Mr. Goldstein, who has moved to Henning from Chicago, Illinois
16.
Novel
–
A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
17.
Golden Globe Award
–
Golden Globe Awards are accolades bestowed by the 93 members of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, recognizing excellence in film and television, both domestic and foreign. The annual ceremony at which the awards are presented is a part of the film industrys awards season. The 74th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film, the 1st Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best achievements in 1943 filmmaking, was held in January 1944, at the 20th Century-Fox studios. Subsequent ceremonies were held at venues throughout the next decade, including the Beverly Hills Hotel. In 1950, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association made the decision to establish an honorary award to recognize outstanding contributions to the entertainment industry. Recognizing its subject as a figure within the entertainment industry. The official name of the award became the Cecil B. In 1963, the Miss Golden Globe concept was introduced, in its inaugural year, two Miss Golden Globes were named, one for film and one for television. The two Miss Golden Globes named that year were Eva Six and Donna Douglas, respectively, in 2009, the Golden Globe statuette was redesigned. It was unveiled at a conference at the Beverly Hilton prior to the show. The broadcast of the Golden Globe Awards, telecast to 167 countries worldwide, generally ranks as the third most-watched awards show each year, behind only the Oscars, gervais returned to host the 68th and 69th Golden Globe Awards the next two years. Tina Fey and Amy Poehler hosted the 70th, 71st and 72nd Golden Globe Awards in 2015, the Golden Globe Awards theme song, which debuted in 2012, was written by Japanese musician and songwriter Yoshiki Hayashi. On January 7,2008, it was announced due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The ceremony was faced with a threat by striking writers to picket the event, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association was forced to adopt another approach for the broadcast. In acting categories, Meryl Streep holds the record for the most competitive Golden Globe wins with eight, however, including honorary awards, such as the Henrietta Award, World Film Favorite Actor/Actress Award, or Cecil B. DeMille Award, Barbra Streisand leads with nine, additionally, Streisand won for composing the song Evergreen, producing the Best Picture, and directing Yentl in 1984. Jack Nicholson, Angela Lansbury, Alan Alda and Shirley MacLaine have six awards each, behind them are Rosalind Russell and Jessica Lange with five wins. Meryl Streep also holds the record for most nominations with thirty, at the 46th Golden Globe Awards an anomaly occurred, a three way-tie for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama
18.
Peabody Award
–
Reflecting excellence in quality, rather than popularity or commercial success, the Peabody is awarded to about 25–35 winners annually from more than 1,000 entries. Because submissions are accepted from a variety of sources and styles. Each entry is evaluated on the achievement of standards it establishes within its own contexts, entries are self-selected by those making submissions, for which a US$350 fee is required. In 1938, the National Association of Broadcasters formed a committee to recognize outstanding achievement in radio broadcasting. Fellow WSB employee Lessie Smithgall introduced Lambdin to John E. Drewry, of the University of Georgias Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, the Peabody Award was established in 1940 with the Grady College of Journalism as its permanent home. The Peabody Awards were originally only for radio, but in 1948 television awards were introduced, in the late 1990s additional categories for material distributed via the World Wide Web were added. Materials created solely for theatrical motion picture release are not eligible, the Peabody Awards judging process is unusually rigorous. Board members discuss recommended entries as well as their own selections at intensive preliminary meetings in Los Angeles and Washington, the Board convenes at the Peabody Offices on the University of Georgia campus in late March for final screenings and deliberations. Each entrant is judged on its own merit, and only unanimously selected programs receive Peabodys, there is no set number of Peabodys, the all-time record for Peabody recipients in a single year is 46 Awards in 2013. George Foster Peabody, namesake of the awards, was a successful investment banker who devoted much of his fortune to education. John E. Drewry was the first dean of the University of Georgias Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and he accepted the position of dean when it was created in 1940. That same year he helped Lambdin Kay, general manager of Atlantas WSB Radio, dr. Worth McDougald served as Director of the Peabody Awards program from 1963 until his retirement in 1991. Barry Sherman was the Director of the George Foster Peabody Awards program at the University of Georgia from 1991 until his death in 2000. Horace Newcomb held the Lambdin Kay Chair for the Peabodys in the Grady College of Journalism, jeffrey P. Jones succeeded Horace Newcomb in July 2013 as the Lambdin Kay Chair for the Peabodys in the Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. Each spring, Peabody organizers announce award recipients for work covering the previous year, traditionally, the winners announcements have been made via a simple press release and/or a press conference. In recent years, however, organizers have taken to television to reveal some Peabody recipients in an effort to expand the publics awareness of the awards. An April 2014 segment of CBS This Morning included an announcement of 2013 Peabody winners, in April 2015, the 2014 Peabodys were revealed over an 8-day period, with the entertainment-based recipients revealed on ABCs Good Morning America. The formal presentations of the Peabody Awards are traditionally held in late May or early June, the ceremony for 2014 recipients were held for the first time at night in a May 31,2015 award ceremony to be hosted by Fred Armisen
19.
