1.
Rougemont, North Carolina
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Rougemont is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Durham and Person counties, North Carolina, United States. The population of the CDP was 978 at the 2010 census, an act to incorporate Rougemont as a town was introduced to the North Carolina General Assembly in 2011. Rougemont is located in northern Durham County along U. S. Route 501, the center of town is 17 miles north of the center of Durham and 13 miles south of Roxboro. The CDP extends north into Person County as far as the Flat River, east to Moores Mill Road, south to Quail Roost Farm Road, and west to Harris Road and Chambers Road. The Rougemont ZIP code covers a larger area, extending west into Orange County. Castle Mont Rouge, designed by Robert Mihaly Orange County Speedway,2.5 miles west of town
2.
Exeter
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Exeter is a cathedral city in Devon, England with a population of 127,300. It lies within the county of Devon, of which it is the county town as well as the home of Devon County Council, currently, the administrative area has the status of a non-metropolitan district and is therefore under the administration of the County Council. The city is on the River Exe about 37 miles northeast of Plymouth and 70 miles southwest of Bristol, Exeter was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in Britain, although there is evidence a Cornish tribe existed in Exeter before the Roman invasion. Exeter became a centre during the Middle Ages and into the Tudor times, Exeter Cathedral, founded in the mid 11th century. During the late 19th century, Exeter became an affluent centre for the wool trade, after the Second World War, much of the city centre was rebuilt and is now considered to be a centre for modern business and tourism in Devon and Cornwall. The name Exe is a development of the Brittonic name—meaning water or, more exactly, full of fish —that also appears in the English Axe and Esk, the Welsh Usk. Exeter began as settlements on a dry ridge ending in a spur overlooking a navigable river teeming with fish, although there have been no major prehistoric finds, these advantages suggest the site was occupied early. Coins have been discovered from the Hellenistic kingdoms, suggesting the existence of a settlement trading with the Mediterranean as early as 250 BC. Such early towns had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries, the Romans established a 42-acre playing-card shaped fort named Isca around AD55. To distinguish the two, the Romans also referred to Exeter as Isca Dumnoniorum, Watertown of the Dumnonii, a small fort was also maintained at Topsham, a supply depot on the route between the two was excavated at St Loyes on Topsham Road in 2010. The presence of the built up an unplanned civilian community of natives. This area was excavated in the 1970s, but could not be maintained for public view owing to its proximity to the present-day cathedral, in January 2015, it was announced that Exeter Cathedral had launched a bid to restore the baths and open an underground centre for visitors. In the late 2nd century, the ditch and rampart defences around the old fortress were replaced by a bank and wall enclosing a much larger area, although most of the visible structure is older, the course of the Roman wall was used for Exeters subsequent city walls. Thus about 70% of the Roman wall remains, and most of its route can be traced on foot, the dating of the coins so far discovered, however, suggests a rapid decline, virtually none have been discovered dated after the year 380. By that time, the city was held by the Saxons, Exeter was known to the Saxons as Escanceaster. In 876, it was attacked and briefly captured by Danish Vikings, alfred the Great drove them out the next summer. Over the next few years, he elevated Exeter to one of the four burhs in Devon and these permitted the city to fend off another attack and siege by the Danes in 893. King Athelstan again strengthened the walls around 928, and at the time drove out the remaining Britons from the city
3.
William the Conqueror
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William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Roberts mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, during his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy and his marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and his consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine. In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 and he made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 Williams hold on England was mostly secure, Williams final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and his reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, Williams lands were divided after his death, Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and his second surviving son, William Rufus, received England. Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century, permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the duchy of Normandy. Normandy may have used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002
4.
Stephen, King of England
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Stephen, often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, Stephens reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda. He was succeeded by Matildas son, Henry II, the first of the Angevin kings. Stephen was born in the County of Blois in middle France, his father, Count Stephen-Henry, died while Stephen was still young, placed into the court of his uncle, Henry I of England, Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting estates in Kent. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry Is son, William Adelin, in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120, in 1138 the Empresss half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, however, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, Stephen was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy. Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne, in 1153 the Empresss son, Henry FitzEmpress, invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford, but neither sides barons were keen to fight another pitched battle, Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William, Stephens second son. Modern historians have debated the extent to which Stephens personality, external events. Stephen was born in Blois in France, in either 1092 or 1096 and his father was Stephen-Henry, Count of Blois and Chartres, an important French nobleman, and an active crusader, who played only a brief part in Stephens early life. During the First Crusade Stephen-Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice, Stephens mother, Adela, was the daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders, famous amongst her contemporaries for her piety, wealth and political talent. She had a strong influence on Stephen during his early years. France in the 12th century was a collection of counties and smaller polities. The kings power was linked to his control of the province of Île-de-France. In the west lay the three counties of Maine, Anjou and Touraine, and to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy, Williams children were still fighting over the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance
5.
Outer bailey
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An outer bailey or outer ward is the defended outer enclosure of a castle. It protects the inner bailey and usually contains those buildings used for the management of the castle or the supply of its occupants. In many cases there was also a brewery, a bakehouse, an outer bailey was often called a base court in England. Depending on topography it could also be referred to as a bailey or lower ward. Chepstow Castle has lower, middle and upper baileys, the domestic buildings of the continental schloss, often a stately home or palace, may also be referred to as an outer ward. These frequently contained a house or a cavalier house, buildings that were not common in medieval castles. Large castles often have more than one bailey, examples include Monschau, at some larger castles, markets were held in the outer bailey. Outer baileys were usually enclosed and protected by a wall and separated from the actual living area of the castle - the inner ward and keep - by a moat, a wall. In lowland castles, the bailey is usually arranged in a half-moon shape around the main castle. Rudelsburg Castle in Saxony-Anhalt is one of the cases of a hill castle where both baileys are at the same level. This explains why the castle chapel was found in the bailey. Ward Inner bailey Motte and bailey Horst Wolfgang Böhme, Reinhard Friedrich, Barbara Schock-Werner, reclam, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-15-010547-1, page 255-256. Friedrich-Wilhelm Krahe, Castles and tower houses of the German Middle Ages, volume 1 Thorbecke, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-7995-0104-5, page 53-55. Reprint of the edition of 1912, weltbild, Augsburg 1994, ISBN 3-89350-554-7, pp. 10–11
6.
