1.
Surgery
–
An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery, e. g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse, the patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery and an assistant is a person who practices surgical assistance. A surgical team is made up of surgeon, surgeons assistant, anesthesia provider, circulating nurse, Surgery usually spans minutes to hours, but it is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, Surgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues. As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patients tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound, surgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation. Based on timing, Elective surgery is done to correct a condition, and is carried out at the patients request, subject to the surgeons. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. Based on purpose, Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis, therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. By type of procedure, Amputation involves cutting off a part, usually a limb or digit. Resection is the removal of all or part of an organ or part of the body. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part, reconstructive surgery involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Excision is the cutting out or removal of an organ, tissue, transplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery. By body part, When surgery is performed on one system or structure. Examples include cardiac surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, and orthopedic surgery, by contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest
Surgery
–
Operations
Surgery
Surgery
–
Plates vi & vii of the
Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Egyptian surgical treatise
Surgery
–
Sushruta, the author of
Sushruta Samhita, one of the oldest texts on surgery
2.
England and Wales
–
The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
England and Wales
–
The Roman province of
Britannia in 410
England and Wales
–
Location of England and Wales (dark green) – in
Europe (green & dark grey) – in the
United Kingdom (green)
England and Wales
–
The
Royal Courts of Justice of England and Wales
3.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
4.
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England
–
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England is a medical journal published eight times a year by the College, in January, March, April, May, July, September, October and November. The sister journal of the Annals is the Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, the Annals publishes peer reviewed papers on all branches of surgery, with emphasis on clinical research. It also includes, letters and comments, a section, news from NICE, discussion of controversial topics, CORESS feedback. There is in addition a selection of presentations from England. The editorial board consists of members of the College Council and experts from surgical specialties, the current Editor-in-Chief of the Annals is Tim Lane. Back issues from one year ago or more are archived on PubMed Central, current and recent issues can be accessed online via Ingenta Connect. The ISSN for the Annals is, 0035-8843 As of 2014 the impact factor for the Annals is 1.268, the journal is indexed in PubMed and Science Citation Index. Annals on Royal College of Surgeons of England website
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England
–
Royal College of Surgeons of England,
Lincoln's Inn Fields
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England
–
Royal College of Surgeons, Court of Examiners (1894) by
Henry Jamyn Brooks
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England
–
The main exhibit room, Hunterian Museum, woodblock engraving by T.H.Shepperd & E.Radclyffe, London, 1853 (Dr. Nuno Carvalho de Sousa collection, Lisbon)
Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England
–
The skeleton of the seven and a half foot (231cm) tall "Irish Giant" is visible in the middle of this image.
5.
Henry Jamyn Brooks
–
Henry Jamyn Brooks was a British painter, particularly known for his pictures of meetings and events, in which many individuals are personally identifiable. He painted royalty, and portraits of leaders and military people. Brooks died in Essex in 1925, in 1886, his business address was 7 Trafalgar Studios, Manresa Road, Kings Road in south-west London. His painting Private View of the Old Masters Exhibition, Royal Academy,1888 features sixty-six people, other notable people are critic John Ruskin, banker Alfred de Rothschild, and prime minister William Ewart Gladstone. In 1914, he recalled the circumstances in which the work was conceived, during one of the sittings, Mr Brock and I were talking about Mr Friths group representing a Private View at the Royal Academy. I observed that I would like to try my skill and see whether I could produce an Artistic picture of some similar scene, Mr Brock suggested a picture of the Private View at the Old Masters Exhibition. I thought this an excellent subject possessing great artistic possibilities and he donated the painting to the National Portrait Gallery in 1919. The reception had been held at Buckingham Palace in 1897, as part of Victorias Diamond Jubilee celebrations. He also painted Victoria, near the end of her reign, in a work called Queen Victorias Last Ceremony, in which she was shown receiving Lord Roberts, the painting was exhibited at Graves Galleries, Pall Mall, in London in June 1901, following her death. The admission charged was one shilling and he reportedly sent each of the people to be depicted a postcard on which they were requested to supply details such as hair colour, height and what they were wearing at the event. Bénézit Dictionary of Artists, English Edition, originally published in French, in 1911. John Ruskin, A Life in Pictures, a Vision of Modern Science, John Tyndall and the Role of the Scientist in Victorian Culture. Artistic Circles, Design & Decoration in the Aesthetic Movement, harry N. Abrams,1 June 2010. The Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, Royal College of Surgeons of England. Catalogue of portraits and busts in the Royal College of Surgeons of England with short biographical notices, Painting the Digital River, How an Artist Learned to Love the Computer. 1200–1976, London, Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, Witt Library authority files, Courtauld Institute of Art. 15 Painting by or after Henry Jamyn Brooks at the Art UK site
Henry Jamyn Brooks
–
Jamyn Brooks in
The Tatler, 1902
Henry Jamyn Brooks
–
The First Meeting of the London County Council in the County Hall Spring Gardens, 1889, oil on canvas, 194 x 368 cm, City of London Corporation collection
Henry Jamyn Brooks
–
Alderman Nathaniel Chapple, Mayor of Torrington (1871, 1879 & 1889), oil on canvas, 90.4 x 69.4 cm, Great Torrington Almshouse, Town Lands and Poors Charities collection
6.
Surgeons
–
In medicine, a surgeon is a doctor who performs operations. Surgeons may be physicians, podiatrists, dentists, or veterinarians, the first person to document a surgery was the 6th Century BC Indian physician-surgeon, Sushrutha. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon to have appeared from the Islamic World and his greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. He was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, in Europe, surgery was mostly associated with barber-surgeons who also used their hair-cutting tools to undertake surgical procedures, often at the battlefield and also for their royal paymasters. In 1950, the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London began to offer surgeons a formal status via RCS membership. The distinction of Mr is also used by surgeons in the Republic of Ireland, Australia, Barbados, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe, in many English-speaking countries the military title of surgeon is applied to any medical practitioner, due to the historical evolution of the term. Some physicians who are general practitioners or specialists in medicine or emergency medicine may perform limited ranges of minor, common. Anesthesia often accompanies surgery, and anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists may oversee this aspect of surgery, Surgeons assistant, surgical nurses, surgical technologists and operating department practitioners are trained professionals who support surgeons. Sushruta Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Charles Kelman William Stewart Halsted Alfred Blalock C
Surgeons
–
The Gross Clinic, 1875,
Philadelphia Museum of Art and the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts
Surgeons
–
Russian surgeon Nikolay Pirogov - a pioneer of
field surgery
Surgeons
–
Victor Horsley pioneered
neurosurgery
7.
