1.
Munitions
–
Ammunition is the general term used for the material fired, scattered, dropped or detonated from any weapon. The term ammunition can be traced back to the mid 17th century, broadly speaking, ammunition refers to both expendable weapons and the component parts of other weapons that create the effect on a target. Nearly all weapons will require some form of ammunition to operate, the word comes from the French la munition, which refers to the material used for war. The terms ammunition and munitions are used interchangeably, although the term munition now usually refers to both the actual weapons system alongside the ammunition required to operate it. The purpose of ammunition is to project a force against a target to have an effect. The most iconic example of ammunition is the cartridge, which all components required to deliver the weapon effect in a single package. Ammunition comes in a range of sizes and types and is often designed to work only in specific weapons systems. However, there are internationally recognized standards for certain types that enable their use across different weapons. There are also types of ammunition that are designed to have a specialized effect on a target, such as armor-piercing shells and tracer ammunition. Ammunition is commonly colored in a manner to assist in the identification. A round is a cartridge containing a projectile, propellant, primer. A shell is a form of ammunition that is fired by a large cannon or artillery piece. Before the mid-19th century, these shells were made of solid materials. However, since that time, they are often filled with high-explosives. A shot refers to a release of a weapons system. This may involve firing just one round or piece of ammunition, a dud refers to loaded ammunition that fails to function as intended, typically failing to detonate on landing. However, it can refer to ammunition that fails to fire inside the weapon, known as a misfire, or when the ammunition only partially functions. Dud ammunition, which is classified as an ordnance, is regarded as highly dangerous
Munitions
–
A belt of
0.50 caliber ammunition loaded to an
M2 Browning. Every fifth round with a red tip is an M20 (armour piercing incendiary tracer).
Munitions
–
Box of ammunition from first half of the 20th century. From the
Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
Munitions
–
Cannonballs from the
American Civil War
Munitions
–
Female ordnance workers inspecting cartridge cases in
Los Angeles, 1943
2.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
3.
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
–
The Ministry of Defence is the British government department responsible for implementing the defence policy set by Her Majestys Government and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. The MoD states that its objectives are to defend the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its interests and to strengthen international peace. The MoD also manages day-to-day running of the forces, contingency planning. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Coordination of Defence. Winston Churchill, on forming his government in 1940, created the office of Minister of Defence to exercise control over the Chiefs of Staff Committee. The post was held by the Prime Minister of the day until Clement Attlees government introduced the Ministry of Defence Act of 1946, the new ministry was headed by a Minister of Defence who possessed a seat in the Cabinet. These departments merged in 1964, the functions of the Ministry of Aviation Supply merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1971. The Ministers in the Ministry of Defence are as follows, The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by a number of civilian, scientific, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence is the senior civil servant at the MoD. His or her role is to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government, Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Stephen Lovegrove—commencing April 2016 Defence Equipment & Support CEO - Tony Douglas — commencing 2016 Chief Scientific Adviser, Professor Vernon C. He is supported by the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff, vice-Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir Gordon Messenger, Royal Marines. First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Philip Jones, Royal Navy Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Nick Carter, the Surgeon General, represents the Defence Medical Services on the Defence Staff, and is the clinical head of that service. These forces must be capable of representing Britain as lead nation in any coalition operations, the ability, at longer notice, to deploy forces in a large-scale operation while running a concurrent small-scale operation. The MoD has since been regarded as a leader in elaborating the post-Cold War organising concept of defence diplomacy, the UK is establishing air and naval bases in the Persian Gulf, located in the UAE and Bahrain. A presence in Oman is also being considered, the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces, Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK. Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the defence network. Reinforce international security and the capacity of our allies, partners. Conduct operations to restore peace and stability, conduct major combat operations if required, including under NATO Article 5
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
–
Jon Thompson, Permanent Under-Secretary of State
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
–
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
–
The plaque outside the South Door of the MoD's Main Building.
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
–
A British armed forces careers office in
Oxford
4.