Richard III (play)
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Richard III is a historical play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in approximately 1592. It depicts the Machiavellian rise to power and subsequent short reign of King Richard III of England, the play is grouped among the histories in the First Folio and is most often classified as such. Occasionally, however, as in the edition, it is termed a tragedy. Richard III concludes Shakespeares first tetralogy and it is the second longest play in the canon after Hamlet, and is the longest of the First Folio, whose version of Hamlet is shorter than its Quarto counterpart. The play is rarely performed unabridged, often, certain characters are removed entirely. In such instances extra lines are often invented or added from elsewhere in the sequence to establish the nature of characters relationships. Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York, Richard is an ugly hunchback who is rudely stampd, deformed, unfinishd, and cannot strut before a wanton ambling nymph. He responds to the anguish of his condition with an outcasts credo, Richard now schemes to woo the Lady Anne – Anne Neville, widow of the Lancastrian Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales. He confides to the audience, Ill marry Warwicks youngest daughter, what, though I killd her husband and her father. The scene then changes to reveal Lady Anne accompanying the corpse of the late king Henry VI, along with Trestle and Berkeley, on its way to be interred at St Pauls cathedral. She asks them to set down the honourable load – if honour may be shrouded in a hearse, Richard suddenly appears and demands that the unmannerd dog carrying the hearse set it down, at which point a brief verbal wrangling takes place. Despite initially hating him, Anne is won over by his pleas of love and repentance, when she leaves, Richard exults in having won her over despite all he has done to her, and tells the audience that he will discard her once she has served her purpose. The atmosphere at court is poisonous, The established nobles are at odds with the upwardly mobile relatives of Queen Elizabeth, Queen Margaret, Henry VIs widow, returns in defiance of her banishment and warns the squabbling nobles about Richard. Queen Margaret curses Richard and the rest who were present, the nobles, all Yorkists, reflexively unite against this last Lancastrian, and the warning falls on deaf ears. Richard orders two murderers to kill Clarence in the tower, Clarence, meanwhile, relates a dream to his keeper. The dream includes vivid language describing Clarence falling from a ship as a result of Gloucester. Under the water Clarence sees the skeletons of thousands of men that fishes gnawed upon and he also sees wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, inestimable stones, unvalued jewels. All of these are scatterd in the bottom of the sea, Clarence adds that some of the jewels were in the skulls of the dead
7.
Bideford witch trial
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The Bideford witch trial resulted in hangings for witchcraft in England. Temperance Lloyd, Mary Trembles and Susannah Edwards were tried in 1682 in the town of Bideford in Devon, much of the evidence against them was hearsay, although there was a confession by Lloyd, which she did not fully recant even with her execution imminent. They often get labelled as the last witches to be hanged in England, on Saturday, July 1682, Thomas Eastchurch, a Bideford shopkeeper, complained to some of the town’s constables that Temperance Lloyd had been practising witchcraft. Another woman, Anne Wakely, had seen a magpie fly to Thomass chamber window, suspecting witchcraft, she questioned Lloyd, and found her in the company of another. They found in her secret parts two teats hanging nigh together like unto a piece of flesh that a child had sucked, and that each of the teat was about an inch in length. All the other evidence against Lloyd was hearsay, mostly claims to have overheard confessions by her, there were six such statements, including a claim by Anne Wakely that Lloyd was visited by the black man in the form of a bird. Wakely also said that Lloyd told her the man had sucked at her extra teats. He stated that she confessed to meeting something in the likeness of a man who tempted her to go. Eastchurch claimed that at first she refused but then agreed, following him to Thomass home where the man told her to pinch Thomas several times. She is then said, on leaving the house, to have seen a tabby cat go into Eastchurchs shop, the black man, according to Eastchurchs statement, had told Lloyd she would be invisible during this attack. He also claimed that another, similar attack on Thomas followed, Eastchurch then gave evidence that Grace Thomas sought medical help for her complaints. His wife Elizabeth, Grace’s sister, stated that Thomas found nine pricks in her knee, and suspecting witchcraft, confronted Lloyd, the justices gave their permission for Lloyd to be questioned by the rector, Michael Ogilby. Although she confessed to turning into a cat, stealing a doll and placing it in Thomass bedchamber, William Herbert was the final witness against Temperance Lloyd. On 2 February 1671, he had heard his father William declare on his deathbed that Temperance Lloyd, after he died, William saw marks on his body, and had Lloyd charged with witchcraft, she was acquitted at the ensuing trial. On July 3, Temperance Lloyd was herself questioned by the justices, the following day, in prison she admitted killing William Herbert, Lydia Burman and Anne Fellow, and blinding Jane Dallyn in one eye. She admitted all of this as she believed she was still under the black mans protection, on July 8, Temperance Lloyd was committed to Exeter Gaol to await trial for witchcraft. At the trial she maintained her guilt, at the execution, she tried to give a reason for her actions, the Devil met me in the street, and bid me kill her, and because I would not he beat me about the head and back. Mary Trembles and Susanna Edwards were investigated after a woman, Grace Barnes
8.
Rougemont Gardens
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Rougemont Gardens is an ornamental open space adjacent to Rougemont Castle in the city of Exeter, Devon, England. It is Grade II listed in the National Register of Historic Parks, originally part of the defences of the castle, it was converted into a garden in the late 18th century, and purchased by the city council in 1912. The gardens are bounded on the north-west by the city wall with Northernhay Gardens beyond, the eastern boundary is at Castle Street with the early Norman gatehouse of the castle at the top and Rougemont House below. On the south the boundary is formed by Exeter City Central Library and on the south-east by the Phoenix Arts Centre, the site was originally part of William the Conquerors defences for Rougemont Castle during the Norman Conquest of England. When William ordered the construction of Rougemont Castle in 1068 a defensive ringwork was included which characterises the shape of gardens today, in around 1768, John Patch, a local surgeon, built Rougemont House just below the Norman gatehouse. He also set out gardens behind the house, successive occupiers of the house made alterations to the house and gardens and by Victorian times the garden was being referred to as a perfect sylvan retreat. Exeter City Council purchased Rougemont House in 1911 and the grounds of the house in the following year, for many years during the 20th century, Rougemont House—a Grade II* listed building—was open to the public as a museum, though it has since closed. Until 2009, they were used by the Northcott Theatre to stage Shakespearean plays in the city wall and defensive ditch forming a natural backdrop
9.
Northernhay Gardens
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Northernhay Gardens are located in Exeter, Devon, England, on the northern side of Rougemont Castle. They are the oldest public space in England, being originally laid out in 1612 as a pleasure walk for Exeter residents. The gardens are Grade II listed in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens, the site was originally quarried in Roman times for stone for the city walls. The gardens incorporate a stretch of Roman wall and the length of Saxon town wall to be seen in England. They form a crescent shape bounded to the north by the West of England Main Line and Exeter Central railway station and their eastern entrance is at the head of Northernhay Place and the gardens open on the west to Northernhay Gate. The early park was destroyed in the Civil War, in 1642, soon after the Restoration, in 1664, the city set about restoring the park, planting hundreds of young elms and laying out gravel paths. There has been a tradition of maintaining the park as a major city amenity since that time, the gardens underwent a major re-landscaping in 1860, and between then and 1895 received an important group of monuments to major Victorian figures in the citys history. The Deer Stalker by E. B, stephens, is a significant piece of Victorian art that was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1876. Stephens also sculpted the statues of John Dinham, who was a local philanthropist, the statue of the Conservative politician Stafford Northcote is by Joseph Boehm. The Volunteer Memorial, designed by S. K. Greenslade, commemorates the formation of the 1st Rifle Volunteers in 1852, the gardens also contain a bandstand. In the mid 1900s the mature avenue of elms lining the central walk succumbed to Dutch Elm Disease and were felled, subsequent planting has sought to provide all-year-round colour and interest. The gardens offer views over large parts of the city, and events are hosted there throughout the year
10.