Kunta Kinte
–
Kunta Kinte KOON-tah-KIN-tay is a character in the novel Roots, The Saga of an American Family by American author Alex Haley. Haley claimed that Kunta Kinte was based on one of his ancestors, a Gambian man who was born in 1750, enslaved and taken to America, Haley said that his account of Kunta Kintes life in Roots was a mixture of fact and fiction. The extent to which Kunta Kinte is based on fact is disputed, Kunta Kintes life story also figured in two US-made television series based on the book, the original 1977 TV miniseries Roots, and a 2016 remake of the same name. In the original miniseries, the character was portrayed as a teenager by LeVar Burton, in the 2016 miniseries, he is portrayed by Malachi Kirby. Additionally, Burton reprised his role as Kunta in the TV movie Roots, The Gift, according to Roots, Kunta Kinte was born circa 1750 in the Mandinka village of Juffure, in the Gambia. One day in 1767, while Kunta was searching for wood to make a drum for his brother, four men chased him, surrounded him. Kunta awoke to find himself blindfolded, gagged, bound, and he and others were put on the slave ship the Lord Ligonier for a four-month Middle Passage voyage to North America. Kunta survived the trip to Maryland and was sold to a Virginia plantation owner in Spotsylvania County, Master Waller and he rejected the name imposed by his owners and refused to speak to others. After being recaptured during the last of his four escape attempts and he chose to have his foot cut off, and the men cut off the front half of his right foot. As the years passed, Kunta resigned himself to his fate and became open and sociable with his fellow slaves. Kunta married a woman named Bell Waller and they had a daughter whom they named Kizzy. When Kizzy was in her teens, she was sold away to North Carolina when her master discovered that she had written a fake traveling pass for an enslaved young man with whom she was in love. Her new owner immediately raped her and fathered her child, George. In the novel, Kizzy never learns her parents fate and she spends the remainder of her life as a field hand on the Lea plantation in North Carolina. According to the 1977 miniseries, Kizzy is taken back to visit the Reynolds plantation later in life and she discovers that her mother was sold off to another plantation and that her father died of a broken heart two years later, in 1822. She finds his grave, where she crosses out his slave name Toby from the tombstone, Kizzy is Haleys only ancestor in the genealogy link to Kunta Kinte whose entire lifetime was spent in slavery. The latter part of the tells of the generations between Kizzy and Alex Haley, describing their suffering, losses and eventual triumphs in America. Alex Haley claimed to be a descendant of Kunta Kinte
20.
