1.
John Pettie
–
John Pettie RA was a Scottish painter who spent most of his career in England. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1866 and an academician in 1874. As an enthusiastic musician, he helped the career of the young composer Hamish MacCunn by organizing concerts for him in his own studio. MacCunn, who would marry his daughter Alison in 1888, also served as a model for many of his paintings, John Pettie was born in Edinburgh, the son of Alexander and Alison Pettie. In 1852 the family moved to East Linton, Haddingtonshire, initially, his father objected to Pettie taking up art as a career, but this was overcome following a portrait by the lad of the village carrier and his donkey. To the Royal Academy in 1860 he sent The Armourers, and the success of work and What dye Lack, Madam. in the following year encouraged him to settle in London. In 1866 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy and his diploma picture was Jacobites,1745. Pettie was a hard and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high order, in his early days he produced a certain amount of book illustration. His connection with Good Words began in 1861, and was continued until 1864 and he painted a portrait of the painter James Campbell Noble RSA and this is exhibited in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh. In 1894 a selection of his work was included in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy and his self-portrait is in the Tate Gallery. The National Portrait Gallery has four of his works in its collection, with William McTaggart and others, he illustrated The Postmans Bag, and with John MacWhirter he illustrated Wordsworths Poetry for the Young. His principal paintings, in addition to those mentioned, are, The book John Pettie. H. R. S. A. by his nephew Martin Hardie, gives the story of his life, a catalogue of his pictures, and fifty reproductions in color. List of Scots Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pettie. Media related to John Pettie at Wikimedia Commons Works by John Pettie at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Pettie at Internet Archive
John Pettie
–
Self-portrait from 1882
John Pettie
–
Two Strings to her Bow, by John Pettie, 1887
John Pettie
–
John Pettie by
George Anderson Lawson
John Pettie
–
The design of the
Church Army Chapel, Blackheath, was influenced by The Vigil, the spire and east window carrying the same shape and symbolism as the sword in this painting, on exhibition in the
Tate Gallery.
2.
Parliament of England
–
The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
Parliament of England
–
Parliament of England
Parliament of England
–
Royal coat of arms of England, 1558–1603
Parliament of England
–
Medieval parliament
3.
English Civil War
–
The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
English Civil War
–
The victory of the
Parliamentarian New Model Army over the
Royalist Army at the
Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645 marked the decisive turning point in the English Civil War.
English Civil War
–
Charles I, painted by Van Dyck
English Civil War
–
Henrietta Maria, painted by
Peter Lely, 1660
English Civil War
–
Session of the Long Parliament
4.
Charles I of England
–
Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
Charles I of England
–
Portrait from the studio of
Anthony van Dyck, 1636
Charles I of England
–
Engraving by
Simon de Passe of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne, c. 1612
Charles I of England
–
Portrait by
Robert Peake, c. 1610
Charles I of England
–
Portrait of Charles as Prince of Wales after
Daniel Mytens, c. 1623
5.
Cavalier
–
It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
Cavalier
–
Prince Rupert, often considered to be an archetypal Cavalier.
Cavalier
–
An engraving depicting
Charles I and his adherents.
Cavalier
–
Sir
Anthony van Dyck ca.1638, Lord John Stuart and his brother Lord Bernard. Both died fighting for the King.
Cavalier
–
Charles I in Three Positions, the triple portrait of Charles I by
Anthony van Dyck
6.
Absolute monarchy
–
Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
Absolute monarchy
–
Louis XIV of France
Absolute monarchy
–
Hassanal Bolkiah is the 29th and current
Sultan of Brunei
Absolute monarchy
–
Salman,
King of Saudi Arabia and
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.
7.
Divine right of kings
–
The divine right of kings, divine right, or Gods mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, the king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm. It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose, dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and it is only an implication and the Bible states Iron sharpens iron, referring to accountability to each other. It also implies the higher accountability of Monarchs to implement policies in line with Christs commandment to Love one another and it is often expressed in the phrase by the Grace of God, attached to the titles of a reigning monarch. In the pagan world, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers or perhaps even being divine beings themselves. However, the Christian notion of a right of kings could be traced to the biblical story found in 1 Samuel. And the anointing is to such an effect that the monarch became inviolable, adomnan of Iona is one of the earliest Christian proponents of this concept of kings ruling with divine right. He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaills assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch, the same angel then visited Columba on three successive nights, and then finally Columba agreed and Aedan came to receive ordination. Adomnans writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well, pepin the Shorts coronation may have also come from the same influence. The Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors also influenced all subsequent western ideas of kingship, the immediate author of the theory was Jean Bodin, who based it on the interpretation of Roman law. With the rise of nation-states and the Protestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the kings authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of James I of England, louis XIV of France strongly promoted the theory as well. The Scots textbooks of the right of kings were written in 1597–98 by James VI of Scotland before his accession to the English throne. James I based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, the state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth, for kings are not only Gods lieutenants upon earth and sit upon Gods throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. There be three principal that illustrate the state of monarchy, one out of the word of God. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the Divine power, Kings are also compared to fathers of families, for a king is truly parens patriae, the politic father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of man, jamess reference to Gods lieutenants is apparently a reference to the controversial text in Romans 13, where Paul refers to Gods ministers. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God, the powers that be are ordained of God
Divine right of kings
–
Louis XIV of France depicted as the Sun King.
Divine right of kings
–
Antichristus, a woodcut by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a ruler contributing generously to the Catholic Church
Divine right of kings
–
Charles I, being crowned by a hand from a cloud, possibly by God
Divine right of kings
–
The
Emperor of Japan rules as a divine descendant of the sun goddess
Amaterasu
8.
Constitutional monarchy
–
A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
Constitutional monarchy
–
Constitutional monarchies with representative
parliamentary systems are shown in green. Other constitutional monarchies are shown in light green.
9.
Absolutist monarchy
–
Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
Absolutist monarchy
–
Louis XIV of France
Absolutist monarchy
–
Hassanal Bolkiah is the 29th and current
Sultan of Brunei
Absolutist monarchy
–
Salman,
King of Saudi Arabia and
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.
10.
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
Oliver Cromwell
–
A 1656
Samuel Cooper portrait of Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
–
Portrait of Cromwell's wife Elizabeth Bourchier, painted by Robert Walker
Oliver Cromwell
–
Oliver Cromwell's house in
Ely
Oliver Cromwell
–
Engraving of Oliver Cromwell
11.