Barber surgeons
–
The barber surgeon is one of the most common medical practitioners of medieval Europe — generally charged with looking after soldiers during or after a battle. In this era, surgery was not generally conducted by physicians, in the Middle Ages in Europe barbers would be expected to do anything from cutting hair to amputating limbs. Mortality of surgery at the time was high due to loss of blood. Doctors of the Middle Ages thought that blood would help cure the patient of sickness so the barber would apply leeches to the patient. Physicians tended to be academics, working in universities, and mostly dealt with patients as an observer or a consultant and they considered surgery to be beneath them. They often took up residence in castles where they also provided assistance to the wealthy. Due to religious and sanitary regulations, monks had to maintain their tonsure. This created a market for barbers, because each monastery had to train or hire a barber and they would perform bloodletting and other minor surgeries like pulling teeth or creating ointments. The first barber surgeons to be recognized as such worked in monasteries around 1000 A. D, in 1254, Bruno di Longoburgo, a physician who wrote on surgery, was concerned about barbers performing phlebotomies and scarifications. In Paris, disputes between doctors led to the patronage of barbers. The short-robed doctors were bitter because the long-robed physicians behaved pretentiously and this secret deal existed from around the time of the founding of St. Cosme in 1210 until 1499, when the group of surgeon barbers asked for their own cadaver to perform their anatomical demonstrations. In 1660, the barber surgeons eventually recognized the physicians dominance, in Italy, barbers were not as common. The Salerno medical school trained physicians to be competent surgeons, as did the schools in Bologna, in Florence, physicians and surgeons were separated, but the Florentine Statute concerning the Art of Physicians and Pharmacists in 1349 gave barbers an inferior legal status compared to surgeons. Formal recognition of their skills back to 1540, when the Fellowship of Surgeons merged with the Company of Barbers. However, the trade was put under pressure by the medical profession and in 1745. In 1800 a Royal Charter was granted to this company and the Royal College of Surgeons in London came into being, few traces of barbers links with the surgical side of the medical profession remain. One is the red and white barbers pole, or a modified instrument from a blacksmith. Another link is the British use of the title Mr rather than Dr by surgeons and they no longer perform haircuts, a task the barbers have retained
Barber surgeons
–
Franz Anton Maulbertsch's The Quack (c. 1785) shows barber surgeons at work.
Barber surgeons
–
Bloodletting -Set of a barber surgeon, beginning of 19th Century.,
Märkisches Museum Berlin
Barber surgeons
–
Master
John Banister 's Anatomical Tables, with Figures. The paintings comprise a portrait of Banister delivering a visceral lecture at the
Barber-Surgeons' Hall, Monkwell Street, London. c. 1580
8.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
Henry VIII of England
–
King Henry VIII by
Hans Holbein the Younger,
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry's childhood copy of
De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne".
Henry VIII of England
–
An Illumination from a contemporary manuscript thought to depict Henry mourning the loss of his mother (1503). His sisters are also pictured.
Henry VIII of England
–
Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his
coronation in 1509
9.
Worshipful Company of Barbers
–
The Worshipful Company of Barbers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London, and ranks 17th in precedence. The first mention of the Barbers Company occurs in 1308, when Richard le Barbour was elected by the Court of Aldermen to keep order amongst his fellows, however, the Barbers Guild retained the power to oversee surgical practices in London. The Barbers Guild continued this oversight after it became, by Royal Charter of 1462, the Fellowship of Surgeons merged with the Barbers Company in 1540 by Act of Parliament to form the Company of Barbers and Surgeons. The Act specified that no surgeon could cut hair or shave another, and that no barber could practice surgery, the barber pole, featuring red and white spiralling stripes, indicated the two crafts. Barbers received higher pay than surgeons until surgeons were entered into British war ships during naval wars, the first Master of the Company of Barbers and Surgeons was the superintendent of St Bartholomews Hospital and royal physician, Thomas Vicary. The presentation of the charter is the subject of a painting by Hans Holbein the Younger, however, with the rising professionalism of surgery, in 1745 the surgeons broke away from the barbers to form the Company of Surgeons, which became the Royal College of Surgeons in 1800. The Company no longer retains an association with the hairdressing profession and it does however retain its links with surgery, principally acting as a charitable institution to the benefit of medical and surgical causes. In modern times, between one-third and one-half of the Companys liverymen are surgeons, dentists or other medical practitioners, the Barbers Hall was established in Monkwell Street in the 14th century. After the licensing of dissection in 1540, public demonstrations took place four times a year in the Great Hall of Barber-Surgeons Hall - with a crowd surrounding a table, attendance was compulsory for all free surgeons. The dissected corpses were buried in the churchyard of St Olaves, by 1568, the Court of Assistants of the Company ordered wooden raised seating to be erected in the Hall during anatomies. By the 17th century, travellers noted that the universities at Padua, inigo Jones was commissioned to design and build one for the Surgeon-Barbers, but died before it was finished. The work was completed by John Webb in 1636, the anatomy theatre was the only Company building to survive the Great Fire of London in 1666. The second Hall was designed by Edward Jarman, whose plan provided a courtyard, the buildings remained substantially the same until 1784 when the anatomy theatre was demolished to make way for housing. On 13 May 1969 the current Hall was opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, the crest is an opinicus - an English heraldic variation of griffin. The supporters are collared and chained lynxes - presumably suggesting the keenness of vision necessary for surgery, the motto is De Praescientia Dei - possibly referring to the uncertain outcomes of the surgeons attention which, good or bad, were attributed to God. Official website Barber Surgeons’ Hall Gardens, London Wall archeological survey March 1997
Worshipful Company of Barbers
–
The Worshipful Company of Barbers
Worshipful Company of Barbers
–
Henry VIII presents the Barber-Surgeons' Company Charter to the first Master,
Thomas Vicary.
Hans Holbein the Younger
10.