Charles Knight (publisher)
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Charles Knight was an English publisher, editor and author. He published and contributed to such as The Penny Magazine, The Penny Cyclopaedia, and The English Cyclopaedia. The son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, he was apprenticed to his father, on completion of his indentures he took up journalism and had an interest in several newspaper speculations, including the Windsor, Slough and Eton Express. It lasted for six issues, but it made Knights name as publisher and author. One of his publications was the diary of the naval chaplain Henry Teonge. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the publication of The Library of Entertaining Knowledge, in 1832 and 1833 he started The Penny Magazine and The Penny Cyclopaedia, both of which had a large circulation. The Penny Cyclopaedia, as a result of the excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a financial loss. He also undertook the series known as Weekly Volumes, himself contributing the first volume, many famous books, Harriet Martineaus Tales, Anna Brownell Jamesons Early Italian Painters and G. H. Lewess Biographical History of Philosophy, appeared for the first time in this series. In 1853 Knight became editor of The English Cyclopaedia, essentially a revision of The Penny Cyclopaedia, Knight also launched the Local Government Chronicle in 1855, and at about the same time he began his Popular History of England. In addition to being the editor and author of Penny Magazine and Penny Cyclopedia, and other works, Knight wrote The Results of Machinery and Knowledge is Power. Charles Knight died at Addlestone, Surrey on 9 March 1873, a gateway was erected in his memory at the cemetery adjacent to Bachelors Acre in Windsor, where he was buried. He is considered to be the first person to propose the use of stamped newspaper wrappers in 1834, alice Ada Clowes, Knight, a Sketch, Francis Espinasse, in The Critic. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Knight. Including Texas, California, and the states of Mexico. – Portal to Texas History,1842 map published by Charles Knight Engravings from Charles Knights books – FromOldBooks. org, with text, includes Old England
11.
Norman conquest of England
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Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne
12.
Harold Godwinson
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Harold Godwinson, often called Harold II, was the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October and his death marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule over England. Harold was an earl and member of a prominent Anglo-Saxon family with ties to Cnut the Great. Upon the death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066, the Witenagemot convened and chose Harold to succeed, he was crowned in Westminster Abbey. In late September, he repelled an invasion by rival claimant Harald Hardrada of Norway before marching his army back south to meet William the Conqueror at Hastings some two weeks later. Harold was a son of Godwin, the powerful Earl of Wessex, gythas brother was Ulf the Earl, who married Cnuts sister Estrith. This made Ulf the son-in-law of King Sweyn Forkbeard, Ulf, Godwin was the son of Wulfnoth, probably a thegn and a native of Sussex. Godwin began his career by supporting King Edmund Ironside, but switched to supporting King Cnut by 1018. Godwin remained an earl throughout the remainder of Cnuts reign, one of two earls to survive to the end of that reign. Harthacnuts death in 1042 probably involved Godwin in a role as kingmaker, in 1045 Godwin reached the height of his power when the new king married Godwins daughter Edith. Godwin and Gytha had several children – six sons, Sweyn, Harold, Tostig, Gyrth, Leofwine and Wulfnoth, the birthdates of the children are unknown, but Sweyn was the eldest and Harold was the second son. Harold was aged about 25 in 1045, which makes his birth year around 1020, Edith married Edward on 23 January 1045 and, around that time, Harold became Earl of East Anglia. Harold is called earl when he appears as a witness in a will that may date to 1044, one reason for his appointment to East Anglia may have been a need to defend against the threat from King Magnus the Good of Norway. It is possible that Harold led some of the ships from his earldom that were sent to Sandwich in 1045 against Magnus, Sweyn, Harolds elder brother, had been named an earl in 1043. The relationship was a form of marriage that was not blessed or sanctioned by the Church, known as more Danico, or in the Danish manner, any children of such a union were considered legitimate. Harold probably entered the relationship in part to support in his new earldom. Harolds elder brother Sweyn was exiled in 1047 after abducting the abbess of Leominster, sweyns lands were divided between Harold and a cousin, Beorn. In 1049, Harold was in command of a ship or ships that were sent with a fleet to aid the German Emperor Henry III against Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, who was in revolt against Henry
13.
Baldwin FitzGilbert
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Baldwin FitzGilbert was an Anglo-Norman magnate and one of the 52 Devon Domesday Book tenants-in-chief of King William the Conqueror. He was originally from Meulles or nearby Le Sap, in Calvados and he was a younger son of Gilbert, Count of Brionne and Count of Eu, in Normandy. Together with his eldest brother Richard FitzGilbert, in 1066 Baldwin accompanied William Duke of Normandy in the Norman Conquest of England, exeter Castle was thenceforth the official seat of the Sheriff of Devon. King William I also granted him the large feudal barony of Okehampton in Devon. These landholdings comprised the barony of Okehampton, later held by the Courtenay family, later also feudal barons of Plympton. He married twice, firstly to Albreda and secondly to Emma and he had three sons, all of whom died childless, and one, possibly two, daughters, Richard FitzBaldwin, eldest son and heir. William FitzBaldwin Robert FitzBaldwin Adeliza FitzBaldwin, her fathers sole heiress. She married William fitzWimund, who is listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as holding land at Dolton, Devon in North Tawton Hundred, following the deaths of his three sons without heirs, his daughter Adeliza was his ultimate sole heiress
14.
Castellan
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A castellan was the governor or captain of a castellany and its castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum castle, sometimes also known as a constable, governor of the castle district or captain, the Constable of the Tower of London is, in fact, a form of castellan. A castellan was almost always male, but could occasionally be female, as when, in 1194, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many tribes migrated into western Europe, causing strife and war. The answer to recurrent invasion was to create fortified areas which evolved into castles, some leaders gained control of several areas, each with a castle. The problem lay in exerting control and authority in each area when a leader could only be in one place at a time. To answer this, lords gave their trusted vassals direct control of a castle and this changed as kings grew in power and as the Holy Roman emperors replaced recalcitrant vassals with ministerials. Usually the duties of a castellan were combined with the duties of a majordomo and this made the castellan responsible for a castles domestic staff and its garrison, as well as a military administrator responsible for maintaining defenses and protecting the castles lands. This was particularly the case if there was no lord resident at the castle, one unusual responsibility in western Europe concerned jurisdiction over the resident Jewish communities near the English Channel. The Constable of the Tower of London and those castellans subordinate to the dukes of Normandy were responsible for their administration, in France, castellans who governed castles without resident nobles acquired considerable powers, and the position actually became a hereditary fiefdom. In Germany the castellan was known as a Burgmann, or sometimes Hauptmann, the burgmann may have been either a free noble or a ministerialis, but either way administered the castle as a vassal. A ministerialis, being wholly indebted to a lord, was easily controlled. Ministeriales replaced free nobles as castellans of Hohensalzburg under Conrad I of Abensberg’s tenure as Archbishop of Salzburg from 1106 to 1147, in the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary usually was called várnagy, and in the Latin charts it appeared as castellanus. The lord of the castle had similar functions than the German ones. In Hungary first the King, later the most powerful noblemen designed the castellans between their followers for the administration of their castles and the states that belonged to the fortress, at times, there was a castellan among the Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, starting with Anselm. Lectures on the Statutes of the Sacred Order of St. John of Jerusalem, in the Kingdom of Poland and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the castellans were in most cases lower in precedence to the voivodes. Castellans in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were of senator rank, in Portugal, a castellan was known as alcaide. Later, the role of alcaide became a title awarded by the King of Portugal to certain nobles. As the honorary holder of the office of alcaide did not often live near its castle, an honorary holder of the office became known as alcaide-mor and its delegate became known as alcaide pequeno or alcaide-menor
15.