Commonwealth of England
–
The republics existence was declared through An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth, adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament, the Rump was created by Prides Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army. Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, with the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive and legislative power. The English Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council and it was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had an uneasy relationship. After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and it declared the people of England and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging to be henceforth under the governance of a Commonwealth, effectively a republic. In Prides Purge, all members of parliament who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed, thus the Rump never had more than two hundred members. Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a proportion of lesser gentry. Less than one-quarter of them were regicides and this left the Rump as basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made it unlikely to want to reform them. For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland, by 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats. There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump, some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of Englands traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as a government made up of regicides. However, they were aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry, limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals. Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, by 1653, France and Spain had recognised Englands new government. Though the Church of England was retained, episcopacy was suppressed, mainly on the insistence of the Army, many independent churches were tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church. Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure, for example, however, there were no widespread reforms of the common law. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the law as reinforcing their status
Commonwealth of England
–
Third English Civil War
Commonwealth of England
–
A 21st-century edition of the Act Declaring and Constituting the People of England to be a Commonwealth and Free-State enacted on 19 May 1649
Commonwealth of England
–
A gold
Unite from 1653.
12.
Thomas Fairfax
–
Fairfax became unhappy with Cromwells policy and publicly refused to take part in Charless show trial. Eventually he resigned, leaving Cromwell to control the republic and his dark hair and eyes and a swarthy complexion earned him the nickname Black Tom. Thomas Fairfax was born at Denton Hall, halfway between Ilkley and Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 17 January 1612, the eldest son of Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He studied at St Johns College, Cambridge, and Grays Inn, in the Second Bishops War the following year the English army was routed at the Battle of Newburn. Fairfax fled with the rest of the army but was nevertheless knighted for his services in January 1641. His distant cousin was Sir Thomas Fairfax of Gilling Castle - the common ancestor of both Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and her husband, Prince William and this was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of the kings saddle. When the civil war broke out in 1642, his father, Lord Fairfax, was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in Yorkshire. A gathering of national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle. The younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded managed to join Oliver Cromwell, one of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed in the action. But the Marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs, the city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted to the Parliament. In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still strong, the war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform. This involved the removal of the Earl of Essex from the supreme command and this was followed by the New Model Ordinance, which replaced the locally raised Parliamentary regiments with a unified army. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater, the whole west was soon reduced. Fairfax arrived in London on 12 November 1645, in his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, in January 1647 he was delivered up by the Covenanters to the commissioners of Englands parliament
Thomas Fairfax
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Thomas Fairfax
–
Sir Thomas Fairfax, Knight, line engraving, 1680.
National Portrait Gallery, London
Thomas Fairfax
–
Doublet worn by Fairfax at the
Battle of Maidstone in 1648
Thomas Fairfax
–
Gold medal depicting Thomas Fairfax in profile, 1645.
National Portrait Gallery, London
13.
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
–
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, KG, KB, FRS was an important commander of Parliamentary forces in the First English Civil War, and for a time Oliver Cromwells superior. Montagu accompanied Prince Charles during his 1623 trip to Habsburg Spain in pursuit of the Spanish Match and he was Member of Parliament for Huntingdonshire in the Happy Parliament of 1623–24, the Useless Parliament of 1625, and the Parliament of 1625–26. At the time of Charles Is coronation in February 1626, he was made a Knight of the Bath to reward him for his service to Charles in Spain. His first wife, who was related to the Duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne Rich, daughter of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before Parliament in the autumn of 1644 and in April the following year, anticipating the Self-denying Ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He opposed the trial of the king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth but after the Restoration, in 1667 he was made a General, and he died on 5 May 1671. Manchester was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1661, men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married, leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Robert, 3rd Earl of Manchester. One of his daughters Lady Anne Montagu married her second cousin Robert Rich, 5th Earl of Warwick and he is inaccurately depicted sitting in the House of Commons in Cromwells presence although he had been a member of the Lords since 1626. Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, Oxford,1839 Lord Clarendon, Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, Lord High Chancellor of England and Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Oxford,1827 SR Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, london, 1886–1891 The Quarrel between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, documents collected by J. Bruce, with a historical preface completed by D. M. Masson. London,1875 Sir Philip Warwick, Memoires of the Reigne of King Charles I and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
–
Portrait of the Earl of Manchester by
Sir Peter Lely, circa 1661-1665
14.
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
–
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, KB, PC was an English Parliamentarian and soldier during the first half of the 17th century. With the start of the English Civil War in 1642 he became the first Captain-General and Chief Commander of the Parliamentarian army, however, he was unable and unwilling to score a decisive blow against the Royalist army of King Charles I. He was eventually overshadowed by the ascendancy of Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Fairfax, Robert Devereux was the son and heir of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, the courtier and soldier from the later reign of Queen Elizabeth I. His mother was Frances Walsingham, the daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham. He was born at the home of his grandmother, Lady Walsingham, in Seething Lane and he was educated at Eton College and Merton College, Oxford, being created MA by the university in 1605. The 2nd Earl led a rebellion against Elizabeth in 1601. He was subsequently executed for treason and the family lost its title, however, King James I chose to restore it after he became King of England. In 1604, Robert Devereux became the 3rd Earl of Essex, the young earl became a close friend of Henry Stuart, Prince of Wales, who was three years Essexs junior. Essex was married at age 13 to the 14-year-old Frances Howard, he was sent on a European tour from 1607 to 1609. Meanwhile, his wife began an affair with Robert Carr, Viscount Rochester, after Essexs return, Frances sought an annulment on the grounds of impotence. Essex claimed that he was impotent with her and had been perfectly capable with other women, adding that she reviled him, and miscalled him, terming him a cow and coward. The divorce was a spectacle and it made Essex a laughing-stock at court. The annulment was granted on 25 September 1613, and Frances Howard married her lover, Both were condemned to death, but the sentence was never carried out. On 11 March 1630 Essex married Elizabeth Pawlett, daughter of Sir William Pawlett, of Edington, Wiltshire, past High Sheriff of Wiltshire and cousin of William Paulet, 4th Marquess of Winchester. Elizabeth was introduced at Court during the Great Parliament of 1628/29 just after her father died, back from travels in military service on the Continent Robert was also pressured to marry again to show the Court the humiliation from his first marriage could be overcome. This marriage was also a disaster and failed, though not as publicly and they separated in 1631, the Countess remaining at Essex House in the Strand, London, Robert playing soldiers at his estates. There was a son from the union, Robert, styled Viscount Hereford, Elizabeth, through her funeral oration by her second husband Sir Thomas Higgons vigorously denied this. It has recently suggested that Essex suffered from male hormone deficiency, leading to failure to consummate his first marriage
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
–
Portrait of Robert Devereux 3rd Earl of Essex
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
–
Robert Devereux as a child with his mother
Frances Walsingham, countess of Essex by
Robert Peake the elder, 1594
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
–
Frances Howard
Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex
–
Robert Devereux depicted as Captain General on horseback, an engraving by
Wenceslas Hollar
15.