Barber
–
A barber is a person whose occupation is mainly to cut, dress, groom, style and shave mens and boys hair. A barbers place of work is known as a shop or a barbers. Barber shops are also places of social interaction and public discourse, in some instances, barbershops are also public forums. They are the locations of open debates, voicing public concerns and they were also influential in helping shape male identity. In previous times, barbers performed surgery and dentistry. With the development of safety razors and the prevalence of beards, in English-speaking cultures. In modern times, the barber is used both as a professional title and to refer to hairdressers who specialize in mens hair. Historically, all hairdressers were considered barbers, in the 20th century, the profession of cosmetology branched off from barbering, and today hairdressers may be licensed as either barbers or cosmetologists. Barbers differ with respect to where they work, which services they are licensed to provide, part of this terminology difference depends on the regulations in a given location. Different states in the US vary on their labor and licensing laws, for example, in Maryland, a cosmetologist cannot use a straight razor, strictly reserved for barbers. In Australia, the term for a barber is hairdresser, barber is only a popular title for mens hairdressers. Most would work in a hairdressing salon, the barbers trade has a long history, razors have been found among relics of the Bronze Age in Egypt. In ancient Egyptian culture, barbers were highly respected individuals, priests and men of medicine are the earliest recorded examples of barbers. Men in Ancient Greece would have their beards, hair, and fingernails trimmed and styled by the κουρεύς, in an agora which also served as a gathering for debates. Barbering was introduced to Rome by the Greek colonies in Sicily in 296 BC, starting from the Middle Ages, barbers often served as surgeons and dentists. In addition to haircutting, hairdressing, and shaving, barbers performed surgery, bloodletting and leeching, fire cupping, enemas, the barber pole, featuring red and white spiraling stripes, symbolized different aspects of the craft. Barbers received higher pay than surgeons until surgeons were entered into British warships during naval wars, some of the duties of the barber included neck manipulation, cleansing of ears and scalp, draining of boils, fistula and lancing of cysts with wicks. Barbershops were influential at the turn of the 19th century as African American businesses that helped to develop African American culture and economy
Barber
–
Edwin Lord Weeks, "The Barber"
Barber
–
A street barber in
Shiraz
Barber
–
Barbershop in
Bucharest around 1842. Woodcut. As shown in this image, the barbershop also provides an opportunity for social contacts.
Barber
–
The barbershop in Fluvanna, Texas, has been restored as part of a pioneer village in
Snyder in
Scurry County in
West Texas.
11.
Royal Charter
–
A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
Royal Charter
–
King's College, now the
University of Toronto, was founded with the issuance of this royal charter
Royal Charter
–
The
Hudson's Bay Company building in
Montreal
Royal Charter
–
The emblem of the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong
12.
Barber-surgeons
–
The barber surgeon is one of the most common medical practitioners of medieval Europe — generally charged with looking after soldiers during or after a battle. In this era, surgery was not generally conducted by physicians, in the Middle Ages in Europe barbers would be expected to do anything from cutting hair to amputating limbs. Mortality of surgery at the time was high due to loss of blood. Doctors of the Middle Ages thought that blood would help cure the patient of sickness so the barber would apply leeches to the patient. Physicians tended to be academics, working in universities, and mostly dealt with patients as an observer or a consultant and they considered surgery to be beneath them. They often took up residence in castles where they also provided assistance to the wealthy. Due to religious and sanitary regulations, monks had to maintain their tonsure. This created a market for barbers, because each monastery had to train or hire a barber and they would perform bloodletting and other minor surgeries like pulling teeth or creating ointments. The first barber surgeons to be recognized as such worked in monasteries around 1000 A. D, in 1254, Bruno di Longoburgo, a physician who wrote on surgery, was concerned about barbers performing phlebotomies and scarifications. In Paris, disputes between doctors led to the patronage of barbers. The short-robed doctors were bitter because the long-robed physicians behaved pretentiously and this secret deal existed from around the time of the founding of St. Cosme in 1210 until 1499, when the group of surgeon barbers asked for their own cadaver to perform their anatomical demonstrations. In 1660, the barber surgeons eventually recognized the physicians dominance, in Italy, barbers were not as common. The Salerno medical school trained physicians to be competent surgeons, as did the schools in Bologna, in Florence, physicians and surgeons were separated, but the Florentine Statute concerning the Art of Physicians and Pharmacists in 1349 gave barbers an inferior legal status compared to surgeons. Formal recognition of their skills back to 1540, when the Fellowship of Surgeons merged with the Company of Barbers. However, the trade was put under pressure by the medical profession and in 1745. In 1800 a Royal Charter was granted to this company and the Royal College of Surgeons in London came into being, few traces of barbers links with the surgical side of the medical profession remain. One is the red and white barbers pole, or a modified instrument from a blacksmith. Another link is the British use of the title Mr rather than Dr by surgeons and they no longer perform haircuts, a task the barbers have retained
Barber-surgeons
–
Franz Anton Maulbertsch's The Quack (c. 1785) shows barber surgeons at work.
Barber-surgeons
–
Bloodletting -Set of a barber surgeon, beginning of 19th Century.,
Märkisches Museum Berlin
Barber-surgeons
–
Master
John Banister 's Anatomical Tables, with Figures. The paintings comprise a portrait of Banister delivering a visceral lecture at the
Barber-Surgeons' Hall, Monkwell Street, London. c. 1580
13.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
–
He is also known for writing the fictional adventures of Professor Challenger, a second character he invented, and for propagating the mystery of the Mary Celeste. He was a writer whose other works include fantasy and science fiction stories, plays, romances, poetry, non-fiction. Doyle is often referred to as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle or simply Conan Doyle and his baptism entry in the register of St Marys Cathedral, Edinburgh, gives Arthur Ignatius Conan as his given names and Doyle as his surname. It also names Michael Conan as his godfather, the cataloguers of the British Library and the Library of Congress treat Doyle alone as his surname. Steven Doyle, editor of the Baker Street Journal, wrote, shortly after he graduated from high school he began using Conan as a sort of surname. But technically his last name is simply Doyle, when knighted, he was gazetted as Doyle, not under the compound Conan Doyle. Nevertheless, the use of a compound surname is demonstrated by the fact that Doyles second wife was known as Jean Conan Doyle rather than Jean Doyle. Doyle was born on 22 May 1859 at 11 Picardy Place, Edinburgh and his father, Charles Altamont Doyle, was English, of Irish Catholic descent, and his mother, Mary, was Irish Catholic. In 1864 the family dispersed because of Charless growing alcoholism, in 1867, the family came together again and lived in squalid tenement flats at 3 Sciennes Place. Doyles father died in 1893, in the Crichton Royal, Dumfries, supported by wealthy uncles, Doyle was sent to England, at the Jesuit preparatory school Hodder Place, Stonyhurst in Lancashire at the age of nine. He then went on to Stonyhurst College until 1875, from 1875 to 1876, he was educated at the Jesuit school Stella Matutina in Feldkirch, Austria. He later rejected the Catholic faith and became an agnostic and he also later became a spiritualist mystic. From 1876 to 1881, Doyle studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, including working in Aston, Sheffield and Ruyton-XI-Towns. During that time, he studied botany at the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. While studying, Doyle began writing short stories and his earliest extant fiction, The Haunted Grange of Goresthorpe, was unsuccessfully submitted to Blackwoods Magazine. His first published piece, The Mystery of Sasassa Valley, a set in South Africa, was printed in Chamberss Edinburgh Journal on 6 September 1879. Doyle was employed as a doctor on the Greenland whaler Hope of Peterhead in 1880 and, C. M. as a ships surgeon on the SS Mayumba during a voyage to the West African coast. He completed his M. D. degree on the subject of tabes dorsalis in 1885, arriving in Portsmouth in June 1882 with less than £10 to his name, he set up a medical practice at 1 Bush Villas in Elm Grove, Southsea
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
–
Portrait of Doyle by
Herbert Rose Barraud, 1893
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
–
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
–
Portrait of Sherlock Holmes by Sidney Paget, 1904
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
–
Sherlock Holmes statue in Edinburgh, erected opposite the birthplace of Doyle which was demolished c.1970
14.