Domesday Book
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Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth
16.
Anglo-Saxon architecture
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Anglo-Saxon architecture was a period in the history of architecture in England, and parts of Wales, from the mid-5th century until the Norman Conquest of 1066. Anglo-Saxon secular buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed using timber with thatch for roofing. No universally accepted example survives above ground, there are, however, many remains of Anglo-Saxon church architecture. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin with major Anglo-Saxon architectural features, with many claiming to be, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small. It is often impossible to distinguish between pre- and post-Conquest 11th century work in buildings where most parts are later additions or alterations. The round-tower church and tower-nave church are distinctive Anglo-Saxon types, all surviving churches, except one timber church, are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of re-used Roman work. In recent decades historians have become less confident that all undocumented minor Romanesque features post-date the Norman Conquest. Although once common, it has been incorrect for decades to use the plain term Saxon for anything Anglo-Saxon that is later than the initial period of settlement in Britain. Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed using timber with thatch for roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, in each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth. The fall of Roman Britain at the beginning of the century, according to Bede, allowed an influx of invaders from northern Germany including the Angles. The Angles and the Saxons had their own religion, but Christianity was on its way, St Patrick, a Romano-British man, converted Ireland to Christianity, from where much of Western Scotland was converted and much of Northumbria was reconverted. The architecture though was initially influenced by Coptic monasticism, examples of this can be seen today in the form of rectangular dry-stone corbelled structures such as at Gallarus Oratory, Dingle and Illauntannig, Ireland. Christianity and Irish influence came to England through missionaries, in 635, a centre of Celtic Christianity was established at Lindisfarne, Northumbria, where St Aidan founded a monastery. In 597, the mission of Augustine from Rome came to England to convert the southern Anglo-Saxons, and founded the first cathedral and these churches consisted of a nave with side chambers. In 664 a synod was held at Whitby, Yorkshire, larger churches developed in the form of basilicas, for example at Brixworth. This was however, gradually elided by centuries of English dominance, subsequent Danish invasion marked a period of destruction of many buildings in Anglo-Saxon England, including in 793 the raid on Lindisfarne. Buildings including cathedrals were rebuilt, and the threat of conflict had an influence on the architecture of the time
17.
Quoin
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Quoins are masonry blocks at the corner of a wall. Stone quoins are used on stone or brick buildings, brick quoins may appear on brick buildings that extrude from the facing brickwork in such a way as to give the appearance of uniformly cut blocks of stone larger than the bricks. Where quoins are used for decoration and not for load-bearing, they may be made from a variety of materials beyond brick, stone or concrete, extending to timber. This forms a long-side, short-side alternate pattern, which by using the same size blocks alternates when the viewer passes the corner and this can be called the alternate, horizontal quoining technique. The long and short quoining method instead places long stone blocks with their lengths oriented vertically and this load bearing quoining is common in Anglo-Saxon buildings such as that of St Benets Church in Cambridge, England
18.
Stockade
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A stockade is an enclosure of palisades and tall walls made of logs placed side by side vertically with the tops sharpened to provide security. Stockade fortifications were simple forms of defence of camps or settlements, used since ancient Roman times. The troops or settlers would build a stockade by clearing a space of woodland and using the whole or chopped in half. They would dig a trench around the area, and stand the sharpened logs side-by-side inside it. Sometimes they would add additional defence by placing sharpened sticks in a secondary trench outside the stockade. In colder climates sometimes the stockade received a coating of clay or mud that would make the crude wall wind-proof, builders could also place stones or thick mud layers at the foot of the stockade, improving the resistance of the wall. From that the defenders could, if they had the materials, raise a stone or brick wall inside the stockade, the word stockade also refers to a military prison in an army camp, and in some cases, even a crude prison camp or a slave camp. In these cases, the stockade keeps people inside, rather than out, nowadays, stockade walls are often used as garden fencing, made of finished planks more useful for privacy fencing and more decoration than security
19.
Curtain wall (fortification)
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A curtain wall is a defensive wall between two towers of a castle, fortress, or town. In medieval castles, the area surrounded by a curtain wall, the outermost walls with their integrated bastions and wall towers together make up the enceinte or main defensive line enclosing the site. In earlier designs of castle and town, the walls were often built to a considerable height and were fronted by a ditch or moat to make assault difficult. Evidence for curtain walls or a series of walls surrounding a town or fortress can be found in the sources from Assyria. Some notable examples are ancient Lachish and Buhen, enceinte Curry, Anne, Hughes, Michael, eds. The Popular Encyclopedia, or, Conversations Lexicon, I, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and London, Blackie & Son, p.444
20.
Exwick
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Exwick is a suburb of Exeter, England, in the north-west of the City. Its name is derived from the River Exe, which forms its eastern boundary and it is also an Ecclesiastical parish and an electoral ward. Public Transport in Exwick is limited to buses, operated by Stagecoach Devon, the bus services are the E, F1 and F2. Railway services are provided at Exeter St Davids station, which is a walk away from Exwick on the eastern side of the river
21.
Barbican
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A barbican is a fortified outpost or gateway, such as an outer defense to a city or castle, or any tower situated over a gate or bridge which was used for defensive purposes. Usually barbicans were situated outside the line of defences and connected to the city walls with a walled road called the neck. In the 15th century, with the improvement in siege tactics and artillery, however, several barbicans were built even in the 16th century. Fortified or mock-fortified gatehouses remained a feature of ambitious French and English residences into the 17th century, fortifications in East Asia also featured similar structures. Called literally jar walls, they are referred to as barbicans in English. Barbican Estate, London Barbican, Plymouth Gatehouse Kraków barbican Warsaw Barbican Saint Laurence Gate, Drogheda Media related to Barbicans at Wikimedia Commons Barbican
22.