Roots: The Gift
–
Roots, The Gift is a 1988 television film. It is the installment of the Roots series, which traces the maternal family history of African American author Alex Haley. The film premiered on ABC on 11 December 1988, with AT&T as the national sponsor for the broadcast. LeVar Burton and Louis Gossett Jr. reprise their roles of Kunta Kinte. The film takes place between the second and third episodes of the original Roots miniseries, the film was crafted as a Christmas movie. As one of the characters explains, the mentioned in the title is freedom. Roots, The Gift is notable for featuring four actors who portrayed characters in Star Trek television shows, Burton, Avery Brooks, Kate Mulgrew. In December 1775, Cletus Moyer is a free black Northerner in colonial America, in the days just prior to Christmas, a group of bounty hunters led by Hattie Carraway captures Moyer near the Parker plantation in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. Because of his capture, dozens of slaves who have left their plantations in escape attempts are in danger of being captured as well. Kunta is eager to help, but Fiddler is unwilling, fearful of the if they are caught. That choice forces them to return to the Parker plantation and manufacture an excuse for their temporary absence, nevertheless, Kunta and Fiddler are left with the satisfaction of knowing that they helped to give a group of fellow slaves the best Christmas gift of all, freedom. In 2007, Warner Bros. released Roots, The Complete Collection, list of films featuring slavery Roots, The Gift at the Internet Movie Database
21.
Alex Haley's Queen
–
Alex Haleys Queen is a 1993 American television miniseries that aired in three installments on February 14,16, and 18 on CBS. The miniseries is an adaptation of the novel Queen, The Story of an American Family, by Alex Haley, the novel is based on the life of Queen Jackson Haley, Haleys paternal grandmother. Alex Haley died in February 1992 before completing the novel and it was later finished by David Stevens and published in 1993. Stevens also wrote the screenplay for the miniseries, Alex Haleys Queen was directed by John Erman, and stars Halle Berry in the title role. It tells the story of a young woman and it shows the problems which biracial slaves. Throughout her life, Queen struggles to fit into the two cultures of her heritage, and at each side shuns her. James and Easter have grown up together, and gradually their feelings for each other have developed into romance. Easter is the daughter of an African-American house slave, Captain Jack, and his love, Annie, another slave, who is part-Cherokee. James Jackson Sr. an Irish immigrant who has accumulated wealth, becomes ill. Minutes after the death James Jr. retreats to the comfort of the house, where Easter was born. James and Easter make love, then, several months later, while they are alone, Easter reveals to him that she is pregnant with his child. Meanwhile, Sally Jackson, the new widow, encourages her son, James Jr. to marry the respectable, socially equal and wealthy heiress, Elizabeth Lizzie Perkins, on April 8,1841, Easter gives birth to a healthy girl. That displeases Lizzie, who is present for the dinner, Lizzie, having concluded that the new baby is Jamess child, excuses herself from the table and throws a fit. Moments later she vows to her mother that shell never marry him, Captain Jack begins to refer to the baby as Princess, but, when James enters the birth in the record book, he writes the name Queen. He also leaves blank the section for the name of the father, James proposes marriage to Lizzie the next evening, Lizzie accepts, and the wedding takes place at the home sometime later. James continues to visit Easter at night, sometimes every night, although James is Lizzies husband, he is still in love with Easter. Later Lizzie learns that she has become pregnant and she and James welcome a daughter, Jane, whom Queen attends and serves. Although Jane and Queen are half-sisters, the family does not acknowledge that relationship, James later persuades Easter to let Queen live in the main house, where she can receive training as a ladys maid
22.