The Hound of the Baskervilles
–
The Hound of the Baskervilles is the third of the crime novels written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle featuring the detective Sherlock Holmes. Sherlock Holmes and his companion Dr. Watson investigate the case and this was the first appearance of Holmes since his apparent death in The Final Problem, and the success of The Hound of the Baskervilles led to the characters eventual revival. In 2003, the book was listed as number 128 of 200 on the BBCs The Big Read poll of the UKs best-loved novel, in 1999, it was listed as the top Holmes novel, with a perfect rating from Sherlockian scholars of 100. Dr James Mortimer asks Sherlock Holmes to investigate the death of his friend, Sir Charles believed in the curse and was apparently fleeing from something in fright when he died. Intrigued, Holmes meets with Sir Henry, newly arrived from Canada, Sir Henry has received an anonymous note, cut and pasted from newsprint, warning him away from the Baskerville moors, and one of his new boots is inexplicably missing from his London hotel room. Sir Henry plans to move into Baskerville Hall, despite the warning message. Holmes and Dr Watson follow him from Holmess Baker Street apartment back to his hotel and notice a man following him in a cab, they pursue the man. Mortimer tells them that Mr Barrymore, the butler at Baskerville Hall, has a beard like the one on the stranger, Sir Henrys boot reappears, but an older one vanishes. Upon arrival at the grand but austere Baskerville estate, Watson, Barrymore and his wife, who also works at Baskerville Hall, wish to leave the estate soon. Watson hears a woman crying in the night, it is obvious to him that it was Mrs Barrymore, Watson has no proof that Barrymore was in Devon on the day of the chase in London. He meets a brother and sister who live nearby, Mr Stapleton, a naturalist, when an animalistic sound is heard, Stapleton is quick to dismiss it as unrelated to the legendary hound. When her brother is out of earshot, Mrs Stapleton mistakes Watson for Sir Henry and she and Sir Henry later meet and quickly fall in love, arousing Stapletons anger, he later apologises and invites Sir Henry to dine with him a few days later. Barrymore arouses further suspicion when Watson and Sir Henry catch him at night with a candle in an empty room, Barrymore refuses to answer their questions, but Mrs. Barrymore confesses that Selden is her brother, and her husband is signalling that they have left supplies for him. Watson and Sir Henry pursue Selden on the moor, but he eludes them, after an agreement is reached to allow Selden to flee the country, Barrymore reveals the contents of an incompletely burnt letter asking Sir Charles to be at the gate at the time of his death. Watson tracks the man he saw in the area and discovers it to be Holmes. Holmes reveals further information, Stapleton is actually married to the supposed Miss Stapleton and they hear a scream and discover the body of Selden, dead from a fall. They initially mistake him for Sir Henry, whose old clothes he was wearing, at Baskerville Hall, Holmes notices a resemblance between Stapleton and a portrait of Hugo Baskerville. He realises that Stapleton could be an unknown Baskerville family member, accompanied by Inspector Lestrade, whom Holmes has summoned, Holmes and Watson travel to the Stapleton home, where Sir Henry is dining
The Hound of the Baskervilles
–
Cover of the 1st edition
The Hound of the Baskervilles
–
Sherlock Holmes examining Dr. Mortimer's walking stick
The Hound of the Baskervilles
–
Sir Henry Baskerville
15.
Old Bailey
–
The Central Criminal Court of England and Wales, commonly known as the Old Bailey from the street on which it stands, is a court in London and one of a number of buildings housing the Crown Court. The Old Bailey has been housed in several structures near this location since the 16th century, the Crown Court sitting at the Central Criminal Court deals with major criminal cases from within Greater London and in exceptional cases, from other parts of England and Wales. Trials at the Old Bailey, as at other courts, are open to the public, however, the court originated as the sessions house of the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs of the City of London and of Middlesex. It was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and rebuilt in 1674, with the court open to the weather to prevent the spread of disease. In 1734 it was refronted, enclosing the court and reducing the influence of spectators and it was rebuilt again in 1774 and a second courtroom was added in 1824. Over 100,000 criminal trials were carried out at the Old Bailey between 1674 and 1834, in 1834, it was renamed as the Central Criminal Court and its jurisdiction extended beyond that of London and Middlesex to the whole of the English jurisdiction for trials of major cases. The court was intended as the site where only criminals accused of crimes committed in the City. However, in 1856, there was public revulsion at the accusations against the doctor William Palmer that he was a poisoner and murderer and this led to fears that he could not receive a fair trial in his native Staffordshire. The Central Criminal Court Act 1856 was passed to enable his trial to be held at the Old Bailey, in the 19th century, the Old Bailey was a small court adjacent to Newgate gaol. Hangings were a spectacle in the street outside until May 1868. The condemned would be led along Dead Mans Walk between the prison and the court, and many were buried in the walk itself, large, riotous crowds would gather and pelt the condemned with rotten fruit and vegetables and stones. In 1807,28 people were crushed to death after a pie-sellers stall overturned, the present Old Bailey building dates from 1902 but it was officially opened on 27 February 1907. It was designed by E. W. Mountford and built on the site of the infamous Newgate gaol, above the main entrance is inscribed the admonition, Defend the Children of the Poor & Punish the Wrongdoer. King Edward VII opened the courthouse, on the dome above the court stands a bronze statue of Lady Justice, executed by the British sculptor F. W. Pomeroy. She holds a sword in her hand and the scales of justice in her left. During the Blitz of World War II, the Old Bailey was bombed and severely damaged, in 1952, the restored interior of the Grand Hall of the Central Criminal Court was once again open. The interior of the Great Hall is decorated with paintings commemorating the Blitz, running around the entire hall are a series of axioms, some of biblical reference. This part of the building houses the shorthand-writers offices
Old Bailey
–
The Central Criminal Court, widely known as the Old Bailey from the street on which it stands
Old Bailey
–
Entrance door to the Old Bailey.
Old Bailey
–
Lady Justice statue on the top of the court building
Old Bailey
–
South Block extension
16.