Royal Arsenal
–
It was originally known as the Woolwich Warren, having begun on land previously used as a domestic warren in the grounds of a Tudor house, Tower Place. Thereafter its operations were scaled down, it closed as a factory in 1967. Today the area, so long a secret enclave, is open to the public and is being redeveloped for housing and community use. The Board of Ordnance was both a civil and an office of State, independent of the Army, overseen by a high-ranking official. Its main areas of activity developed as follows, The origin of The Warren lies in a domestic warren at Tower Place in Old Woolwich, Tower Place was a Tudor mansion built in the 1540s for Martin Bowes, a wealthy goldsmith and merchant, later Lord Mayor of London. The house with its octagonal tower stood nearby Gun Wharf, where the Henry Grace à Dieu had been built around 1515, when Woolwich Dockyard moved west in the 1540s, Gun Wharf was mainly used for gun storage. In 1671, The Warren was officially established by the Board as an Ordnance Storage Depot and it occupied a 31-acre site, including Tower Place. The Board of Ordnance initially looked on the site as a convenient place for building a storehouse for powder and other stores of war, as at other Ordnance Yards the site was overseen by a Storekeeper, who was based in the old house. He was assisted by a Clerk of the Cheque, Clerk of the Survey, to begin with much of the Warren was preserved as open space with cannons stored in the open air and guns proved on ranges to the east. Gunpowder was stored in a converted dovecote initially, but before long specialist buildings began to appear, an ammunition laboratory was set up at the Warren in 1695, overseen by the Comptroller of Fireworks. The manufacturing process was conducted by hand, overseen by a Chief Firemaster, a pair of pavilions, which once faced each other across the centre of the courtyard, are now the oldest surviving buildings on the Arsenal site, they were being restored for residential use in 2013. The Comptroller, Royal Laboratory, had oversight of the Royal Gunpowder Mills in addition to the Woolwich manufactory, a gun foundry, overseen by a Master Founder, was established in 1717. In Woolwich, the original Royal Brass Foundry building survives and its handsome exterior encloses a space designed for pure industrial functionality, with height to accommodate a vertical boring machine, and tall doors permitting easy removal of newly made cannons. Completed guns could then be taken through what is now Dial Arch into a known as the Great Pile of buildings to be finished and stored. The first Master Founder, Andrew Schalch, served in post for 54 years before retiring in 1769 at the age of 78. In 1770 a revolutionary horse-powered horizontal boring machine was installed in the Foundry by his successor, remarkably, it remained in use until 1843 when a steam-powered equivalent replaced it. From the beginning, gun carriages had been stored at the Warren, by the 1750s manufacture of gun carriages was also taking place on site, overseen by the Constructor of Carriages. This took place around New Carriage Yard, the Board of Ordnance had had, from the early days of the Warren, teams of artillerymen and military engineers on site
Royal Arsenal
–
Woolwich Royal Arsenal gatehouse (Beresford Gate) in February 2007.
Royal Arsenal
–
Map of 1746 showing 'The Warren' (right) with its three quadrangles: the original Laboratory (1696), the Great Pile (1717-20) and New Carriage Yard (1728-9).
Royal Arsenal
–
One of a pair of 17th-century pavilions, the earliest buildings on the site, undergoing restoration, 2015.
Royal Arsenal
–
The Royal Brass Foundry (1717)
5.
Woolwich
–
Woolwich is a town in the Royal Borough of Greenwich, south east London, England. Originally in Kent, it has been part of the London metropolitan area since the 19th century, in 1965, most of the former Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich became part of Greenwich Borough, of which it remains the administrative centre. Throughout the 17th, 18th, 19th and most of the 20th century, Woolwich was an important military and it is a river crossing point, with the Woolwich Ferry and the Woolwich foot tunnel crossing to North Woolwich. Woolwich is identified in the London Plan as an opportunity area as well as a centre in Greater London. Woolwich has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age, a path connected the riverside settlement with Watling Street, perhaps also of Iron Age origin. Sandy Hill Road may be a remnant of this early path and it is generally believed that the name Woolwich derives from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning trading place for wool. It is not clear whether Woolwich was a proper -wich town, however, in 2015 Oxford Archaeology discovered a Saxon burial site near the riverside with 76 skeletons from the late 7th or early 8th century. The absence of grave deposits indicates that this was an early Christian settlement, the first church, which stood to the north of the present parish church, was almost certainly pre-Norman and dedicated to Saint Lawrence. It was probably rebuilt in stone around 1100, from the 10th till the mid-12th century Woolwich was controlled by the abbots of St. Peters Abbey in Ghent. As a result of this tenure Woolwich is not mentioned in the Domesday Book, it is thought that the 63 acres listed as Hulviz refer to North Woolwich, medieval Woolwich was susceptible to flooding. In 1236 many were killed by a flood, Woolwich Ferry was first mentioned in 1308 but may be much older. Around Bell Water Gate some private shipbuilding or repair may have existed in the 15th century, a windmill was mentioned around 1450. Woolwich remained a relatively small Kentish settlement until the beginning of the 16th century, in 1512 it became home to Woolwich Dockyard, originally known as The Kings Yard, founded by Henry VIII to built his flagship Henry Grace à Dieu. Many great ships were built here, such as the Prince Royal, the Sovereign of the Seas, the Royal Charles, the Dolphin, the dockyard went through many ups and downs but survived for three and a half centuries, closing down in 1869. His mansion was Tower Place, which was closed in by a ropeyard and warehouses with open-air storage known initially as Gun Wharf or Gun Yard, then The Warren. The arsenal developed from a place of storage into a collection of factories, playing a central role in Britains imperial phase and its military. At wartime, tens of thousands of workers found employment here, other military establishments that were rooted in the arsenal were the Royal Artillery and the Royal Military Academy. They both moved to Woolwich Common in the late 18th century, in the 19th and 20th century several large barracks were built, as well as military schools and hospitals
Woolwich
–
Beresford Square market with
Royal Arsenal gatehouse and Cannon Square construction site
Woolwich
Woolwich
–
Woolwich Dockyard in 1790
Woolwich
–
Hare Street in 1911
6.