Siege engine
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A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some have been operated close to the fortifications, while others have used to attack from a distance. From antiquity, siege engines were constructed largely of wood and tended to use mechanical advantage to fling stones, with the development of gunpowder and improved metallurgical techniques, siege engines became artillery. Collectively, siege engines or artillery together with the necessary troops, the earliest engine was the battering ram, developed by the Assyrians, followed by the catapult in ancient Greece. The first Mediterranean people to use advanced siege machinery were the Carthaginians and these engines influenced the ruler of Syracuse, Dionysius I, who developed a catapult in 399 BC. The first two rulers to use of siege engines to a large extent were Philip II of Macedonia. The most utilized engines were simple battering rams, or tortoises, for sea sieges or battles, seesaw-like machines were used. These were giant ladders, hinged and mounted on a base mechanism and they were normally mounted on two or more ships tied together and some sambykē included shields at the top to protect the climbers from arrows. Other hinged engines were used to catch enemy equipment or even opposing soldiers with opposable appendices which are probably ancestors to the Roman corvus, other weapons dropped heavy weights on opposing soldiers. The Romans preferred to assault enemy walls by building earthen ramps or simply scaling the walls, soldiers working at the ramps were protected by shelters called vineae, that were arranged to form a long corridor. Wicker shields were used to protect the front of the corridor during its construction, another Roman siege engine sometimes used resembled the Greek ditch-filling tortoise, called a musculus. The Roman Legions first used siege towers around 200 BC, the first documented occurrence of ancient siege artillery pieces in Europe was the gastraphetes, a kind of large crossbow. These were mounted on wooden frames, greater machines forced the introduction of pulley system for loading the projectiles, which had extended to include stones also. Later torsion systems appeared, based on sinew springs, the onager was the main Roman invention in the field. Much of what we now know of the technology of the time came to us from Books 14 and 15 on Siege Warfare from the Mo Jing. Recorded and preserved on bamboo strips, much of the text is now unfortunately extremely corrupted, medieval designs include a large number of catapults such as the Mangonel, Onager, the ballista, the traction trebuchet, and the counterweight trebuchet. These machines used mechanical energy to fling large projectiles to batter down stone walls, also used were the battering ram and the siege tower, a wooden tower on wheels that allowed attackers to climb up and over castle walls, while protected somewhat from enemy arrows. Another weapon was the petard, a device designed specifically for breaching gates
23.
Royal Albert Memorial Museum
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Royal Albert Memorial Museum & Art Gallery is a museum and art gallery in Exeter, Devon, the largest in the city. It holds significant and diverse collections in areas such as zoology, anthropology, fine art, local and overseas archaeology, altogether the museum holds over one million objects, of which a small percentage is on permanent public display. It is a Major Partner Museum under the Arts Council England administered programme of strategic investment, RAMM receives this funding in partnership with Plymouth City Museum & Art Gallery. Previously they were described as hub museums under the Renaissance Programme for regional museums which operated between 2002–11 and funded by the now defunct Museums Libraries & Archives Council, since its re-opening the museum has received several awards. His original plan called for a central tower like that at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Initially proposed by Sir Stafford Northcote as a memorial to Prince Albert. John Gendall volunteered to curate an initial collection required to fill the planned building, and the first phases of the building were completed by 1868. Its contents soon outgrew the building, necessitating the construction of extensions in 1894, over the course of time locals adopted the abbreviation RAMM, and this in turn became the name by which the museum is branded. Over time RAMM gradually expanded to fill the whole building, between 2007-11 a major redevelopment was completed costing £24 million. The Heritage Lottery Fund contributed nearly £10 million of the cost, in addition a purpose-built off-site collections store called the Ark was built and fitted out. The museum reopened on 15 December 2011, the museum is open 10am to 5pm every day except Mondays and bank holidays. Four major collection areas are represented, antiquities, art, natural history, the world cultures collections are Designated as being of national and international significance by the UK government. The museums zoology collection includes specimens of invertebrates and mammals from across the world, percy Sladens collection of echinoderms is held by the museum and considered the most important of its kind outside of any national collection. The costume and textiles collection of the museum is considerable, according to the University of Brighton, due to the delicate nature of these materials, the collection is not on permanent display. RAMMs art collection comprises over 7,000 objects including paintings, drawings, prints and sculpture, representing important British artists, the donors who contributed to the collection include Kent Kingdon, Sir Harry Veitch and John Lane. RAMM was named the United Kingdoms Museum of the Year by The Art Fund charity in 2012, at the end of every July, the Royal Albert Memorial Museum holds a plant-orientated lecture in memory of Sir Harry Veitch. RAMM is owned and partly funded by Exeter City Council, with funding from Arts Council Englands Major Partner Museum programme of investment for regional museums. Significant development funding was received from the Heritage Lottery Fund
24.
Sally port
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A sally port is a secure, controlled entryway to a fortification or prison. The entrance is protected by some means, such as a fixed wall on the outside, parallel to the door—which must be circumvented to enter. It may include two sets of doors that can be barred independently to further enemy penetration. From around 1600 to 1900, a port was a sort of dock where boats picked up or dropped off ship crews from vessels anchored offshore. That meaning occasionally still occurs, especially in coastal Great Britain, the word port is ultimately from Latin porta for door. Often the term postern is used synonymously and it can also mean an underground tunnel, or passage. Targets for these included tools, which defenders could capture and use—and labor-intensive enemy works and equipment, such as trenches, mines, siege engines. Sometimes the defenders also attacked enemy laborers, and stole or destroyed the besiegers beer, an extract from a nineteenth century dictionary of military terms describes a sally port thus. When they are constructed for the passage of men only, they are made with steps at the entrance and they are about six feet wide, and 8 1/2 feet high. When sally-ports serve. to carry guns through them for the out-works, instead of making them with steps, they must have a gradual slope, sally ports also control entry to highly valuable civilian facilities, such as currency or credit card manufacturing sites. A guard in a protected location controls the doors and the space between them, and operates the doors remotely. This provides control over movement of people, materials, and vehicles through the sally port, sally ports must be used with caution, and transit through them must be carefully monitored during any emergency or non-routine movements. The greatest safety hazard in use of these passageways is the danger of overcrowding the space between the doors. Since either door can only be opened while the other is closed and locked, sally ports can also restrict the flow of people to one at a time, so that intruders cannot pass into a classified or secure area by closely following a cleared person. Typically, personnel in the step out while guards inspect the vehicles. A guard who finds something in the space that is unauthorized can lock down both doors, trapping the unauthorized entity inside. In supermax correctional facilities, groups of cells may be connected to central corridors via sally ports. An officer behind protective glass opens the port doors individually after verifying that the person is allowed to pass, a sally port appears on the Coat of Arms of the Republic of Malta
25.
Richard III of England
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Richard III was King of England from 1483 until his death in 1485, at the age of 32, in the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty and his defeat at Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England. He is the subject of the historical play Richard III by William Shakespeare, when his brother King Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edwards son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. As the young king travelled to London from Ludlow, Richard met and escorted him to lodgings in the Tower of London, on 25 June, an assembly of Lords and commoners endorsed the claims. The following day, Richard III began his reign, and he was crowned on 6 July 1483. The young princes were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that the boys had been murdered on Richards orders, there were two major rebellions against Richard. The first, in October 1483, was led by allies of Edward IV and Richards former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. In August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, Henry Tudor landed in southern Wales with a small contingent of French troops and marched through his birthplace, Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henrys force engaged Richards army and defeated it at the Battle of Bosworth Field in Leicestershire, Richard was struck down in the conflict, making him the last English king to die in battle on home soil and the first since Harold Godwinson. Henry then ascended the throne as Henry VII, after the battle Richards corpse was taken to Leicester and buried without pomp. His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the Reformation, in 2012, an archaeological excavation was commissioned by the Richard III Society on a city council car park on the site once occupied by Greyfriars Priory Church. Richards remains were reburied in Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015 and they returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton and participated in the coronation of Richards eldest brother as King Edward IV in June 1461. At this time Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made a Knight of the Garter and Knight of the Bath, by the age of seventeen, he had an independent command. With some interruptions, Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465, while at Warwicks estate, he probably met Francis Lovell, a strong supporter later in his life, and Warwicks younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville. As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained, Edward IV opposed the match, during Warwicks lifetime, George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters, the eldest, Isabel, on 12 July 1469, without the kings permission. George joined his father-in-laws revolt against the king, while Richard remained loyal to Edward, in 1468, Richards sister Margaret had married Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and the brothers could expect a welcome there. Although only eighteen years old, Richard played crucial roles in the battles of Barnet, during his adolescence, Richard developed idiopathic scoliosis. Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville, by the end of 1470 Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster, only son of Henry VI, to seal her fathers allegiance to the Lancastrian party
26.