George Dance the Younger
–
George Dance the younger, RA was an English architect and surveyor as well as a portraitist. The fifth and youngest son of the architect George Dance, he came from a family of architects, artists and dramatists and he was described by Sir John Summerson as among the few really outstanding architects of the century, but few of his buildings remain. The architect George Dance the elder married Elizabeth Gould in 1719 and their fifth son, George, was born 1 April 1741 at the family home in Chiswell Street, London and was educated at St Pauls School. Dance spent the six years between 1759 and 1765 studying architecture and draughtsmanship in Rome, aged 17, he set off on his Grand Tour, sailing from Gravesend, Kent in December 1758. After a short stay in Florence, where he was joined by his brother Nathaniel, by the early 1760s the brothers were living at 77 Strada Felice. At Rome, Dance was acquainted with the architect, James Adam, peters Basilica, showing much promise as a draughtsman. Much of his work was inspired by Piranesi. In late 1759 Dance received his first commission - to design two chimneypieces for Sir Robert Mainwaring. His drawings were dispatched to Parma in April 1763, and a few weeks later it was announced that he had won the Gold Medal, the projected building was in the latest style of neoclassical architecture. During June 1764 the Dance brothers were in Naples, but later that year they were back in Rome, entertaining the actor David Garrick and his wife. On the 21 December 1764 George Dance and his brother were elected to the Accademia di S. Luca, on the 16 February 1765 Dance dined with the painter Angelica Kauffman and James Boswell who was visiting Rome. A few weeks later the brothers left Rome to return to London, on his return from the Grand Tour, George joined his fathers office. His earliest London project was the rebuilding of All Hallows-on-the-Wall Church and he was one of five architects asked to submit designs, and his design was chosen on 8 May 1765. Work on the building starting in June 1765, at a cost of £2,941, in 1768, when he was only 27, George succeeded as Architect and Surveyor to the Corporation of London on his fathers death. His first major works were the rebuilding of Newgate Prison in 1770 and building the front of the Guildhall. Other London works of his include the rebuilding of the Church of St Bartholomew the Less, at Bath, Somerset he largely designed the Theatre Royal, built by John Palmer in 1804-5. Coleorton Hall was one of his few buildings in the Gothic style, Dance retired from practice in 1815. With his brother Nathaniel, George Dance was a member of the Royal Academy
George Dance the Younger
–
George Dance the younger's
Shakespeare Gallery building (1788), shown in 1851 after its purchase by the
British Institution (from a wood-engraving in London edited by
Charles Knight)
George Dance the Younger
–
91 Gower Street, London where Dance lived and died
George Dance the Younger
–
All Hallows-on-the-Wall, London
George Dance the Younger
–
London Guildhall, c.1805
17.
Charles Barry
–
He also developed the Italian Renaissance garden style for the many gardens he designed around country houses. Born on 23 May 1795 in Bridge Street, Westminster, he was the son of Walter Edward Barry, a stationer. He was baptised at St Margarets, Westminster, into the Church of England and his father remarried shortly after Frances died and Barrys stepmother Sarah would bring him up. He was educated at schools in Homerton and then Aspley Guise, before being apprenticed to Middleton & Bailey, Lambeth architects and surveyors. Barry exhibited drawings at the Royal Academy annually from 1812 to 1815 and he visited France and, while in Paris, spent several days at the Musée du Louvre. In Rome he sketched antiquities, sculptures and paintings at the Vatican Museums and other galleries, before carrying on to Naples, Pompeii, Bari, while in Italy, Barry met Charles Lock Eastlake, an architect, William Kinnaird and Francis Johnson and Thomas Leverton Donaldson. From Constantinople he visited the Troad, Assos, Pergamon and back to Smyrna, on 18 June 1819, Barry parted from Baillie at Tripoli, Lebanon. Over this time, Barry created more than 500 sketches, Barry then travelled on to Cyprus, Rhodes, Halicarnassus, Ephesus and Smyrna from where he sailed on 16 August 1819 for Malta. Barry then sailed from Malta to Syracuse, Sicily, then Italy and his travels in Italy exposed him to Renaissance architecture and after arriving in Rome in January 1820, he met architect John Lewis Wolfe, who inspired Barry himself to become an architect. Their friendship continued until Barry died, the building that inspired Barrys admiration for Italian architecture was the Palazzo Farnese. Over the following months, he and Wolfe together studied the architecture of Vicenza, Venice, Verona and Florence, where the Palazzo Strozzi greatly impressed him. While in Rome he had met Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, through whom he met Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland and their London home, Holland House, was the centre of the Whig Party. Barry remained a supporter of the Liberal party, the successor to the Whig Party. Barry was invited to the gatherings at the house, and there met many of the prominent members of the group, Barry set up his home and office in Ely Place in 1821. In 1827 he moved to 27 Foley Place, then in 1842 he moved to 32 Great George Street and finally to The Elms, now 29 Clapham Common Northside, the Georgian house of five bays and three stories was designed by Samuel Pepys Cockerell as his own home. Probably thanks to his fiancées friendship with John Soane, Barry was recommended to the Church Building Commissioners and these were in the Gothic Revival architecture style, including two in Lancashire, St. Matthew, Campfield, Manchester, and All Saints Church, Whitefield. Barry designed three churches for the Commissioners in Islington, Holy Trinity, St. Johns and St. Pauls, all in the Gothic in style and built between 1826 and 1828. His final church for the Commissioners was the Gothic St Peters Church, Brighton, the Gothic Hurstpierpoint church, with its tower and spire, unlike his earlier churches was much closer to the Cambridge Camden Societys approach to church design
Charles Barry
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Sir Charles Barry
Charles Barry
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All Saints' Church, Whitefield
Charles Barry
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Holy Trinity Church,
Hurstpierpoint
Charles Barry
–
The
Manchester Art Gallery (1824) and
The Athenaeum (1837) in
Manchester, both Grade I listed.
18.