Royal Laboratory
–
It was originally known as the Woolwich Warren, having begun on land previously used as a domestic warren in the grounds of a Tudor house, Tower Place. Thereafter its operations were scaled down, it closed as a factory in 1967. Today the area, so long a secret enclave, is open to the public and is being redeveloped for housing and community use. The Board of Ordnance was both a civil and an office of State, independent of the Army, overseen by a high-ranking official. Its main areas of activity developed as follows, The origin of The Warren lies in a domestic warren at Tower Place in Old Woolwich, Tower Place was a Tudor mansion built in the 1540s for Martin Bowes, a wealthy goldsmith and merchant, later Lord Mayor of London. The house with its octagonal tower stood nearby Gun Wharf, where the Henry Grace à Dieu had been built around 1515, when Woolwich Dockyard moved west in the 1540s, Gun Wharf was mainly used for gun storage. In 1671, The Warren was officially established by the Board as an Ordnance Storage Depot and it occupied a 31-acre site, including Tower Place. The Board of Ordnance initially looked on the site as a convenient place for building a storehouse for powder and other stores of war, as at other Ordnance Yards the site was overseen by a Storekeeper, who was based in the old house. He was assisted by a Clerk of the Cheque, Clerk of the Survey, to begin with much of the Warren was preserved as open space with cannons stored in the open air and guns proved on ranges to the east. Gunpowder was stored in a converted dovecote initially, but before long specialist buildings began to appear, an ammunition laboratory was set up at the Warren in 1695, overseen by the Comptroller of Fireworks. The manufacturing process was conducted by hand, overseen by a Chief Firemaster, a pair of pavilions, which once faced each other across the centre of the courtyard, are now the oldest surviving buildings on the Arsenal site, they were being restored for residential use in 2013. The Comptroller, Royal Laboratory, had oversight of the Royal Gunpowder Mills in addition to the Woolwich manufactory, a gun foundry, overseen by a Master Founder, was established in 1717. In Woolwich, the original Royal Brass Foundry building survives and its handsome exterior encloses a space designed for pure industrial functionality, with height to accommodate a vertical boring machine, and tall doors permitting easy removal of newly made cannons. Completed guns could then be taken through what is now Dial Arch into a known as the Great Pile of buildings to be finished and stored. The first Master Founder, Andrew Schalch, served in post for 54 years before retiring in 1769 at the age of 78. In 1770 a revolutionary horse-powered horizontal boring machine was installed in the Foundry by his successor, remarkably, it remained in use until 1843 when a steam-powered equivalent replaced it. From the beginning, gun carriages had been stored at the Warren, by the 1750s manufacture of gun carriages was also taking place on site, overseen by the Constructor of Carriages. This took place around New Carriage Yard, the Board of Ordnance had had, from the early days of the Warren, teams of artillerymen and military engineers on site
Royal Laboratory
–
Woolwich Royal Arsenal gatehouse (Beresford Gate) in February 2007.
Royal Laboratory
–
Map of 1746 showing 'The Warren' (right) with its three quadrangles: the original Laboratory (1696), the Great Pile (1717-20) and New Carriage Yard (1728-9).
Royal Laboratory
–
One of a pair of 17th-century pavilions, the earliest buildings on the site, undergoing restoration, 2015.
Royal Laboratory
–
The Royal Brass Foundry (1717)
7.