Perkin Warbeck
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Perkin Warbeck was a pretender to the English throne. By claiming to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, Warbeck was a significant threat to the newly established Tudor dynasty, and gained support outside England. Henry VII declared Warbeck an impostor, and after his capture, dealing with Warbeck cost Henry VII over £13,000, putting a strain on Henrys weak state finances. Perkin Warbecks personal history has been fraught with many unreliable and varying statements and he, himself, said that he was Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, the younger son of King Edward IV. After he was captured and interrogated in 1497 under the eye of King Henry VII and this confession is considered by many historians to be possibly only partially true as it was procured under duress. According to the confession, Warbeck was born to a man called John Osbeck, Osbeck, who was married to Warbecks mother Katherine de Faro, was Flemish and held the occupation of comptroller to the city of Tournai. These family ties are backed up by several archives of Tournai which mention most of the people whom Warbeck declared he was related to. He was taken to Antwerp by his mother at age ten to learn Dutch. From here, he was undertaken by several masters around Antwerp, after his time in the Netherlands, Warbeck yearned to visit other countries and was hired by a Breton merchant. This merchant eventually brought Warbeck to Cork, Ireland in 1491 when he was about seventeen, and there he learnt to speak English. Warbeck then claims that upon seeing him dressed in silk clothes and he said they did this because they were resolved in gaining revenge on the King of England and decided that he would claim to be the younger son of King Edward IV. Warbeck first claimed the English throne at the court of Burgundy in 1490, Warbeck explained his mysterious disappearance by claiming that his brother Edward V had been murdered, but he had been spared by his brothers killers because of his age and innocence. However, he had made to swear an oath not to reveal his true identity for a certain number of years. From 1483 to 1490 he had lived on the continent of Europe under the protection of Yorkist loyalists and he then declared his true identity. In 1491, Warbeck landed in Ireland in the hope of gaining support for his claim as Lambert Simnel had four years previously, however, little support was found and he was forced to return to the European mainland. He was first received by Charles VIII of France, but in 1492 was expelled under the terms of the Treaty of Etaples, by which Charles had agreed not to shelter rebels against Henry VII. He was publicly recognized as Richard of Shrewsbury by Margaret of York, the widow of Charles the Bold, the pretender was also welcomed by various other monarchs and was known in international diplomacy as the Duke of York. At the invitation of Duke Philips father, King Maximilian I, the pretender also promised that if he died before becoming king, his claim would fall to Maximilian
27.
John Norden
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John Norden was an English cartographer, chorographer and antiquary. He planned a series of county maps and accompanying county histories of England and he was also a prolific writer of devotional works. Norden is known to have born in Somerset, to a genteel family. He entered Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1564, and graduated BA in 1568 and he was married and had at least two sons, John Norden junior, and Josias. The first instalment of Nordens chorographical project was published in 1593 as the Speculum Britanniae, the First Parte, the manuscript in the British Library has corrections in Lord Burleighs handwriting. In 1595 he wrote a manuscript Chorographical Description of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, Wight, Guernsey and Jersey, dedicated, in 1596 he published his Preparative to the Speculum Britanniae, dedicated to Burleigh. In 1598 there appeared the other part of the project to reach print in his lifetime, Speculi Britaniae Pars. He also completed accounts of five counties in manuscript. In 1608 he was occupied with the surveying of crown woods, especially in Surrey, Berkshire and Devon. Commission concerning new forests, to which he added in 1613 his Observations concerning Crown Lands and Woods, in the last of these the roads are indicated for the first time in English cartography. Several important cartographical works are lost and these include Nordens Map. of Battles fought in England from. 1604–6, and View of London Bridge, published in 1624. An earlier View of London by Norden, and an 1804 reprint of the View of London Bridge, are held in the Crace collection at the British Library. A map of Surrey by Norden, said to have been copied by Speed, Norden frequently experienced difficulty in finding patronage for his cartographical and chorographical work. A steadier source of income was his writing, of which he published twenty-four volumes between 1582 and his death. A Pensive Mans Practise, first published in 1584, reached more than forty editions in his lifetime and this denial has caused historians some difficulty, but Frank Kitchen has established beyond doubt that there was only one John Norden. John Norden, estate surveyor, topographer, county mapmaker and devotional writer, Speculum Britanniae, regional study, antiquarianism and science in Britain to 1700. John Norden and his maps of Cornwall and its nine hundreds, John Norden and his colleagues, surveyors of the Crown Lands
28.
Heavitree
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Heavitree is an historic village and parish situated formerly outside the walls of the City of Exeter in Devon, England, but is today an eastern suburb of that city. It was formerly the first significant village outside the city on the road to London and it was the birthplace of Thomas Bodley, and Richard Hooker, and until 1818 was a site for executions. The name appears in Domesday Book as Hevetrowa or Hevetrove, G. Hoskins is that it was a meeting place for the hundred court. The last executions for witchcraft in England took place at Heavitree in 1682, when the Bideford Witches Temperance Lloyd, Mary Trembles, the last execution to take place here was in 1818, when Samuel Holmyard was hanged at the Magdalen Drop for passing a forged one pound note. In the hundred years from 1801 to 1901, the population of Heavitree grew from 833 to 7,529 and it first became an independent Urban District, but became a part of the city in 1913. Part of the district is still one of the wards for elections to the City Council. The expanding population necessitated the rebuilding of the medieval church. Its most imposing feature is the west tower, built in 1890 to the design of E. Harbottle, in 2002, a yew tree in the churchyard was included among the 50 Great British Trees to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. However, it is unlikely that this is the tree from which Heavitree gets its name. The Heavitree Brewery was a brewer, located in Heavitree. It was the last brewery in Exeter to cease production, continuing until 1970, the name continues in use as the owner of a chain of pubs in South West England, and Heavitree Brewery PLC continues as a quoted company with its address in Exeter. There is also a charitable trust. The rest of the grounds were landscaped by the Veitch family, Heavitree Pleasure Ground is still open today and contains a number of leisure facilities. Heavitree lies on one of the most convenient routes from the city centre to the northbound M5 motorway and eastbound A30 trunk road ensuring that much traffic continues to pass through the district. From here, Heavitree Road runs downhill to Exeter city centre, passing the main city Police Station on the right and St Lukes Hall, part of the University of Exeter, Heavitree is also the location of the Royal Devon and Exeter Heavitree Hospital. Heavitree stone is a type of red sandstone that was quarried in the area and was used to construct many of Exeters older buildings. Sir Thomas Bodley, the founder of the Bodleian Library, was born in Heavitree, as was Richard Hooker whose writings were influential in the Church of England in his own time. There is a statue to Hooker in the grounds of Exeter Cathedral
29.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
30.