Grandparent
–
Grandparents are the parents of a persons father or mother – paternal or maternal. Although the numbers will be lower in cases of pedigree collapse, in the history of modern humanity, around 30,000 years ago, the number of modern humans who lived to be grandparents increased exponentially. In cases where parents are unwilling or unable to provide care for their children. Even when this is not the case, and particularly in cultures, grandparents often have a direct and clear role in relation to the raising. Grandparents are second-degree relatives and share 25% genetic overlap, a step-grandparent can be the step-parent of the parent or the step-parents parent or the step-parents step-parent. The youngest grandmother in the world is Rifca Stănescu, a Romani girl from Romania, who at the age of 12 gave birth to her first child, a girl called Maria. Maria, in her turn, gave birth to a child at the age of 11, when used as a noun, grandfather and grandmother are usually used, although forms such as grandma/grandpa, granny/granddaddy or even nan/pop are sometimes used. When preceded by my. all forms are common, all forms can be used in plural, but Gramps is rare. In writing, Grandfather and Grandmother are most common, but very rare when referring to a grandparent in person, in speech, Grandpa and Grandma are commonly used in the United States, Canada and Australia. In many parts of Pakistan and India, maternal grandparents are called Nana, similarly, paternal grandparents are called Dada and Dadi. Gogo can be used for either, etc, another common solution is to call grandparents by their first names or by their family names. In North America, many call one set of grandparents by their ethnic names. Mandarin-speaking Chinese Americans refer to maternal grandparents as pó pó and gōng gōng and paternal grandparents as nǎi nǎi, in the Philippines, grandparents are called lolo and lola, respectively. Languages and cultures with more specific kinship terminology than English may distinguish between paternal grandparents and maternal grandparents, for example, in the Swedish language there is no single word for grandmother, the mothers mother is termed mormor and the fathers mother is termed farmor. However, the other Scandinavian languages, Danish and Norwegian, use words which specifies the kinship like in Swedish, the parents of a grandparent, or the grandparents of a parent are called all the same names with the prefix great- added, one for each additional generation. Ones great-grandparents parents would be great-great-grandparents and this system is used by some genealogical websites such as Geni. One may also use numbers for numbering greats, for example. Individuals who share the same great-grandparents but are not siblings or first cousins are called second cousins to each other, the use of the prefix grand- dates from the early 13th century, from the Anglo-French graund
23.
History (U.S. TV network)
–
The channel originally broadcast documentary programs and historical fiction series. More recently, it has mostly broadcast various reality series such as Pawn Stars, Ax Men. As of February 2015, approximately 96,149,000 American households receive History, International localized versions of History are available, in various forms, in India, Canada, Europe, Australia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America. The first European version was launched in Scandinavia in 1997 by Viasat which now operates their own channel, History was launched on January 1,1995 as The History Channel, its original format focused entirely on historical series and specials. On February 16,2008, a new logo was launched on the U. S. network as part of a rebranding effort, while the trademark H was kept, the triangle shape on the left acts as a play button for animation and flyouts during commercials and shows. On March 20,2008, as part of that same rebranding effort, The History Channel dropped The, on June 1,2015, the History logo was slightly updated, completely removing the triangle shape on the left. Programming on History has covered a range of historical periods and topics. Programming also includes mainstream reality television-style shows involving truck drivers, alligator hunters, pawn stores, antique and collectible pickers, car restorers, photography, occasionally some programs compare contemporary culture and technology with that of the past. On March 3,2013, History channel premiered its first original series, during the 1990s, History was jokingly referred to as The Hitler Channel for its extensive coverage of World War II. Much of its programming has been shifted to its sister network Military History. The network has also criticized for having a bias towards US history. The network was criticized by Stanley Kutner for airing the series The Men Who Killed Kennedy in 2003. Kutner was one of three historians commissioned to review the documentary, which the channel disavowed and never aired again, programs such as Modern Marvels have been praised for their presentation of detailed information in an entertaining format. Some of the series, including Ice Road Truckers, Ax Men. Senator Chuck Grassley is a critic of the channel and its lack of historical or educational programming, showing disdain for Ax Men. In his book 2012, Its Not the End of the World, Peter Lemesurier describes the channels Nostradamus series, in which he was invited to participate, as largely fiction, the History Channel was also singled out for ridicule by Smithsonian magazine. The article took issue with the show Ancient Aliens for postulating the idea that caused the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs. The online magazine Cracked also lampooned the channel for its definition of history
24.