Royal Gun Factory
–
It was originally known as the Woolwich Warren, having begun on land previously used as a domestic warren in the grounds of a Tudor house, Tower Place. Thereafter its operations were scaled down, it closed as a factory in 1967. Today the area, so long a secret enclave, is open to the public and is being redeveloped for housing and community use. The Board of Ordnance was both a civil and an office of State, independent of the Army, overseen by a high-ranking official. Its main areas of activity developed as follows, The origin of The Warren lies in a domestic warren at Tower Place in Old Woolwich, Tower Place was a Tudor mansion built in the 1540s for Martin Bowes, a wealthy goldsmith and merchant, later Lord Mayor of London. The house with its octagonal tower stood nearby Gun Wharf, where the Henry Grace à Dieu had been built around 1515, when Woolwich Dockyard moved west in the 1540s, Gun Wharf was mainly used for gun storage. In 1671, The Warren was officially established by the Board as an Ordnance Storage Depot and it occupied a 31-acre site, including Tower Place. The Board of Ordnance initially looked on the site as a convenient place for building a storehouse for powder and other stores of war, as at other Ordnance Yards the site was overseen by a Storekeeper, who was based in the old house. He was assisted by a Clerk of the Cheque, Clerk of the Survey, to begin with much of the Warren was preserved as open space with cannons stored in the open air and guns proved on ranges to the east. Gunpowder was stored in a converted dovecote initially, but before long specialist buildings began to appear, an ammunition laboratory was set up at the Warren in 1695, overseen by the Comptroller of Fireworks. The manufacturing process was conducted by hand, overseen by a Chief Firemaster, a pair of pavilions, which once faced each other across the centre of the courtyard, are now the oldest surviving buildings on the Arsenal site, they were being restored for residential use in 2013. The Comptroller, Royal Laboratory, had oversight of the Royal Gunpowder Mills in addition to the Woolwich manufactory, a gun foundry, overseen by a Master Founder, was established in 1717. In Woolwich, the original Royal Brass Foundry building survives and its handsome exterior encloses a space designed for pure industrial functionality, with height to accommodate a vertical boring machine, and tall doors permitting easy removal of newly made cannons. Completed guns could then be taken through what is now Dial Arch into a known as the Great Pile of buildings to be finished and stored. The first Master Founder, Andrew Schalch, served in post for 54 years before retiring in 1769 at the age of 78. In 1770 a revolutionary horse-powered horizontal boring machine was installed in the Foundry by his successor, remarkably, it remained in use until 1843 when a steam-powered equivalent replaced it. From the beginning, gun carriages had been stored at the Warren, by the 1750s manufacture of gun carriages was also taking place on site, overseen by the Constructor of Carriages. This took place around New Carriage Yard, the Board of Ordnance had had, from the early days of the Warren, teams of artillerymen and military engineers on site
Royal Gun Factory
–
Woolwich Royal Arsenal gatehouse (Beresford Gate) in February 2007.
Royal Gun Factory
–
Map of 1746 showing 'The Warren' (right) with its three quadrangles: the original Laboratory (1696), the Great Pile (1717-20) and New Carriage Yard (1728-9).
Royal Gun Factory
–
One of a pair of 17th-century pavilions, the earliest buildings on the site, undergoing restoration, 2015.
Royal Gun Factory
–
The Royal Brass Foundry (1717)
8.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
9.
Air strikes
–
An airstrike or air strike is an offensive operation carried out by attack aircraft. Air strikes are delivered from aircraft such as fighters, bombers, ground attack aircraft. The official definition includes all sorts of targets, including enemy air targets, weapons used in an airstrike can range from machine gun bullets and missiles to various types of bombs. It is also referred to as an air raid. In close air support, air strikes are controlled by trained observers for coordination with friendly ground troops in a manner derived from artillery tactics. On November 1,1911, Italian aviator Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti dropped four bombs on two Turkish-held oases in Libya, carrying out the worlds first air strike as part of the Italo-Turkish War, the use of air strikes was extended in World War I. For example, at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, however, it was not until World War II that the Oxford English Dictionary first records usage of the term air strike, which remained two separate words for some time thereafter. However, the climate played havoc with the Mosquitos wooden airframe. This period also marked the last combat deployment of British Spitfires, today, airstrike terminology has extended to the concept of the strike aircraft, what earlier generations of military aviators referred to as light bombers or attack aircraft. g. Airstrikes can be carried out for strategic purposes outside of general warfare, operation Opera was a single eight-ship Israeli airstrike against the Iraqi Osirak nuclear reactor, criticized by world opinion but not leading to a general outbreak of war. Such an example of the strike has created new questions for international law. Airstrike campaigns often cause the deaths of non-combatants, including civilians, international law apply the principles of military necessity, distinction, and proportionality. Aerial bombing of cities Aerial warfare Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Strategic bombing Time On Target
Air strikes
–
Result of an airstrike during the
Kosovo War
Air strikes
–
A-26 airstrike on warehouses in
Wonsan during the
Korean War
Air strikes
–
Most modern military aircraft such as this
F-22 Raptor carry
precision-guided munition, which military sources promote as decreasing civilian deaths.