New Model Army
–
The New Model Army of England was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia, to establish a professional officer corps, the armys leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians, many of its common soldiers therefore held Dissenting or radical views unique among English armies. Ultimately, the Armys Generals could rely both on the Armys internal discipline and its religious zeal and innate support for the Good Old Cause to maintain an essentially dictatorial rule. The New Model Army was formed as a result of dissatisfaction among Parliamentarians with the conduct of the Civil War in 1644, there was also increasing dissension among Parliaments generals in the field. Parliament suspected that many of its officers, who were mainly Presbyterians, were inclined to favour peace with King Charles. The Earl of Manchester was one of the prominent members favouring peace, Manchester and Cromwell clashed publicly over this issue several times. Parliaments senior commander, the Earl of Essex, was suspected of lack of determination and was on poor terms with his subordinates. The tensions among the Parliamentarian generals became a public argument after the Second Battle of Newbury. Some of them believed that King Charless army had escaped encirclement after the battle through inaction on the part of some commanders. In response, Parliament directed the Committee of Both Kingdoms, the body that oversaw the conduct of the War. On 19 December, the House of Commons passed the Self-denying Ordinance, originally a separate matter from the establishment of the New Model Army, it soon became intimately linked with it. Once the Self-denying Ordinance became Law, the Earls of Manchester and Essex, on 6 January 1645, the Committee of Both Kingdoms established the New Model Army, appointing Sir Thomas Fairfax as its Captain-General and Sir Philip Skippon as Sergeant-Major General of the Foot. The Self-denying Ordinance took time to pass the House of Lords, although Oliver Cromwell handed over his command of the Armys cavalry when the Ordinance was enacted, Fairfax requested his services when another officer wished to emigrate. Cromwell was commissioned Colonel of Vermuydens former regiment of horse, and was appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse in June, Cromwell and his son-in-law Henry Ireton were two of the only four exceptions to the Self-denying Ordinance, the other two being local commanders in Cheshire and North Wales. They were allowed to serve under a series of temporary commissions that were continually extended. They were intended to reduce the remaining Royalist garrisons in their areas, some of their regiments were reorganised and incorporated into the New Model Army during and after the Second English Civil War. Although the cavalry regiments were well up to strength and there was no shortage of volunteers
New Model Army
–
The Soldier's Catechism: rules, regulations and drill procedures of the New Model Army.
New Model Army
–
Sir
Thomas Fairfax
New Model Army
–
Oliver Cromwell
New Model Army
–
The
Pikeman's Pot was basically a
morion with a lower crown and smaller comb
16.
Scottish people
–
The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders
Scottish people
–
John Wayne was of
Presbyterian Scots-Irish or
Ulster-Scots descent.
Scottish people
Scottish people
–
The Australian city of
Brisbane is named after Scotsman
Thomas Brisbane.
Scottish people
–
Scottish English and
Scottish Gaelic are used on bilingual road signs throughout the Gaelic speaking parts of
Scotland, such as this one, seen in village of
Mallaig.
17.
Puritans
–
Puritanism in this sense was founded as an activist movement within the Church of England. The founders, clergy exiled under Mary I, returned to England shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Puritanism played a significant role in English history during the first half of the 17th century. One of the most effective stokers of anti-Catholic feeling was John Pym, Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system and they largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. Consequently, they became a political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War. Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the Restoration of 1660, the nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England. Puritans by definition were dissatisfied with the extent of the English Reformation. They formed and identified with various groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology and, in sense, were Calvinists. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other established Christian denominations in favor of autonomous gathered churches. The Puritans were never a formally defined sect or religious division within Protestantism, the Congregationalist tradition, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, claims descent from the Puritans. Historically, the word Puritan was considered a term that characterized Protestant groups as extremists. According to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, the dates to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that used it and precisian with the sense of the modern stickler. In modern times, the word puritan is often used to mean against pleasure, in this sense, the term Puritan was coined in the 1560s, when it first appeared as a term of abuse for those who found the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 inadequate. The term Puritan, therefore, was not intended to refer to strict morality, a common modern misunderstanding, the word Puritan was applied unevenly to a number of Protestant churches from the late 16th century onwards. Puritans did not originally use the term for themselves, the practitioners knew themselves as members of particular churches or movements, and not by a single term. Precise men and Precisians were other early derogatory terms for Puritans, seventeenth century English Puritan preacher Thomas Watson used the godly to describe Puritans in the title of one of his more famous works The Godly Mans Picture
Puritans
–
Gallery of famous 17th-century Puritan theologians:
Thomas Gouge,
William Bridge,
Thomas Manton,
John Flavel,
Richard Sibbes,
Stephen Charnock,
William Bates,
John Owen,
John Howe,
Richard Baxter.
Puritans
–
The
Westminster Assembly in a Victorian history painting by
John Rogers Herbert.
Puritans
–
The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light, title page engraved by
Richard Gaywood, ca. 1660
Puritans
–
Cotton Mather, influential New England Puritan minister, portrait by
Peter Pelham.
18.
Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
Presbyterianism
–
John Knox
Presbyterianism
–
Symbol used by the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland. The
burning bush is a common symbol used by Presbyterian churches.
Presbyterianism
–
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by
John Henry Lorimer, 1891.
National Gallery of Scotland.
Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterian
catechising, 19th century
19.
Church of England
–
The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
Church of England
–
Hereford is one of the church's 43 cathedrals; many have histories stretching back centuries
Church of England
Church of England
–
Stained glass window in
Rochester Cathedral, Kent
Church of England
–
Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity
20.
Levellers
–
In contrast to the Diggers, the Levellers opposed common ownership, except in cases of mutual agreement of the property owners. The Levellers came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War, Leveller views and support were found in the populace of the City of London and in some regiments in the New Model Army. The Levellers were not a party in the modern sense of the term. From July 1648 to September 1649, they published a newspaper, The Moderate and they identified themselves by sea-green ribbons worn on their clothing. After Prides Purge and the execution of Charles I, power lay in the hands of the Grandees in the Army, the Levellers, along with all other opposition groups, were marginalised by those in power and their influence waned. By 1650, they were no longer a threat to the established order. The term leveller had been used in 17th-century England as a term of abuse for rural rebels, in the Midland Revolt of 1607, the name was used to refer to those who levelled hedges in enclosure riots. As a political movement, the term first referred to a faction of New Model Army Agitators, but the term was gradually attached to John Lilburne, Richard Overton, and William Walwyn and their faction. Books published in 1647–1648 often reflect this terminological uncertainty, the public identification was largely due to the aspersions by Marchamont Needham, the author of the newspaper Mercurius Pragmaticus. Lilburne, John Wildman and Richard Baxter later thought that Oliver Cromwell, Lilburne considered the term pejorative and called his supporters Levellers so-called and preferred Agitators. The term suggested that the Levellers aimed to bring all down to the lowest common level, the leaders vehemently denied the charge of levelling, but adopted the name because it was how they were known to the majority of people. After their arrest and imprisonment in 1649, four of the Leveller leaders – Walwyn, Overton, Lilburne, the term was used in a letter of 1 November 1647. The 19th-century historian S. R. Gardiner suggested that it existed as a nickname before this date, blair Worden, the most recent historian to publish on the subject, concluded that the 1 November letter was the first recorded use of the term. Worden shows that the term first appeared in print in a book by Charles I called His Majesties Most Gracious Declaration and this tract was a printing of a letter that had been read in the House of Lords on 11 November 1647. Although George Thomason did not date this tract, the last date internal to the document was Saturday 13 November 1647, the Levellers agenda developed in tandem with growing dissent within the New Model Army in the wake of the First Civil War. Col. Lilburne, Walwyn, Overton and Prince appeared in May 1649 and it called for an extension of suffrage to include almost all the adult male population, electoral reform, biennial elections, religious freedom, and an end to imprisonment for debt. It would also have excluded women, most adult women married and, Levellers tended to hold fast to a notion of natural rights that had been violated by the Kings side in the Civil Wars. At the Putney Debates in 1647, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough defended natural rights as coming from the law of God expressed in the Bible, Richard Overton considered that liberty was an innate property of every person
Levellers
–
Plaque commemorating
three Levellers shot by
Oliver Cromwell in
Burford.