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
–
The University of Glasgows Hunterian is the oldest museum in Scotland. In 1783, William Hunter bequeathed his substantial and varied collections to the University of Glasgow. in such sort, way, manner, shall seem most fit and most conducive to the improvement of the students of the said University of Glasgow. The museum first opened in 1807, in a specially constructed building off the High Street, when the University moved west to its new site at Gilmorehill the museum moved too. In 1870, the Hunterian collections were transferred to the University’s present site, the Universitys Librarian Professor Lockhart Muirhead became the first Keeper of the Hunterian Museum in 1823. As well as his collections, which arose from his own work, Hunter collected very widely, often assisted by his many royal. He and his agents scoured Europe for coins, minerals, paintings and prints, ethnographic materials, books and manuscripts, as well as insects, the museum contains many donated collections, such as the Begg Collection of fossils donated by James Livingstone Begg in the 1940s. This is also open to the general public, the insect collections are particularly important and extensive, and are the feature of some excellent recent displays. The Gallery is now housed in a modern, custom-built facility that is part of the extensive Glasgow University Library complex and this displays the Universitys extensive art collection, and features an outdoor sculpture garden. The bas relief aluminium doors to the Hunterian Gallery were designed by sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi, the gallerys collection includes a large number of the works of James McNeill Whistler and the majority of the watercolours of Charles Rennie Mackintosh. The Hunterian Art Gallery reopened in September 2012 after a refurbishment, with a dedicated to Rembrandt, Rembrandt. The Mackintosh House is a concrete building, part of the gallery-library complex. One of the buildings lost,78 Southpark Avenue, was formerly a home to Glasgow architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh, the University rebuilt the form of the house approximately 100 metres from the site of the original. Due to its displacement, one door now hangs precariously above a 20-foot drop, the Mackintosh House features some of the original woodwork of the old terraced house, and features the meticulously reassembled interiors from Mackintoshs home. William Hunters brother John, a surgeon, also founded a museum, the museum displays thousands of anatomical specimens, including the Evelyn tables and the skeleton of the Irish giant Charles Byrne, and many surgical instruments. It underwent a refurbishment in 2003 and 2004, creating a new crystal gallery of steel. Both brothers are celebrated in the town of their birth, East Kilbride, Glasgow Art The Hunterians website The Hunterians searchable online catalogue
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
–
William Hunter (1718–1783), anatomist and collector
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
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Main Hall, the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow.
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
–
The Antonine Wall, Rome's final frontier, the Hunterian Museum.
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
–
The Lady Shepenhor, the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow University.
19.
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
John Hunter FRS was a Scottish surgeon, one of the most distinguished scientists and surgeons of his day. He was an advocate of careful observation and scientific method in medicine. He was a teacher of, friend of, and collaborator with, Edward Jenner and his wife, Anne Hunter, was a minor poet, some of whose poems were set to music by Joseph Haydn. He learned anatomy by assisting his elder brother William with dissections in Williams anatomy school in, London, starting in 1748, and quickly became expert in anatomy. He spent some years as an Army surgeon, worked with the dentist James Spence conducting tooth transplants, Hunter became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. The Hunterian Society of London was named in his honour, Hunter was born at Calderwood, the youngest of ten children. Family papers cite his birthday as being variously on 7 and 9 February, three of Hunters siblings died of illness before he was born. An elder brother was William Hunter, the anatomist, as a youth, John showed little talent, and robbed his brother-in-law as a cabinet-maker. When nearly 21 he visited William in London, where his brother had become a teacher of anatomy. John started as his assistant in dissections, and was running the practical classes on his own. John is alleged to have connected to these deaths, since at the time he was acting as Williams assistant. In The Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures, published in 1774, Hunter heavily researched blood while bloodletting patients with various diseases. This helped helped him develop his theory that inflammation was a response to disease. Hunter studied under William Cheselden at Chelsea Hospital and Percival Pott at St. Bartholomews Hospital, Hunter also studied with Marie Marguerite Bihéron, a famous anatomist and wax modeler teaching in London, some of the illustrations in his text were likely hers. After qualifying he became Assistant Surgeon at St Georges Hospital and Surgeon, Hunter was commissioned as an Army surgeon in 1760 and was staff surgeon on expedition to the French island of Belle Île in 1761, then served in 1762 with the British Army. Contrary to prevailing opinion at the time, Hunter was against the practice of dilation of gunshot wounds. This practice involved the surgeon deliberately expanding a wound with the aim of making the gunpowder easier to remove, Hunter left the Army in 1763, and spent at least five years working in partnership with James Spence, a well-known London dentist. These principles are used in the transplanation of internal organs
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Painted by
John Jackson, 1813, after Sir
Joshua Reynolds, 1786
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Plaster cast medallion of Dr John Hunter, Science Museum, London
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Bust of Hunter near where he lived in
Leicester Square, London
20.
Natural history
–
Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
Natural history
–
Tables of natural history, from
Ephraim Chambers 's 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Natural history
–
A natural history collection in a French public secondary school
Natural history
–
Blackberry from the 6th century
Vienna Dioscurides manuscript
Natural history
–
Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.
21.
Richard Owen
–
Sir Richard Owen KCB FRMS FRS was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist. Despite being a figure, Owen is generally considered to have been an outstanding naturalist with a remarkable gift for interpreting fossils. Owen produced a vast array of work, but is probably best remembered today for coining the word Dinosauria. Owens approach to evolution can be seen as having anticipated the issues that have gained attention with the recent emergence of evolutionary developmental biology. Owen also campaigned for the specimens in the British Museum to be given a new home. This resulted in the establishment, in 1881, of the now world-famous Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London, bill Bryson argues that, by making the Natural History Museum an institution for everyone, Owen transformed our expectations of what museums are for. Owen was feared and even hated by some such as Thomas Henry Huxley. His later career was tainted by a number of controversies, many of which involved accusations that he took credit for other peoples work, Owen was born in Lancaster in 1804, one of six children of a West Indian Merchant named Richard Owen. His mother, Catherine Parrin, was descended from Huguenots and he was educated at Lancaster Royal Grammar School, in 1820, he was apprenticed to a local surgeon and apothecary and, in 1824, he proceeded as a medical student to the University of Edinburgh. He left the university in the year and completed his medical course in St Bartholomews Hospital, London. In July 1835 Owen married Caroline Amelia Clift in St Pancras by whom he had one son, Richard sadly outlived both his wife and only son. After his death, in 1892, he was survived by his three grandchildren and daughter-in-law Emily Owen, to whom he left much of his £33,000 fortune. Upon completing his education, he contemplated the usual professional career and he was induced by Abernethy to accept the position of assistant to William Clift, conservator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This congenial occupation soon led him to abandon his intention of medical practice, in 1836, Owen was appointed Hunterian professor, in the Royal College of Surgeons and, in 1849, he succeeded Clift as conservator. He held the office until 1856, when he became superintendent of the natural history department of the British Museum. He retained office until the completion of work, in December,1883. He lived quietly in retirement at Sheen Lodge, Richmond Park and his career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it in his own name. This came to a head in 1846, when he was awarded the Royal Medal for a paper he had written on belemnites, Owen had failed to acknowledge that the belemnite had been discovered by Chaning Pearce, an amateur biologist, four years earlier
Richard Owen
–
Richard Owen
Richard Owen
–
Owen was the driving force behind the establishment, in 1881, of the
British Museum (Natural History) in London.