Memorial Day
–
Memorial Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the countrys armed forces. It marks the start of the summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end. Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service, many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in rural areas of the American South. People gather on the day and put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives. There often is a service and a picnic-like dinner on the grounds. It is believed that this practice began before the American Civil War, the practice of decorating soldiers graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers graves were decorated in the U. S. before, following President Abraham Lincolns assassination in April 1865, there were a variety of events of commemoration. The sheer number of soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance, under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead. The Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper claimed in 1906 that Warrenton, Virginia, was the location of the first Civil War soldiers grave ever to be decorated, there is also documentation that women in Savannah, Georgia, decorated Confederate soldiers graves in 1862. The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was, of course, in addition, local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania, claim that ladies there decorated soldiers graves on July 4,1864, and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day. But more recent researches have also pointed to the birthplace of Confederacy as the location of the first post-war Memorial Day type observance, but in 2012 Blight stated that he has no evidence that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country. Accordingly, Snopes labels Blights claims mostly false, despite this ongoing lively debate, there is an official birthplace. On May 26,1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, Snopes also regards the Waterloo legend as apocryphal. Logan issued a proclamation calling for Decoration Day to be observed annually and it was observed for the first time that year on Saturday May 30, the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to the White House, the May 30 date was chosen as the date for flowers to be in bloom. Memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states in 1868, the northern states quickly adopted the holiday
25.
The Gambia
–
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
26.
West Africa
–
West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
27.
Mandinka people
–
The Mandinka is a West African ethnic group with an estimated global population of eleven million. The Mandinka are the descendants of the Mali Empire, which rose to power under the rule of the Malinké/Maninka king Sundiata Keita, the Mandinka are a one ethnic group within the larger linguistic family of the Mandé peoples, who account for more than twenty million people. Originally from Mali, the Mandinka gained their independence from previous empires in the 13th century and they migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Through a series of conflicts, the Fula jihads, particularly the Fula-led Imamate of Futa Jallon, over 99% of Mandinka in contemporary Africa are Muslim. The Mandinka people live primarily in West Africa, particularly in The Gambia, major populations of the Mandinka people also live in Mali, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Niger and Mauritania. Although widespread, in most countries, the Mandingo are not the largest ethnic group, most Mandingos live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages, their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a chief, Mandingo has been an oral society where mythologies, history and knowledge is verbally transmitted from one generation to next. Between the 16th and 19th century, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people and these intermixed, creating a Creole culture, with the Mandika people significantly influencing the African heritage peoples now found in the Caribbean, Brazil and the southern United States. The Mandés were initially a part of many fragmented kingdoms that formed after the collapse of Ghana empire in the 11th century, during the rule of Sundiata Keita, these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the Niger River basin under Sundiatas general Tiramakhan Traore. This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest and this migration began in the later part of the 13th century. Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, with the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly Fouta Djallon and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and it also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as the Wolof people, particularly the Jolof Empire. The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka peoples original, the Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional religious beliefs into Islam. In Ghana, for example, the Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and other non-Muslim, the Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas. In 1324, Sultan Mansa Musa who ruled Mali, went on Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with caravan carrying gold. Shihab al-Umari, the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner – a professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African, the Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to Islam, another legend gives a contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married Muhammads grand daughter
28.