Levellers
–
Commemoration plaque for two Levellers in
Gloucester Green,
Oxford.
21.
Christian eschatology
–
Christian eschatology is a major branch of study within Christian theology dealing with the last things. Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology is the study of the destiny of humankind as it is described in the Bible, eschatological passages are found in many places in the Bible, both in the Old and the New Testaments. There are also many examples of eschatological prophecy, as well as church traditions. Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of Tertullian, the word was used first by the Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius but only came into general usage in the 19th century. They are by no means exclusive and are often combined to form a more complete. Most interpretations fit into one, or a combination, of these approaches, Preterism is an approach which sees prophecy as chiefly being fulfilled in the past, especially during the first century. Prophecies in general, therefore, have already been fulfilled, other Preterists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Christianity to survive the persecutions of the Roman Empire. There are two views within Preterism, that of Partial preterism and Full preterism. Preterist beliefs usually have an association with Amillennialism, the belief that the Millennial reign of Christ began during the establishment of the Early Church. Preterists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the siege, Early Preterist theologians included Eusebius and John Chrysostom. Historicism is an approach which sees prophecy as being fulfilled in the past, present and future, specifically, Historists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Protestantism to survive the continuing persecutions of the Papacy. Historists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the period of papal supremacy from 538-1798. The subject of the Revelation to John the apostle was large, Elliott, the first six seals of the book of Revelation outline the temporary prosperity of the Empire of heathen Rome followed by its decline and fall which covers the time period A. D.96 –396. Most prophecies will be fulfilled during a time of chaos known as the Great Tribulation. Futurist beliefs usually have an association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism. Futurist beliefs were presented in the Left Behind series, in Idealism, also known as spiritual or nonliteral approach, the Book of Revelation and other eschatological materials are interpreted symbolically. There were different schools of thought on the afterlife in Israel during the first century, the Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah as authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or any resurrection of the dead. By soul, Seventh-day Adventists theologians mean the person
Christian eschatology
–
Icon of the Second Coming. Greek, ca. 1700 A.D.
22.
Fifth Monarchists
–
The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1660 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies would precede the kingdom of Christ and they also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time, the Fifth Monarchists were one of many groups of Christian believers during and after the English Civil War whose theological beliefs challenged the more mainstream ideas of the day. Specifically, they believed in a theory which maintained that four world rulers had already come. This text recounts a dream by Nebuchadnezzar. The Fifth Monarchists saw themselves as saints of that soon to be dawning millennium. Fifth Monarchists believed that the timing of the events of the Interregnum were significant because the calendar year 1666 loomed large on the near horizon, a number of Fifth Monarchists took a leading part in the events of the time. Thomas Harrison and John Carew were Commissioners at the trial of Charles I, following Charles death, Oliver Cromwell set up the Commonwealth as a more pure form of government to replace the existing monarchy. Cromwell had not intended it but, not long after establishing the Commonwealth, he dismissed the Parliament and became, in effect, a military dictator. Leading Fifth Monarchists also had an influence on Oliver Cromwell, as it was Thomas Harrisons idea to introduce the Nominated Assembly as a body of religious men. However this was not completely the case as a proportion of the assembly were conservative-minded gentry such as Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper. The Republican governments of England were introduced after the English Civil War during the Interregnum, the Commonwealth was founded on the execution of Charles I in 1649, and was followed by the two Protectorates of Oliver Cromwell, and his son Richard Cromwell the first. The Commonwealth was briefly revived, before the restoration of the monarchy in the person of Charles II in May 1660 and they were not at all sure that the majority would be any more compliant than the Rump. The total number of nominees was one hundred and forty, one hundred and twenty-nine from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland. The arrest of Feake and Powell was sufficient for a time to dampen their ardour and this assembly, which met from July until December 1653, was the high-water mark of Fifth Monarchist influence on national politics. The Fifth Monarchists were horrified at the establishment of Cromwells Protectorate, two plots were uncovered and broken up in 1657 and 1659. After the Restoration on 14 October 1660 Major-General Thomas Harrison was the first person to be guilty of the regicide of Charles I. He had been the seventeenth of fifty-nine commissioners to sign the warrant of the king in 1649
Fifth Monarchists
–
Title page of A Brief description of the Fifth Monarchy or Kingdome (1653) by
William Aspinwall.
Fifth Monarchists
–
Ian Bone speaking at the installation of the
Thomas Rainsborough memorial plaque (12 May 2013), championing Thomas Venner and the Fifth Monarchy Men. The banner is a replica of that used by the insurgents at the time.
23.
William Frederick Yeames
–
William Frederick Yeames RA was a British painter best known for his oil-on-canvas problem picture And When Did You Last See Your Father. Which depicts the son of a Royalist being questioned by Parliamentarians during the English Civil War, Yeames was born in Taganrog, Russia, the son of a British consul based in Russia. After the death of his father in 1842, Yeames was sent to school in Dresden where he began studying painting, after a change in the fortunes of his family, they moved to London in 1848. Yeames learnt anatomy and composition from George Scharf and took art lessons from F. A. Westmacott, in 1852 he journeyed to Florence where he studied with Enrico Pollastrini and Raphael Buonajuti. During his time there he painted at the Life School at the Grand Ducal Academy, drawing from frescoes by Andrea del Sarto, Ghirlandaio, continuing on to Rome, he painted landscape studies and copied Old Masters, including the frescoes of Raphael in the Vatican. The group concentrated on subjects of a nature and narrative paintings in which the story was revealed by close study of the actions and expressions of the subjects. In Yeamess work this technique evolved into the known as the problem picture. In 1905 he painted a mural for the Royal Exchange, London The Foundation of St Paul’s School,1509, Yeames married on 18 August 1865 Anne Winfield, daughter of Major James Stainbank Winfield of the East India Company. Yeames managed to overcome this problem and from 1859 exhibited at the Royal Academy and was made an Associate in 1866. Unlike other artist circles of the time, the St Johns Wood Clique did not lead a lifestyle, Yeames took holidays at Hever Castle. He and Goodall specialized in Tudor and Stuart subjects, but did not always portray the events they depicted with historical accuracy - instead using them as inspiration and he died in Teignmouth, Devon on 3 May 1918. In 2000, a plaque commemorating Yeames was installed at his former home,8 Campbell Road, Hanwell, London. The oil-on-canvas picture, painted in 1878, depicts a scene in an imaginary Royalist household during the English Civil War, the Parliamentarians have taken over the house and question the son about his Royalist father. Yeames was inspired to paint the picture to show the crises that could arise from the natural frankness of young children. Here, if the boy tells the truth he will endanger his father, the boy in the pictures is based on Thomas Gainsboroughs painting The Blue Boy. It was modelled by Yeames nephew, James Lambe Yeames, behind the boy, there is a girl, probably the daughter, waiting her turn to be questioned. The girl was based on Yeames niece, Mary Yeames, at the back of the hall the mother and elder daughter wait anxiously on the boys reply. The painting is at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, having been bought in 1878, madame Tussauds in London has a life-size waxwork tableau of the scene, faithfully reproduced from the painting
William Frederick Yeames
–
Portrait by
David Wilkie Wynfield
William Frederick Yeames
–
Amy Robsart (1877) Yeames favoured Tudor and Stuart subjects and was fascinated by the events surrounding the death of
Amy Robsart.