Richard Owen
–
Owen's illustration of a
camel 's
skeleton
22.
Charles Byrne (human curiosity)
–
Charles Byrne or The Irish Giant, was a man regarded as a curiosity or freak in London in the 1780s. Byrnes exact height is of some conjecture, some accounts refer to him as being 8 ft 2 in to 8 ft 4 in tall, but skeletal evidence places him at just over 7 ft 7 in. Byrnes family lived in a part of northeast County Tyrone, Ireland, called Littlebridge. It is said that Byrne had been conceived on top of a haystack, little is known of Byrnes family other than that his parents were ordinary people, and that they were not unusually tall. By his late teens Byrne had decided to set off for Britain in pursuit of fame, landing first in Scotland, he became an instant success. As Eric Cubbage has recounted, Edinburghs night watchmen were amazed at the sight of him lighting his pipe from one of the streetlamps on North Bridge without even standing on tiptoe. His celebrity spread as he made his way down northern England, arriving in London in early 1782, here he entertained paying audiences at rooms in Spring Garden-gate, then Piccadilly, and lastly Charing Cross. His gentle, likeable nature inspired an immense public fondness, by mid-1782 he had inspired a hit London stage show called Harlequin Teague, or the Giants Causeway. Unfortunately, Byrnes great height was the result of a then undiscovered growth disorder and he was also pickpocketed in this period while drinking in his local pub, the Black Horse, Byrnes worldly earnings were on his person in the form of banknotes, and were stolen. The loss of his earnings interacted with his health. Byrne was living in London contemporaneous with the pre-eminent surgeon and anatomist of the time John Hunter, Hunter had a reputation for collecting unusual specimens for his private museum, and as Byrnes health deteriorated he feared that Hunter wanted his body for dissection and probable display. Byrne had made arrangements with friends that when he died his body would be sealed in a lead coffin. But his burial wishes were thwarted and his worst fears realised when John Hunter arranged for Byrnes cadaver to be snatched on its way to sea. Hunter then reduced Byrnes corpse to its skeleton and four years later put Byrnes skeleton on display in his Hunterian Museum and his 2. 31-m skeleton still resides in the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London. The article argued that Byrnes DNA has been taken and can be used in research but that it was now time to respect Byrnes burial wishes. At the very least, this is an indication that a body of. Opinion has deep reservations about the public presentation of Byrnes skeleton in the museum. They decided to continue the exhibit and his continued display in his captors museum reminds us of our own vulnerability under the current legal system
Charles Byrne (human curiosity)
–
Charles Byrne in a 1784 etching by John Kay, alongside the Brothers Knipe and dwarves.
Charles Byrne (human curiosity)
–
The skeleton of the 7.5 feet (230 cm) tall Byrne displayed at the
Royal College of Surgeons of England in London (middle of this image)
23.
Royal College of Anaesthetists
–
The Royal College of Anaesthetists is the professional body responsible for the specialty of anaesthesia throughout the United Kingdom. It sets standards in anaesthesia, critical care, pain management and it also holds examinations for anaesthetists in training, publishes the British Journal of Anaesthesia, and informs and educates the public about anaesthesia. Its headquarters is in Churchill House, London, 64% felt their job had affected their physical health and 61% their mental health. 68% had stayed up to two hours after a shift in the last month, and 28% had done more than two hours unpaid overtime at least once, the College publishes guidance for its members and also has a newsletter, a journal and an educational journal. The Royal College of Anaesthetists was awarded its royal charter in 1992, prior to this time, it had existed as the College of Anaesthetists since 1988, when it split from the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Prior to 1988, it was known as the Faculty of Anaesthetists of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, which was formed in 1948. The roots of the college can be traced back to the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland, which was set up in 1932 by Sir Ivan Magill and others, and continues today. The Coat of arms of the College shares some symbols and features with that of the Royal College of Surgeons of England and it also incorporates coca leaves to symbolise local anaesthesia, and opium poppy heads to symbolise analgesia. The figures on either side of the shield are two pioneers of anaesthesia, John Snow and Joseph Thomas Clover, the Colleges motto is “Divinum sedare dolorem”. Particular areas of work are considered by Committees who report to the Council, as of September 2015, the President is Dr Liam Brennan and the Vice-Presidents are Dr Richard Marks and Dr Jeremy Langton. The patron of the Royal College of Anaesthetists is The Princess Royal, the Chief Executive’s Office including College Archives, Facilities, Human Resources, Information Technology, Reception, Room Bookings
Royal College of Anaesthetists
–
The supporters of the coat of arms are the pioneering
anaesthetists John Snow and
Joseph Thomas Clover
24.
William Cheselden
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William Cheselden was an English surgeon and teacher of anatomy and surgery, who was influential in establishing surgery as a scientific medical profession. Via the medical missionary Benjamin Hobson, his work also helped revolutionize medical practices in China, Cheselden was born at Somerby, Leicestershire. He studied anatomy in London under William Cowper, and began lecturing anatomy in 1710 and that same year, he was admitted to the London Company of Barber-Surgeons, passing the final examination on 29 January 1711. Afterwards, he was appointed surgeon for the stone at Westminster Infirmary and he also improved eye surgery, developing new techniques, particularly in the removal of cataracts. Cheselden selected as a surgeon at St Georges Hospital upon its foundation in 1733, in 1733 he published Osteographia or the Anatomy of Bones, the first full and accurate description of the anatomy of the human skeletal system. Cheselden retired from St Thomas in 1738 and moved to the Chelsea Hospital and his abode is listed as Chelsea College on the 1739 Royal Charter for the Foundling Hospital, a charity for which he was a founding governor. Cheselden is credited with performing the first known case of full recovery from blindness in 1728, Cheselden presented the celebrated case of a boy of thirteen who gained his sight after removal of the lenses rendered opaque by cataract from birth. Despite his youth, the boy encountered profound difficulties with the simplest visual perceptions, the procedure had a short duration and a low mortality rate. Cheselden had already developed in 1723 the suprapubic approach, which he published in A Treatise on the High Operation for the Stone, in France, his works were developed by Claude-Nicolas Le Cat. He also effected a great advance in ophthalmic surgery by his operation, iridectomy, described in 1728, Cheselden also described the role of saliva in digestion. He attended Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness and was a friend of Alexander Pope. Cheselden, Wm, Osteographia or the Anatomy of the Bones, scanned pages of the original work. William Cheselden Article from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, complete scanned copy of the Ostepgraphia in the public domain at Biu Sante. The Anatomy of the Human Body at the Internet Archive, accuracy and Elegance in Cheseldens Osteographia article by Monique Kornell, including gallery and comprehensive links to public domain online copies. Selected images from Anatomy of the Humane Body From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library
William Cheselden
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William Cheselden
William Cheselden
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A plate of Osteographia. Source: NLM
25.