Warrior
–
A warrior is a person specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior class or caste. In tribal societies engaging in warfare, warriors often form a caste or class of their own. In feudalism, the vassals essentially form a military or warrior class, even if in actual warfare, in some societies, warfare may be so central that the entire people may be considered warriors, for example in the Iron Age Germanic tribes and Indian clans like the Rajputs. While the warrior class in tribal societies is typically all-male, there are some exceptions on record where women formed part of the warrior class, a purported group of fighting women is the legendary Amazons, recorded in Classical Greek mythology. Similarly, the Valkyrie are depicted in Norse mythology, particularly the Icelandic Etta, many women not only fought on the field but led entire hosts of men within Pictish, Briton, and Irish Tribes in Pre Christian culture. Boudicca of the Iceni is an example of a female leader of warriors. Tomoe Gozen is celebrated in Japanese history as a woman samurai General in the 12th Century, joan of Arc, nicknamed The Maid of Orléans is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years War. The military caste in a society is evolved from—but not identical with—the warrior class in a tribal society. Many pre-modern states had castes, estates or social groups dedicated to warfare, common features include valuing honor in the forms of faith, loyalty and courage. Examples include the following, Ethical codes of the early Germanic Peoples, chhetris of Nepal, warrior and Kings caste of Nepal, original true Gurkhas. Xiá in China, French Foreign Legion Code dHonneur, still in use today, Spanish Legion Credo legionario, still in use today, Warriors honor is dependent on following the code. Common virtues in warrior codes are mercy, courage, and loyalty, with the end of the Middle Ages and the professional standing armies of Early Modern warfare, the concept of a warrior class or military caste became an anachronism. The term warrior is sometimes used, anachronistically, to refer to professional soldiers or mercenaries. Due to the connotations of the term warrior, this metaphor is especially popular in publications advocating or recruiting for a countrys military. The warrior metaphor in sports is particularly popular in sport, as evident from brand names such as Warrior-1 MMA, Cage Warriors, Supreme Warrior Championship. A spiritual warrior is a person who battles with the enemy, self-ignorance. The term is applied in religious and metaphysical writing, the spiritual warrior can be described as an archetype character on a journey for self-discovery. Deadliest Warrior Head-Hunting Roman Cavalry Roman centurions Roman Warrior Culture Late Roman warrior culture Warrior culture in the Scottish Highlands
29.
Islam in Africa
–
Africa was the first continent into which Islam spread from Asia in the early 7th century. Almost one-third of the worlds Muslim population resides in the continent, Muslims crossed current Djibouti, Somalia and Eritrea to seek refuge in present-day Ethiopia during the Hijarat. Most Muslims in Africa are Sunni, the complexity of Islam in Africa is revealed in the schools of thought, traditions. African Islam is not static and is constantly being reshaped by prevalent social, economic, generally Islam in Africa often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems forming Africas own orthodoxies. It was estimated in 2002 that Muslims constitute 48% of the population of Africa, Islam has a large presence in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Swahili Coast, and much of West Africa, with minority but significant immigrant populations in South Africa. However, Islam has encountered criticism and resistance in several nations of Sub-Saharan Africa, on the advice of Muhammad, in Rajab 8BH, or May 614AD, twenty three Muslims migrated to Abyssinia where they were protected by its king, Al-Najashi, who may have accepted Islam later. They were followed by 101 Muslims later in the same year, most of those Muslims returned to Medina in 7H/628AD but some settled in the neighboring Zeila which was at that time part of Bilad al-Barbar. Those that settled there later built Masjid al-Qiblatayn, in 20H/641AD during the reign of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, Muslim troops took over current Egypt and conquered current Libya the following year. Muslims then expanded to current Tunisia in 27H/647AD during the reign of the third Muslim Caliph, the conquest of North Africa continued under the Umayyad dynasty, taking Algeria by 61H/680AD, and Morocco the following year. From the latter Muslim troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe in 92H/711AD, Islam gained momentum during the 10th century in West Africa with the start of the Almoravids movement on the Senegal River and as rulers and kings embraced Islam. Islam then spread slowly in much of the continent through trade, by the 9th century Muslim Sultanates started being established in the Horn of Africa, and by the 12th century the Kilwa Sultanate had spread as far south as Mozambique. Islam only crossed deeper into Malawi and Congo in the half of the 19th century under the Zanzibar Sultanate. Then the British brought their labor force from India, including some Muslim-Indian nationals, to their African colonies towards the end of the nineteenth, in the Muslim tradition, this event is known as the first hijrah, or migration. During this first Hijra some Muslims settled in the city of Zeila and this mosque has two Qiblas because it was built before the Prophet switched the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca. The coastline of The Horn of Africa became the first safe haven for Muslims, seven years after the death of Muhammad, the Arabs advanced toward Africa and within two generations, Islam had expanded across the Horn of Africa and North Africa. During the reign of Umar II, the governor of Africa. Other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin, who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam, similarly, in the Swahili coast, Islam made its way inland - spreading at the expense of traditional African religions. This expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa, indeed, in the middle of the 11th century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam
30.