William Frederick Yeames
–
"And When Did You Last See Your Father?" (1878)
24.
Ringlet (haircut)
–
A ringlet is a type of hairstyle. Ringlets are often known as tube curls or corkscrew curls. It is achieved by wrapping a lock of hair around the length of a curling iron or can be sported naturally by people with sufficiently tightly curled hair. The curls can also be achieved by hair rollers, loose ringlets can be created just by twisting wet hair as well. Orthodox Jewish men wear payots, which may be curled as ringlets
Ringlet (haircut)
–
The Empress Eugenie Surrounded by Her Ladies in Waiting by Franz Winterhalter. Several of the women are wearing their hair in ringlets
25.
Elizabeth I of England
–
Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
Elizabeth I of England
–
The "Darnley Portrait" of Elizabeth I (
c. 1575)
Elizabeth I of England
–
The Lady Elizabeth in about 1546, by an unknown artist
Elizabeth I of England
–
The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a translation from the French, by Elizabeth, presented to
Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherine Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth.
Elizabeth I of England
–
Mary I, by
Anthonis Mor, 1554
26.
Westminster
–
Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Historically the area lay within St Margarets parish, City & Liberty of Westminster and it has been the home of the permanent institutions of Englands government continuously since about 1200 and is now the seat of British government. In a government context, Westminster often refers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the closest tube stations are Westminster, St Jamess Park on the Jubilee, Circle, and District lines. Within the area is Westminster School, a public school which grew out of the Abbey. Bounding Westminster to the north is Green Park, a Royal Park of London, the area has a substantial resident population, indeed most of its listed buildings are residential. A proportion of residents are people of limited means, living in council, hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist nearer to Buckingham Palace. The name describes an area no more than 1 mile from Westminster Abbey, the settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a church, St Margarets Westminster for the servants of the palace. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a local government unit until created as a civil parish. Indeed, the Cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, as such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised. The historic core of Westminster is the former Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built, the abbey became the traditional venue of the coronation of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson onwards. From about 1200, near the abbey, the Palace of Westminster became the royal residence, marked by the transfer of royal treasury. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and Englands law courts, thus London developed two focal points, the City of London and Westminster. The monarchs later moved to St James Palace and the Palace of Whitehall a little towards the north-east, the main law courts have since moved to the Royal Courts of Justice. The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex, the ancient parish was St Margaret, after 1727 this became the civil parish of St Margaret and St John, the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter surrounded by —, until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John, which was based at Westminster City Hall in Caxton Street from 1883. The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields, Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction
Westminster
–
The
Palace of Westminster
Westminster
–
Western façade of
Westminster Abbey
Westminster
–
Bird's Eye Picture of Westminster in 1909
Westminster
27.
John Rushworth
–
John Rushworth was an English lawyer, historian and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1657 and 1685. He compiled a series of works covering the English Civil Wars throughout the 17th century called Historical Collections, Rushworth was born at Acklington Park in Warkworth, Northumberland, the son of Lawrence Rushworth and his wife Margaret Cuthbert, daughter of the vicar of Carnaby in Yorkshire. His father was a landowner and Justice of the Peace at Heath. Rushworth was a solicitor at Berwick on Tweed from 1638 and entered Lincolns Inn in 1640. He also began work as assistant at the House of Commons in 1640, assisting Henry Elsynge, Clerk of the House of Commons. Rushworth followed the lead of John Pym who, in a speech in the House of Commons on 17 April 1640, attacked the King and his government for problems within the country. After the outbreak of the Civil War, Rushworth as an embedded journalist followed the battles of Edge Hill, Newbury, Marston Moor, in 1645 he became secretary to Thomas Fairfax, commander-in-chief of the New Model Army. When Charles I was captured, Rushworth began to record details of events leading up to, during and following the trial and he reported the Battle of Preston and the Battle of Worcester. Following the execution of Charles I in 1649, Rushworth became personal secretary to Oliver Cromwell and he began drafting plans for the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords, and the establishment of an English Republic under the leadership of Cromwell. When Cromwell became Lord Protector in 1653, Rushworth was promoted to Registrar of the Court of Admiralty, in 1657 he was elected Member of Parliament for Berwick in the Second Protectorate Parliament. As a member of the Cromwellian government he enjoyed the friendships of John Milton, John Owen, John Bunyan, when Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658, his son Richard Cromwell became Lord Protector. Rushworth was re-elected MP for Berwick in the Third Protectorate Parliament and he completed his written histories of the period and dedicated them to Richard Cromwell. He was re-elected MP for Bewick in the Convention Parliament in 1660, negotiations were then undertaken with the son of Charles I to return to England as its king, subject to the rule of Parliament. When Charles II took to the throne and restored the monarchy, in September 1667, when Sir Orlando Bridgeman was made lord-keeper, he appointed Rushworth his secretary. Rushworth was elected MP for Berwick again in March 1679 for the First Exclusion Parliament and he was returned again in March 1681, Rushworth and seems to have supported the Whig leaders. Though he had held posts and had inherited an estate from his cousin, Sir Richard Tempest. He was buried in St. Georges Church, Southwark, wood states that Rushworth died at the age of eighty-three, but in a letter written in 1675 Rushworth describes himself as sixty-three at that date. While John Rushworth was remembered as a person, his writings found favour in America where they served as a source of inspiration for Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson bought a copy of Rushworths Historical Collections for use in his own library and he often quoted from them
John Rushworth
–
John Rushworth.
28.