Artillery battery
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The term is also used in a naval context to describe groups of guns on warships. Historically the term referred to a cluster of cannon in action as a group. Such batteries could be a mixture of cannon, howitzer, or mortar types, a siege could involve many batteries at different sites around the besieged place. The term also came to be used for a group of cannon in a fixed fortification and they were usually organised with between six and 12 ordnance pieces, often including cannon and howitzers. By the late 19th century battery had become standard mostly replacing company or troop, in the 20th century the term was generally used for the company level sub-unit of an artillery branch including field, air-defence, anti-tank and position. 20th-century firing batteries have been equipped with mortars, guns, howitzers, rockets, during the Napoleonic Wars some armies started grouping their batteries into larger administrative and field units. Groups of batteries combined for field combat employment called Grand Batteries by Napoleon, administratively batteries were usually grouped in battalions, regiments or squadrons and these developed into tactical organisations. These were further grouped into regiments, simply group or brigades, to further concentrate fire of individual batteries, from World War I they were grouped into artillery divisions in a few armies. Coastal artillery sometimes had completely different organizational terms based on shore defence sector areas, the rank of a battery commander has also varied, but is usually a lieutenant, captain, or major. The number of guns, howitzers, mortars or launchers in a battery has also varied. In the 19th century four to 12 guns was usual as the number to maneuver into the gun line. By late 19th century the artillery battery was divided into a gun line. The gun line consisted of six guns and 12 ammunition mules, during the American Civil War, artillery batteries often consisted of six field pieces for the Union Army and four for the Confederate States Army, although this varied. Batteries were divided into sections of two guns apiece, each section normally under the command of a lieutenant, the full battery was typically commanded by a captain. Often, particularly as the war progressed, individual batteries were grouped into battalions under a major or colonel of artillery, in the 20th century it varied between four and 12 for field artillery, or even two pieces for very heavy pieces. Other types of such as anti-tank or anti-aircraft have sometimes been larger. Some batteries have been dual-equipped with two different types of gun or mortar, and taking whichever was more appropriate when they deployed for operations, from the late 19th century field artillery batteries started to become more complex organisations. Fixed artillery refers to guns or howitzers on mounts that were anchored in one spot, or on carriages intended to be moved only for the purposes of aiming
31.
Palladian architecture
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Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and inspired by the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio. That which is recognised as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of Palladios original concepts, Palladios work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 17th century Palladios interpretation of classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid-17th century, but its flowering was cut short by the onset of the Civil War and the imposition of austerity which followed. In the early 18th century it returned to fashion, not only in England but also, the style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings. However, as a style it has continued to be popular and to evolve, its pediments, symmetry. Buildings entirely designed by Palladio are all in Venice and the Veneto, with an especially rich grouping of palazzi in Vicenza and they include villas, and churches such as Redentore in Venice. Palladio always designed his villas with reference to their setting, if on a hill, such as Villa Capra, facades were frequently designed to be of equal value so that occupants could have fine views in all directions. Also, in cases, porticos were built on all sides so that occupants could fully appreciate the countryside while being protected from the sun. Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico and this can most simply be described as a recessed portico, or an internal single storey room, with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be placed at floor level over the top of a loggia below. Loggias were sometimes given significance in a facade by being surmounted by a pediment, Villa Godi has as its focal point a loggia rather than a portico, plus loggias terminating each end of the main building. Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades, the temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later became a trademark of his work. Palladian villas are built with three floors, a rusticated basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms. The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3,4 and 4,5, earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade, however, Palladios designs related to the whole, usually square, villa. Palladio deeply considered the purpose of his villas as both farmhouses and palatial weekend retreats for wealthy merchant owners. These symmetrical temple-like houses often have symmetrical, but low, wings sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals. The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement, the Palladian, Serlian, or Venetian window features largely in Palladios work and is almost a trademark of his early career
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James Wyatt
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James Wyatt RA was an English architect, a rival of Robert Adam in the neoclassical style and neo-Gothic style. Wyatt spent six years in Italy, 1762–68, in company with Richard Bagot of Staffordshire, in Venice, Wyatt studied with Antonio Visentini as an architectural draughtsman and painter. Back in England, his selection as architect of the proposed Pantheon or Winter Ranelagh in Oxford Street, London, brought him almost unparalleled instant success. His brother Samuel was one of the promoters of the scheme. When the Pantheon was opened in 1772, their choice was at once endorsed by the fashionable public, externally it was unremarkable, but the classicising domed hall surrounded by galleried aisles and apsidal ends, was something new in assembly rooms, and brought its architect immediate celebrity. On the 15 February 1785 Wyatt was elected an Academician of the Royal Academy, in later years, he carried out alterations at Frogmore for Queen Charlotte, and was made Surveyor-General of the Works. Between 1805 and 1808 Wyatt remodelled West Dean House in West Dean, wyatt’s work was remarkable because it is built entirely of flint, even to the door and window openings, which would normally be lined with stone. In 1776, Wyatt succeeded Henry Keene as Surveyor to Westminster Abbey, in 1782 he became, in addition, Architect of the Ordnance. The death of Sir William Chambers brought him the post of Surveyor General, Wyatt was now the principal architect of the day, the recipient of more commissions than he could well fulfil. His widespread practice and the duties of his official posts left him time to give proper attention to the individual needs of his clients. In 1804, Jeffry Wyatt told Farington that his uncle had lost many great commissions by such neglect, Wyatt was a brilliant but facile designer, whose work is not characterized by any markedly individual style. It was not until towards the end of his life that he and his brother Samuel developed the severe, meanwhile, Wyatts reputation as a rival to Robert Adam had been eclipsed by his celebrity as a Gothic architect. Every Georgian architect was called upon from time to time to designs in the medieval style. In the following year, however, he was permitted to add F. S. A. to his name by a majority of one hundred, Wyatt was elected to the Royal Academy in 1785, and took an active part in the politics of the Academy. But his election was never approved by the King. Wyatt was one of the founders of the Architects Club in 1791, in 1802 Wyatt built a new house for the 7th Earl of Bridgewater on the Ashridge estate in Hertfordshire which is now a Grade I listed building. In 1803 Thomas Johnes hired Wyatt to design Saint Michels Hafod Church, Eglwys Newydd, in Ceredigion, Wales. He died on 4 September 1813 as the result of an accident to the carriage in which he was travelling over the Marlborough Downs with his friend and employer, Christopher Codrington of Dodington Park
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Joseph Hall (bishop)