Adolescence
–
Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
31.
Atlantic slave trade
–
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
32.
Slave ship
–
Slave ships were large cargo ships specially converted for the purpose of transporting slaves. Only a few decades after the arrival of Europeans to America, the peak time of slave ships to the Atlantic passage was between the 18th and early-19th centuries, when large plantations developed in the colonies of America. In order to profit, the owners of the ships divided their hulls into holds with little headroom. Unhygienic conditions, dehydration, dysentery and scurvy led to a mortality rate, on average 15%. Often the ships, also known as Guineamen, transported hundreds of slaves, for example, the slave ship Henrietta Marie carried about 200 slaves on the long Middle Passage. They were confined to cargo holds with each slave chained with little room to move, the most significant routes of the slave ships led from the north-western and western coasts of Africa to South America and the south-east coast of what is today the United States, and the Caribbean. As many as 20 million Africans were transported by ship, the transportation of slaves from Africa to America was known as the Middle Passage. These people also were not treated as human, living like animals throughout their voyage to the New World. The enslaved were naked and shackled together with different types of chains. They spent a portion of time pinned to floorboards which would wear skin on their elbows down to the bone. Firsthand accounts from former slaves, such as Olaudah Equiano, describe the conditions that enslaved people were forced to endure. The Slave Trade Act 1788 regulated conditions on board British slave ships for the first time and it was introduced to the United Kingdom parliament by Sir William Dolben, an advocate for the abolition of slavery. For the first time, limits were placed on the number of enslaved people that could be carried. Under the terms of the act, ships could transport 1.67 slaves per ton up to a maximum of 207 tons burthen, the well-known slave ship Brookes was limited to carrying 454 people, it had previously transported as many as 609 enslaved. This limited reduction in the overcrowding on slave ships may have reduced the death rate. In the eighteenth and early centuries, the sailors on slave ships were often badly paid. Furthermore, a mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease. While conditions for the crew were vastly better than those of the people, they remained harsh
33.
Middle Passage
–
The Middle Passage was the stage of the triangular trade in which millions of Africans were shipped to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave trade. Voyages on the Middle Passage were large financial undertakings, generally organized by companies or groups of investors rather than individuals, the Middle Passage was considered a time of in-betweenness for those being traded from Africa to America. Traders from the Americas and Caribbean received the enslaved Africans, European powers such as Portugal, England, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and Brandenburg, as well as traders from Brazil and North America, took part in this trade. The enslaved Africans came mostly from eight regions, Senegambia, Upper Guinea, Windward Coast, Gold Coast, Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, West Central Africa and Southeastern Africa. An estimated 15% of the Africans died at sea, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting people to the ships. For two hundred years, 1440–1640, Portuguese slavers had a monopoly on the export of slaves from Africa. During the 18th century, when the slave trade transported about 6 million Africans, the duration of the transatlantic voyage varied widely, from one to six months depending on weather conditions. It is believed that African kings, warlords and private kidnappers sold captives to Europeans who held several coastal forts. The captives were usually force-marched to these ports along the western coast of Africa, typical slave ships contained several hundred slaves with about 30 crew members. The male captives were normally chained together in pairs to save space, the chains or hand and leg cuffs were known as bilboes, which were among the many tools of the slave trade, and which were always in short supply. Bilboes were mainly used on men, and they consisted of two iron shackles locked on a post and were usually fastened around the ankles of two men, at best, captives were fed beans, corn, yams, rice, and palm oil. Slaves were fed one meal a day with water, if at all, when food was scarce, slaveholders would get priority over the slaves. Sometimes captives were allowed to move around during the day, aboard certain French ships, slaves were brought on deck to periodically receive fresh air. While female slaves were permitted to be on deck more frequently. Slaves below the decks lived for months in conditions of squalor, disease spread and ill health was one of the biggest killers. Mortality rates were high, and death made these conditions below the decks even worse, even though the corpses were thrown overboard, many crew members avoided going to the hold. The slaves who had already been ill ridden were not always found immediately, many of the living slaves could have been shackled to someone that was dead for hours and sometimes days. Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12 million Africans arrived in the New World, disease and starvation due to the length of the passage were the main contributors to the death toll with amoebic dysentery and scurvy causing the majority of deaths
34.