Richard Baxter
–
Richard Baxter was an English Puritan church leader, poet, hymn-writer, theologian, and controversialist. Dean Stanley called him the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen, after some false starts, he made his reputation by his ministry at Kidderminster, and at around the same time began a long and prolific career as theological writer. After the Restoration he refused preferment, while retaining a non-separatist Presbyterian approach, Baxter was born at Rowton, Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, and baptised at its then parish church at High Ercall. In February 1626 he was removed to his parents home in Eaton Constantine, richards early education was poor, being mainly in the hands of the local clergy, themselves virtually illiterate. He was helped by John Owen, master of the school at Wroxeter, where he studied from about 1629 to 1632. On Owens advice he did not proceed to Oxford, but went to Ludlow Castle to read with Richard Wickstead, chaplain to the Council of Wales and he was confirmed in the decision by the death of his mother. In about 1634, he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, in 1638, Baxter became master of the free grammar school at Dudley, where he commenced his ministry, having been ordained and licensed by John Thornborough, Bishop of Worcester. Baxter remained at Bridgnorth for nearly two years, during which time he took a special interest in the relating to Nonconformity. He soon became alienated from the Church on several matters, and after the requirement of the et cetera oath and he became a moderate Nonconformist, and continued as such throughout his life. Though regarded as a Presbyterian, he was not exclusively tied to Presbyterianism, All forms of church government were regarded by him as subservient to the true purposes of religion. One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to reform the clergy, with this view, among the complainants were the inhabitants of Kidderminster. The vicar George Dance agreed that he would give £60 a year, out of his income of £200, Baxter was invited to deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected as the minister of St Mary and All Saints Church, Kidderminster. This happened in April 1641, when he was twenty-six and his ministry continued, with many interruptions, for about 19 years, and during that time he accomplished many reforms in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood. He formed the ministers in the country around him into an association, uniting them irrespective of their differences as Presbyterians, Episcopalians, the Reformed Pastor was a book which Baxter published in relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. On 23 October 1642, he was preaching at Alcester, during the Battle of Edgehill and he returned, but only to be driven out again. There he found himself no fewer than 30 fugitive ministers, among whom were Richard Vines, Anthony Burges, John Bryan. He officiated each Sunday as chaplain to the garrison, preaching a sermon each to the soldiery, including on the congregants were Sir Richard Skeffington, Colonel Godfrey Bosvile, George Abbot the layman scholar, and others. After the Battle of Naseby he took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Edward Whalleys regiment, during these stormy years he wrote his Aphorisms of Justification, which on its appearance in 1649, excited great controversy
Richard Baxter
–
Richard Baxter
Richard Baxter
–
Title page of a 1657 edition of The Reformed Pastor.
Richard Baxter
–
18th-century engraving of Richard Baxter, after a 17th-century portrait by John Riley.
Richard Baxter
–
Richard Baxter Statue at St Mary's Church, Kidderminster
29.
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria of France was queen consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of his two successors, Charles II and James II. Her Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in an Anglican service, the execution of King Charles in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris, and then returned to England after the Restoration of her eldest son, Charles, in 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later. The North American Province of Maryland was named in her honour, Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, Marie de Medici. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, in England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Catholic, as daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon. She was the youngest sister of the future King Louis XIII of France and her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, in Paris, before she was a year old. Henrietta was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills, the princess was heavily influenced by the Carmelites at French court. By 1622, Henrietta was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, Henrietta Maria and Charles I of England were married on 13 June 1625, during a brief period in which Englands pro-Spanish policy was replaced by a pro-French policy. After an initial period, she and Charles formed an extremely close partnership. Henrietta never fully assimilated herself into English society, she did not speak English before her marriage, Charles was outraged, and upon returning to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles looked to France instead, the English agent Kensington was sent to Paris in 1624 to examine the potential French match, and the marriage was finally negotiated in Paris by James Hay and Henry Rich. Henrietta was aged just 15 at the time of her marriage, views on Henriettas appearance vary, her husbands niece, Sophia of Hanover commented that the. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and she did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion. Henrietta married Charles by proxy on 11 May 1625, shortly after his accession to the throne and they were then married in person at St. Henrietta was allowed to watch Charles being crowned, at a discreet distance. Henrietta had strong Catholic beliefs, which would influence her time as queen. Charles liked to call Henrietta Maria simply Maria, with the English people calling her Queen Mary, in due course, Henrietta would unsuccessfully try to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Portrait by
Anthony van Dyck
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Signature
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria as a young princess of France
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria and King Charles I with their two eldest surviving sons,
Charles, Prince of Wales, and
James, Duke of York, painted by
Anthony van Dyck, 1633. The greyhound symbolises the marital fidelity between Charles and Henrietta.
30.
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford was an English statesman and a major figure in the period leading up to the English Civil War. He served in Parliament and was a supporter of King Charles I, from 1632–40 he was Lord Deputy of Ireland, where he established a strong authoritarian rule. Recalled to England, he became an advisor to the King, attempting to strengthen the royal position against Parliament. When Parliament condemned him to death, Charles signed the death warrant, Thomas Wentworth was born on 13 April 1593 in London. He was the son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth Woodhouse, near Rotherham, a member of an old Yorkshire family, in 1622 Wentworths first wife Margaret Clifford died. He represented Pontefract in the Happy Parliament of 1624, but appears to have no active part. He expressed a wish to avoid complications and do first the business of the commonwealth. Yet he had never taken up an attitude of antagonism to the King and his position was very different from that of the regular opposition. He was anxious to serve the Crown, but he disapproved of the Kings policy, in January 1626 Wentworth asked for the presidency of the Council of the North, and was favourably received by Buckingham. In 1627, he refused to contribute to the forced loan, in 1628, Wentworth was one of the more vocal supporters of the Petition of Right, which attempted to curb the power of the King. Once Charles had accepted the Petition, Wentworth felt it appropriate to support the crown, saying The authority of a king is the keystone which closeth up the arch of order and he was consequently branded a turncoat. In the parliament of 1628, Wentworth joined the leaders in resistance to arbitrary taxation and imprisonment. He led the movement for a bill which would have secured the liberties of the subject as completely as the Petition of Right afterwards did, but in a manner less offensive to the King. Later in the session he quarrelled with Eliot, because he wanted to come to a compromise with the Lords, so as to leave room for the King to act unchecked in special emergencies. On 22 July 1628, not long after the prorogation, Wentworth was created Baron Wentworth and this implied no change of principle. When once the breach was made it naturally grew wider, partly from the each party put into its work. As yet Wentworth was not directly involved in the government of the country, however, following the assassination of Buckingham, in December 1628, he became Viscount Wentworth and not long afterwards president of the Council of the North. Whoever, he said, ravels forth into questions the right of a king and of a people shall never be able to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found them
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
Thomas Wentworth, about 1639, portrait after
van Dyck.
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
1698 bookplate of Thomas Wentworth.
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford in an Armour, 1639, another portrait by Sir
Anthony van Dyck.
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
–
The Earl of Strafford with his secretary, Sir
Philip Mainwaring
31.