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Joseph Hall was an English bishop, satirist and moralist. His contemporaries knew him as a writer, and a high-profile controversialist of the early 1640s. In church politics, he tended in fact to a middle way, Thomas Fuller wrote, He was commonly called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at Controversies, more happy at Comments, very good in his Characters, better in his Sermons, Hall was born at Bristow Park, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,1 July 1574. His father, John Hall, was employed under Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, president of the north and his mother was Winifred Bambridge, a strict puritan, whom her son compared to St Monica. The first part of his education was received at Ashby Grammar School, when he was of the age of fifteen Mr. Pelset, lecturer at Leicester, a divine of puritan views, offered to take him under indentures and educate him for the ministry. Just before this arrangement was completed, it came to the knowledge of Nathaniel Gilby, son of Anthony Gilby and a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, Gilby induced Halls father to send his son to Emmanuel College in 1589. The expense of his education at the university was partly borne by his uncle and he was elected scholar and afterwards fellow of Emmanuel College, graduating B. A. in 1592 and M. A. in 1596. Fuller, nearly a contemporary, says that Hall passed all his degrees with great applause and he obtained a high reputation in the university for scholarship, and read the public rhetoric lecture in the schools for two years with much credit. Having taken holy orders, Hall was offered the mastership of Blundells School, Tiverton, nevertheless, in 1603, he married Elizabeth Wynniff of Brettenham, Suffolk. At Brussels, he disputed at the Jesuit college on the authenticity of modern miracles, Halls devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, Prince of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains. Hall preached officially on the anniversary of King Jamess accession in 1613. In 1612, Edward Denny gave Hall the curacy of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, in the next year Hall was chosen as one of the English deputies at the Synod of Dort. However he fell ill, and was replaced by Thomas Goad, at the time when Marco Antonio de Dominis announced his intention to return to Rome, after a stay in England, Hall wrote to try to dissuade him, without success. In a long-unpublished reply De Dominis justified himself in a statement of his mission against schism and its limited results, hampered by Dort. In a sermon Columba Noæ of February 1624 to Convocation, he gave a list or personal panorama of leading theologians of the Church of England. In the same year he refused the see of Gloucester, at the time English delegates to Dort were receiving preferment. Hall was then involved as a mediator, taking a part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy in the English church
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History of ballooning
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The history of ballooning, both with hot air and gas, spans many centuries. It includes many firsts, including the first human flight, first flight across the English Channel, first flight in North America, unmanned hot air balloons are popular in Chinese history. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, in the Three Kingdoms era used airborne lanterns for military signaling and these lanterns are known as Kongming lanterns. It has been demonstrated that hot air balloons can be built using ancient materials. The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland and this is the first time ballooning was known in the western world. The first documented balloon flight in Europe was by the Brazilian-Portuguese priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão. On August 8,1709, in Lisbon, Bartolomeu de Gusmão managed to lift a balloon made of paper full of hot air about four meters in front of king John V. According to the Portuguese speaking community, this was the earliest recorded model balloon flight. Jacques Charles, whose study of gases led to his law of volumes, had studied the works of Cavendish, Black, and Tiberius Cavallo. Jacques Charles designed the balloon, and the Robert brothers constructed a lightweight, airtight gas bag, barthélémy Faujas de Saint-Fond organized a crowd-funded subscription to finance the brothers project. The Roberts dissolved rubber in a solution of turpentine, with which they varnished stitched-together sheets of silk and they used alternating strips of red and white silk, but the rubberising varnish yellowed the white silk. Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers began filling the worlds first hydrogen balloon on the 23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires, the balloon was comparatively small, a 35 cubic metre sphere of rubberised silk, and only capable of lifting about 9 kg. It was filled with hydrogen that had made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto half a tonne of scrap iron. On August 27,1783, the balloon was released, Benjamin Franklin was among the crowd of onlookers, the sheep was believed to have a reasonable approximation of human physiology. The duck was expected to be unharmed by being lifted aloft and it was included as a control for effects created by the aircraft rather than the altitude. The rooster was included as a control as it was a bird that did not fly at high altitudes. This demonstration was performed before a crowd at the palace in Versailles, before King Louis XVI of France. The flight lasted approximately eight minutes, covered two miles, and obtained an altitude of about 1,500 feet, the craft landed safely after flying
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Georgian era
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
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Her Majesty's Courts Service
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Her Majestys Courts Service was an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice and was responsible for the administration of the civil, family and criminal courts in England and Wales. It was created by the amalgamation of the Magistrates Courts Service and it came into being on 1 April 2005, bringing together the Magistrates Courts Service and the Courts Service into a single organisation. On 1 April 2011 it merged with the Tribunals Service to form Her Majestys Courts, when established court services were administered by seven regions responsible for 42 local areas. In 2007 this structure was re-organised by reducing the number of areas to 24, the areas are managed by area directors, responsible for the delivery of local services. They work in partnership with courts boards to ensure that the Agency is focussed on its customers and is meeting local needs, the Courts Act 2003 created the legal framework required to make the changes. On 31 March 2005, responsibility for the 42 existing magistrates courts committees and Court Service passed to Her Majesty’s Courts Service
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Scheduled monument
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In the United Kingdom, a scheduled monument is a nationally important archaeological site or historic building, given protection against unauthorised change. The various pieces of legislation used for protecting heritage assets from damage. The protection given to scheduled monuments is given under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, a heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. There are about 20,000 scheduled monuments in England representing about 37,000 heritage assets, of the tens of thousands of scheduled monuments in the UK, most are inconspicuous archaeological sites, but some are large ruins. According to the 1979 Act, a monument cannot be a structure which is occupied as a dwelling, as a rule of thumb, a protected historic asset that is occupied would be designated as a listed building. Scheduled Monuments are defined in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, in England, Wales and Scotland they are often referred to as a scheduled ancient monument, although the Act defines only ancient monument and scheduled monument. A monument can be, A building or structure, cave or excavation which is above or below the surface of the land, a site comprising any vehicle, vessel, aircraft or other moveable structure. In Northern Ireland they are designated under separate legislation and are referred to as a historic monument or a monument in state care. The first Act to enshrine legal protection for ancient monuments was the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 and this identified an initial list of 68 prehistoric sites, which were given a degree of legal protection. This was the result of strenuous representation by William Morris and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, which had been founded in 1877. Following various previous attempts, the 1882 legislation was guided through parliament by John Lubbock, the first Inspector of Ancient Monuments, as set up by the act, was Augustus Pitt Rivers. At this point, only the inspector, answering directly to the First Commissioner of Works, was involved in surveying the scheduled sites and persuading landowners to offer sites to the state. The act also established the concept of guardianship, in which a site might remain in private ownership, however the legislation could not compel landowners, as that level of state interference with private property was not politically possible. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 extended the scope of the legislation to include medieval monuments, in a speech in 1907, Robert Hunter, chairman of the National Trust, observed that only a further 18 sites had been added to the original list of 68. Charles Peers, an architect, was appointed as Inspector in 1910 in the Office of Works becoming Chief Inspector in 1913. The job title Inspector is still in use, scheduling offers protection because it makes it illegal to undertake a great range of works within a designated area, without first obtaining scheduled monument consent. However, it does not affect the owner’s freehold title or other interests in the land
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