Colonial history of the United States
–
The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
35.
Mutiny
–
Mutiny is a criminal conspiracy among a group of people to openly oppose, change, or overthrow a lawful authority to which they are subject. The term is used for a rebellion among members of the military against their superior officers. During the Age of Discovery, mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ships captain, until 1689, mutiny was regulated in England by Articles of War instituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the first Mutiny Act was passed which passed the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military to Parliament. The Mutiny Act, altered in 1803, and the Articles of War defined the nature and punishment of mutiny until the latter were replaced by the Army Discipline and this, in turn, was replaced by the Army Act in 1881. The same definition applies in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, the military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a service and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, by prerogative, made known as Articles of War for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of war only. Subject to this limitation, it existed for more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. The Mutiny Act 1873 was passed in this manner, such matters remained until 1879 when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The act and the articles were not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their sometimes obscure. In 1869, a commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878, a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view, in 1879, passed into law a measure consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879, as the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of parliament. A further notable change took place at the same time, each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line
36.
Annapolis, Maryland
–
Annapolis is the capital of the U. S. state of Maryland, as well as the county seat of Anne Arundel County. Its population was measured at 38,394 by the 2010 census, the city served as the seat of the Continental Congress in 1783–84 and was the site of the 1786 Annapolis Convention and the Annapolis Peace Conference, held in 2007. Annapolis is the home of St. Johns College as well as the United States Naval Academy, a settlement in the Province of Maryland named Providence was founded on the north shore of the Severn River in 1649 by Puritan exiles from Virginia led by Governor William Stone. The settlers later moved to a harbor on the south shore. The settlement on the shore was initially named Town at Proctors, then Town at the Severn. In 1654, after the Third English Civil War, Parliamentary forces assumed control of Maryland, per orders from Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore, Stone returned the following spring at the head of a Cavalier force. On March 25,1655, in what is known as the Battle of the Severn, Stone was defeated, taken prisoner, Fendall governed Maryland during the latter half of the Commonwealth. In 1660, he was replaced by Phillip Calvert as fifth/sixth Governor of Maryland), Annapolis was incorporated as a city in 1708. Water trades such as oyster-packing, boatbuilding and sailmaking became the chief industries. Annapolis is home to a number of recreational boats that have largely replaced the seafood industry in the city. Dr. Alexander Hamilton was a Scottish-born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis, Annapolis became the temporary capital of the United States after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. For the 1783 Congress, the Governor of Maryland commissioned John Shaw, the flag is slightly different from other designs of the time. The blue field extends over the height of the hoist. Shaw created two versions of the flag, one started with a red stripe and another that started with a white one. In 1786, delegates from all states of the Union were invited to meet in Annapolis to consider measures for the regulation of commerce. Delegates from only five states—New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, the Philadelphia convention drafted and approved the Constitution of the United States, which is still in force. During this period, a prisoner of war camp, Camp Parole, was set up in Annapolis. As the war continued, the camp expanded to a location just west of the city
37.
Slavery in the United States
–
Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
38.
Plantations in the American South
–
A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
.jpg)