John Pym
–
John Pym was an English parliamentarian, leader of the Long Parliament and a prominent critic of Kings James I and then Charles I. He was one of the Five Members whose attempted arrest by King Charles I in the House of Commons of England in 1642 sparked the Civil War, in addition to this Pym went ahead and started to accuse William Laud of trying to convert England back to Catholicism. Pym was born in Brymore, Cannington, Somerset, into minor nobility and his father died when he was very young and his mother remarried, to Sir Anthony Rous. Pym was educated in law at Broadgates Hall in 1599 and went on to the Middle Temple in 1602. In May 1614, he married Anne Hooke of Bramshott in Hampshire, aunt of Robert Hooke and daughter of John Hooke and Anthony Rouss sister Barbara, who bore five of his children. This marriage established Pym as a member of the Rous circle and he entered politics through the influence of the Earl of Bedford, working for the Exchequer in Wiltshire before entering Parliament for Calne, Wiltshire in 1614. Despite his Puritanism he gained a reputation in Parliament, although he was relentless in his campaigning against Roman Catholics. After the dissolution of Parliament in 1621 he was one of those placed under house-arrest in January 1622, in 1624 he changed his seat, representing Tavistock, Devon, for the rest of his career. In 1626 he was one of the movers of the attempted impeachment of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. He also supported Edward Coke who presented the Petition of Right to Charles in 1628, Charles I later granted Maynwaring and Sibthorpe royal pardons and signaled his support by naming Sibthorpe a royal chaplain. In the interval between Parliaments he was treasurer of the Providence Island Company from 1630, linking him to a small, intense group of Puritan opponents to the King. In the Short Parliament of 13 April to 4 May 1640 he made one of the speeches that led to its dissolution, what would become the Long Parliament first met in November 1640—Pym had avoided an accusation of treason and rose to leader of the opposition to the king. He was notable in defending the powers of Parliament, he initiated the attacks on the Earl of Strafford and William Laud. It is probable that he used popular supporters to stage riots. However, many moderate Members of Parliament were alienated by the radical momentum, led by the Puritan opposition to Charles I. Pym was one of Five Members sought for arrest when the King entered the House of Commons on 5 January 1642 but, forewarned, they had already fled, to return to some acclamation a week later. This shows how great an emphasis Charles placed on Pyms leadership of the Puritan opposition group, when the English Civil War began in 1642, Pym became involved in solving the financial problems of the Parliamentary side, heading the Committee of Safety from 4 July 1642. These two things laid firm foundations for Parliaments success in 1645–6 because it now had financial and military resources far beyond those of the Royalists, Pym died, probably of cancer, at Derby House on 8 December 1643 and was buried in Westminster Abbey
John Pym
–
John Pym.
32.
Charles II of England
–
Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
Charles II of England
–
Charles II in the robes of the
Order of the Garter, by
John Michael Wright or studio, c. 1660–1665
Charles II of England
–
Charles II as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to
Justus van Egmont
Charles II of England
–
Portrait by
William Dobson, c. 1642 or 1643
Charles II of England
–
"The Scots Holding Their Young King's Nose To the Grindstone", from a satirical English pamphlet
33.
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon was an English statesman who served as Lord Chancellor to King Charles II from 1658, two years before the Restoration of the Monarchy, until 1667. He was loyal to the king and built-up the royalist cause and he was one of the most important historians of England, as author of the most influential contemporary history of the Civil War, The History of the Rebellion. He was the grandfather of two monarchs, Queen Mary II and Queen Anne. Hyde was the son of Henry Hyde of Dinton and Purton. Henrys brother was Sir Lawrence Hyde, Attorney General, the family of Hyde was long established at Norbury in Cheshire. Hyde was fond of his mother and idolised his father, whom he called the best father, the best friend, and the wisest man I have known. He was educated at Gillingham School, and in 1622 entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, having been rejected by Magdalen College, Oxford, and graduated BA in 1626. Intended originally for holy orders in the Church of England, the death of two brothers made him his fathers heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple to study law. Of the most excellent men in their several kinds that lived in that age and these included Ben Jonson, John Selden, Edmund Waller, John Hales and especially Lord Falkland, who became his best friend. From their influence and the reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning. The diarist Samuel Pepys wrote thirty years later that he never knew anyone who could speak as well as Hyde and he was one of the most prominent members of the famous Great Tew Circle, a group of intellectuals who gathered at Lord Falklands country house Great Tew, Oxfordshire. In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice, both his marriages gained him influential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the Court of Common Pleas. In April 1640, Hyde was elected Member of Parliament for both Shaftesbury and Wootton Bassett in the Short Parliament and chose to sit for Wootton Bassett. Hyde opposed legislation restricting the power of the King to appoint his own advisors, viewing it unnecessary and he gradually moved over towards the royalist side, championing the Church of England and opposing the execution of the Earl of Strafford, Charless primary advisor. Following the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, Hyde became an advisor to the King. He left London about 20 May 1642, and rejoined the king at York, in February 1643, Hyde was knighted and was officially appointed to the Privy Council, the following month he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. Despite his own opposition to the King he found it hard to forgive anyone, even a close friend, who fought for Parliament. His view of the conflict and of his opponents was undoubtedly coloured by the death of his best friend Lord Falkland at the First Battle of Newbury in September 1643
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Edward Hyde in 1626, aged 17, by
Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen, UK Government art collection
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Edward Hyde
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Edward Hyde by
William Dobson, circa 1643
Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
–
Portrait of Edward Hyde by
Jacob van Reesbroeck, 1649-1653
34.
William Laud
–
William Laud was an English archbishop and academic. He was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633, during the rule of Charles I. Arrested in 1640, he was executed in 1645, in matters of church polity, Laud was autocratic. They were precursors to later High Church views, in theology, Laud was accused of being an Arminian and opponent of Calvinism, as well as covertly favouring Roman Catholic doctrines. On all three grounds, he was regarded by Puritan clerics and laymen as a formidable and dangerous opponent, Laud favoured scholars, and was a major collector of manuscripts. He pursued ecumenical contacts with the Greek Orthodox Church, the pun give great praise to the Lord, and little Laud to the devil is a warning to King Charles attributed to Archibald Armstrong, the official court jester. Laud was known to be touchy about his diminutive stature and he was educated at Reading School, and went in 1589 to St Johns College, Oxford, matriculating on 17 October. In 1593 he became a fellow of the college and he graduated B. A. in 1594, M. A. in 1598, and D. D. in 1608. As an undergraduate Laud had for his tutor John Buckeridge, who became president of St Johns in 1605, Laud was ordained deacon on 4 January 1601, and priest on 5 April in the same year. On 4 May 1603 he was one of the proctors for the year, when Buckeridge left St Johns in 1611, Laud succeeded him as President, but only after a hard patronage struggle reaching high court circles. The rival candidate, John Rawlinson, was chaplain to Lord Ellesmere, Laud was chaplain to Richard Neile, who was Clerk of the Closet. Eventually King James brushed aside irregularities in the election, settling matters in Lauds favour, Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616. At Gloucester Cathedral he began ceremonial innovations with the communion table, by local custom, the table stood in the middle of the choir, as was then usual in a parish church, rather than at the east end as was typical of cathedrals. Laud believed he had the blessing to renovate and improve the run-down building. Neile attempted, but could not obtain, Lauds appointment as Dean of Westminster, but at the end of 1621, and despite the kings view of Laud as a troublemaker, Laud received the relatively lowly see as the Bishop of St Davids. Laud became a confidant of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham at the end of the reign, the Buckingham household employed John Percy, a Jesuit, as chaplain, and the king wished to counter well-founded rumours that Percy was making Catholic converts there. In a three-day series of debates with Percy in 1622, Laud was introduced to argue the Protestant case on the final day. He then displaced John Preston as religious adviser to the Duke, historians believe Laud had homosexual leanings, which he nevertheless seems to have managed discreetly
William Laud
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The Most Revd William Laud
William Laud
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Altar, c. 1635, the centre of dispute between Puritans and Laudians, possibly consecrated by Laud himself. St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England. Parish of Central Wolverhampton WV1 1TS.