Lister Medal
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The Lister Medal is an award presented by the Royal College of Surgeons of England in recognition of contributions to surgical science. It is named after the English surgeon Joseph Lister, whose work on antiseptics established the basis of modern sterile surgery, in 1920, the Royal College of Surgeons of England became the trustees and administrators of the fund. They were entrusted with the task of awarding a monetary prize, the Lister Medal, although it is not always awarded to a surgeon, is one of the most prestigious honours a surgeon can receive. The obverse of the consists of a representation of a bust of Lord Lister. The first award was announced in 1924, with the presentation, the most recent award was made in 2015, with a total of 27 people having received the medal to date. Recent medallists From mourning to scientific legacy, commemorating Lister in London and Scotland by Marguerite Wright Dupree
Lister Medal
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Obverse of the Lister Medal, with a representation of a bust of Lord Lister
Lister Medal
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Graeme Clark (right) receiving the 2010 Lister Medal
Lister Medal
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Reverse of the Lister Medal with the inscription
Lister Medal
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Magdi Yacoub (left) receiving the 2015 Lister Medal
26.
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
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Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM PC PRS, known between 1883 and 1897 as Sir Joseph Lister, Bt. was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. He promoted the idea of sterile portable ports while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds. Applying Louis Pasteurs advances in microbiology, Lister championed the use of acid as an antiseptic. He first suspected it would prove an adequate disinfectant because it was used to ease the stench from fields irrigated with sewage waste and he presumed it was safe because fields treated with carbolic acid produced no apparent ill-effects on the livestock that later grazed upon them. Listers work led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made safer for patients. Lister came from a prosperous Quaker home in West Ham, Essex, England, a son of Joseph Jackson Lister, at school, he became a fluent reader of French and German. A young Joseph Lister attended Benjamin Abbotts Isaac Brown Academy, a Quaker school in Hitchin, as a teenager, Lister attended Grove House School Tottenham, studying mathematics, natural science, and languages. He attended University College, London, one of only a few institutions which accepted Quakers at that time and he initially studied botany and obtained a bachelor of Arts degree in 1847. He registered as a student and graduated with honours as Bachelor of Medicine. In 1854, Lister became both first assistant to and friend of surgeon James Syme at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary in Scotland. There he joined the Royal Medical Society and presented two dissertations, in 1855 and 1871, which are still in the possession of the Society today and he subsequently left the Quakers, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church, and eventually married Symes daughter, Agnes. On their honeymoon, they spent 3 months visiting leading medical institutes in France, by this time, Agnes was enamoured of medical research and was Listers partner in the laboratory for the rest of her life. Before Listers studies of surgery, most people believed that damage from exposures to bad air was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, a surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient because such practices were not considered necessary to avoid infection. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. hospitals practiced surgery under unsanitary conditions, Surgeons of the time referred to the good old surgical stink and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible, filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to solution/chemical solutions, Lister confirmed Pasteurs conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two suggested by Pasteur were dangerous and unsafe for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third idea. In 1834, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered phenol, also known as carbolic acid, upon hearing that creosote had been used for treating sewage, Lister began to test the efficacy of carbolic acid when applied directly to wounds
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
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Photograph 1902
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
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Lister with fellow Residents at the Old Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, c.1855 (Lister is in the front row with his hands clasped)
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
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Grave of Joseph Lister, West Hampstead Cemetery
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
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Lister Building at
Glasgow Royal Infirmary
27.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
Royal Society
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The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Royal Society
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The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Royal Society
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John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Royal Society
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Mace granted by Charles II
28.
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
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The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland is a professional association and educational institution that is responsible for the medical speciality of surgery throughout the island of Ireland. RCSIs main campus is situated on St. Stephens Green in Dublin, since medieval times, the practice of surgery was licensed by the Barber-Surgeons Guild, also known at the time as the Guild of St. Mary Magdalene. The guild chapel was in Christ Church Cathedral, Guild membership at that time was obtained by a 3-year apprenticeship followed by 2 years as a master. In fact the College of Surgeons maintained a mandatory period of apprenticeship to a surgeon until 1828. In 1446, the Barber-Surgeons guild was incorporated by decree of Henry VI. The Dublin Society of Surgeons was founded in 1780 at the Elephant public house on Essex street, trinity did not teach surgery as a subject until 1851, so Ireland was entirely without a school focused on surgery. The awaited charter was granted by King George III on 11 February 1784, the governing body, including the first President Samuel Croker-King and William Dease, first professor of surgery, met in the boardroom of the Rotunda Hospital for the first time on 2 March. Most importantly, admission or employment was not discriminated against on sectarian grounds, two of its chief founders, Sylvester OHalloran and William Dease as well as eleven out of its first 57 presidents were Catholics. The college also recognised the medical qualifications given by the Catholic university from 1856, the first candidate for examination was John Birch, in August 1784. The current location, at the corner of York Street, was acquired in September 1805 and it was previously an abandoned Quaker burial ground. The Duke of Bedford laid the first stone of the new building on St. Patricks Day,1806, a supplemental charter was granted by Queen Victoria in 1844, dividing medical graduates into Licentiates and Fellows. Initially, physicians were trained alongside surgeons, in 1886 these two disciplines were merged, and the medical school began operation. During the 1916 Rising, the college building on St Stephens Green was occupied by Irish Citizen Army forces, led by Commandant Michael Malin. After surrendering, both were tried and sentenced to death, mallin was executed while Markieviczs sentence was commuted due to her gender. Now defunct subjects taught include, Logic, Military Surgery, Botany, the RCSI motto, Consilio Manuque, was adopted from the College de St. Cosme in Paris, which had been afforded the motto by Louis XIV. It was originally Consiloque Manuque, his personal motto, RCSI is the first medical institution of learning to offer a 4-year graduate entry programme for medicine in Ireland. Since the 1980s Beaumont Hospital, Dublin has been the centre for medical training. Other affiliated hospitals include teaching hospitals such as Connolly Hospital, Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital, RCSI values innovation, excellence, independence, academic freedom, diversity, tolerance and community
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
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RCSI (Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland)
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
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The RCSI Disease and Research centre in Beaumont Hospital
29.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
University of Edinburgh
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King James's College, c. 1647
University of Edinburgh
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The University Of Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
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The university's
Old College
University of Edinburgh
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The university's
New College building
30.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
University of Glasgow
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The East Quadrangle of the Main Building.
University of Glasgow
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Coat of arms of the University of Glasgow
University of Glasgow
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A model of the old High Street Building, in the
Hunterian Museum.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow in 1650.