William Laud
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Etching by
Wenceslaus Hollar, Laud being tried for treason, with several people present labelled
William Laud
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Stained glass windows in the Chapter House, Canterbury Cathedral, depicting Henry IV, Henry VIII, Thomas Cranmer and Laud.
35.
Exclusion Crisis
–
The Exclusion Crisis ran from 1679 through 1681 in the reign of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. The Exclusion Bill sought to exclude the Kings brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, the Tories were opposed to this exclusion while the Country Party, who were soon to be called the Whigs, supported it. In 1673, when he refused to take the oath prescribed by the new Test Act and his secretary, Edward Colman, had been named by Titus Oates during the Popish Plot as a conspirator to subvert the kingdom. Formerly the crown of Spain, and now France, supports this root of popery amongst us, but lay popery flat and it is a mere chimera, or notion, without popery. On 15 May 1679, the supporters of Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, a fringe group there began to support the claim to the throne of Charless illegitimate – but Protestant – son, the Duke of Monmouth. As it seemed likely that the bill would pass in the House of Commons, successive Parliaments attempted to pass such a bill, and were likewise dissolved. Shaftesburys party, beginning to be known as the Whigs, involved the country in a mass movement. Every November, on the anniversary of Elizabeth Is accession, they organised huge processions in London in which the Pope was burnt in effigy. The Kings supporters were able to muster their own propaganda in the form of memories of the regime of the Commonwealth government of Oliver Cromwell. Despite two failed attempts to reestablish Parliament and pass the bill, the King succeeded in labelling the Whigs as subversives and as closet nonconformists. By 1681, in the course of the Exclusion Bill Parliament, the movement had died down. Religion in the United Kingdom British monarchy Popery
Exclusion Crisis
–
Portrait of
the Duke of York as
Lord High Admiral of England. In 1673, the Duke of York, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned as Lord High Admiral rather than take the anti-Catholic oath prescribed by the
Test Act.
Exclusion Crisis
–
Engraving showing "A Solemn Mock Procession of the Pope" held in London on 17 November 1680. The Whigs arranged to have effigies of the Pope,
cardinals,
friars, and
nuns paraded through the streets of London and then burned in a large bonfire.
Exclusion Crisis
–
The Earl of Shaftesbury, the leader of the Whigs who introduced the Exclusion Bill in the House of Commons on 15 May 1679.
36.
Whigs (British political party)
–
The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
Whigs (British political party)
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Equestrian portrait of William III by
Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688
Whigs (British political party)
–
John Somers, 1st Baron Somers
Whigs (British political party)
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In A Block for the Wigs (1783), caricaturist
James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.
37.
Tory
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A Tory holds a political philosophy based on a British version of traditionalism and conservatism, which upholds the supremacy of social order as it has evolved throughout history. The Tory ethos has been summed up with the phrase God, King, Tories generally advocate monarchism, are usually of a high church Anglican religious heritage, and are opposed to the liberalism of the Whig faction. In Britain, the Tory political faction originated with the Cavaliers during the English Civil War and this political philosophy remains prominent in the politics of the United Kingdom, and also appears in parts of the Commonwealth realms, particularly in Canada. It also had exponents in other parts of the former British Empire, under the Corn Laws a majority of Tories supported protectionist agrarianism with tariffs being imposed at the time for higher food prices, self-sufficiency, and enhanced wages in rural employment. There were two Tory ministries after James II came to the throne, the first led by the Earl of Rochester, a significant faction took part in the ousting of James II with the Whigs to defend the Church of England and definitive protestantism. Although only a minority of Tories gave their adhesion to the Jacobite risings, after the advent of the Prime Ministerial system under the Whig Robert Walpole, Lord Butes premiership in the reign of George III marked a revival. Edmund Burke and William Pitt the Younger led the way in this, interventionism and strong armed forces were to prove a hallmark of Toryism under subsequent Prime Ministers. Due to these Tories leading the formation of the Conservative Party, members of that party are referred to as Tories. The word Tory derives from the Middle Irish word tóraidhe, modern Irish tóraí, outlaw, robber or brigand, from the Irish word tóir, meaning pursuit and it was originally used to refer to a Rapparee and later applied to Confederates or Cavaliers in arms. The term was originally a term of abuse, an Irish rebel. Towards the end of Charles IIs reign there was debate about whether or not his brother, James, Duke of York. Whigs, originally a reference to Scottish cattle-drivers, was the term directed at those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. Those who were not prepared to exclude James were labelled Abhorrers, the suffix -ism was quickly added to both Whig and Tory to make Whiggism and Toryism, meaning the principles and methods of each faction. Historically, the term Tory has been applied in ways to loyalists of the British monarchy. During the Exclusion Crisis, the word Tory was applied in Kingdom of England as a nickname to the opponents of the bill, the word Tory had connotations of Papist and outlaw derived from its previous use in Ireland. Since 1832, the term Tory is commonly used to refer to the Conservative Party, the term Tory or Loyalist was used in the American Revolution for those who remained loyal to the British Crown. Since early in the 18th century, Tory had described those upholding the right of the King over Parliament, during the war of independence, particularly after the Declaration of Independence in 1776 this use was extended to cover anyone who remained loyal to the British Crown. About 80% of the Loyalists remained in the United States after the war, the 60,000 or so Loyalists who settled in Quebec, the Bahamas, or returned to Great Britain after the American War of Independence are known as United Empire Loyalists
Tory
–
Lord Rochester was the first Tory to lead a
Ministry in the
Parliament of England
Tory
–
Lord Belasyse was the second Tory to lead a Ministry
Tory
–
Mobbing the Tories by American Patriots in 1775–76; the Tory is about to be tarred and feathered
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
39.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
40.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Anonymous (1911). "Roundhead". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 772.