10.
Rearmament (UK, 1930s)
–
In British history re-armament covers the period between 1934 and 1939, when a substantial programme of re-arming the nation was undertaken. After World War I, dubbed the war to end all wars, the Ten Year Rule said that a great war was not expected in the next ten years, this policy was abandoned in 1932. The group first considered the Far East, but soon looked at dangers nearer home, equally importantly, aircraft carriers of the Illustrious class and a series of large cruiser classes were ordered and expedited. The British Army was supplied with tanks and weapons e. g. howitzers. Government-backed Shadow Factories, generally privately owned but subsidised by the government, were established to increase the capacity of private industry, similarly Agency Factories supplemented the Royal Ordnance Factories. German re-armament Ten Year Rule Harris, J. P, the War Office and Rearmament 1935–39
Rearmament (UK, 1930s)
–
HMS Prince of Wales, ordered in 1936, as part of the re-armament programme.
11.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
12.
Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills
–
It was one of three Royal Gunpowder Mills in the United Kingdom but is the only site to have survived virtually intact. The Royal Gunpowder Mills, Waltham Abbey, were in operation for over 300 years, however, from the mid-1850s onwards the site was involved in developing new nitro-based explosives, the site grew in size, and gunpowder became less important. Its superior production methods and high quality results earned it a reputation on an international level, Mills were adaptable and in the early 17th century it was converted to an Oyle Mill, i. e. for producing vegetable oils. In the Second Dutch War gunpowder supply shortages were encountered and the oil mill was converted to gunpowder production, in 1665 it was acquired by Ralph Hudson using saltpetre made in Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire. The Hudson family sold out to William Walton at the end of the 17th century, the Waltham Abbey Mills were one of the first examples in the 18th century of an industrialised factory system, not often recognised. In 1735 they were described by Thomas Fuller, a local historian, in the 1780s there was fresh concern over security, quality and economy of supply. In October 1787 the Crown purchased the mills from John Walton for £10,000, congreve was a man of immense drive and vision, a pioneer of careful management, quality control and the application of the scientific method. Under his regime manufacture moved from what had been an art to, in the context of its day. The distinguished engineer John Rennie coined the phrase ‘The Old Establishment’ in his 1806 report on the Royal Gun Powder Factory, the term refers to the gunpowder mills when they were still privately owned, before they were acquired by The Crown in 1787. In the years following Waterloo the Mills entered a period of quiet with a decline in staff numbers. However, there was an advance in machinery and process development. The quiet was not to last, conflict broke out in 1854 with the Crimean War with Russia, followed by the Indian Mutiny and a succession of colonial conflicts followed, culminating in the Boer War of 1899 -1902. All of this provided the impulse for further development, World War I from 1914 to 1918 brought a huge upsurge in demand. Staff numbers increased by around 3,000 to a total of 6,230, the 3,000 additional workers were largely female, recruited from the surrounding area, and this was a significant social phenomenon. After World War I there was period of quiet before anxieties about the future surfaced again. It was decided that production at Waltham Abbey would be transferred to the west of the country, more distant. However, in the meantime, production continued and crucial development work was carried out on TNT production and on the new explosive RDX. During World War II, Waltham Abbey remained an important cordite production unit, RDX is one component of torpex, the explosive that was used in the Bouncing Bomb
Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills
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Napoleonic War battle reenactment event
13.
Waltham Abbey (town)
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Waltham Abbey is a suburban market town within the metropolitan area of London, England, the Greater London Urban Area and the Epping Forest District of Essex with a population of about 21,149. It is located 15 miles north east of central London and it is on the Greenwich Meridian, between the River Lea in the west and Epping Forest in the east. The town is situated north of the London Borough of Waltham Forest in East London and it is the resting place of King Harold Godwinson, who died in the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Henry VIII visited the town several times, including with his wife Anne Boleyn, Waltham Abbey takes its name from the Abbey Church of Waltham Holy Cross, a scheduled ancient monument that was prominent in the towns early history. The town is within the civil parish of Waltham Abbey which was known as Waltham Holy Cross until 1974. The parish has a council and is twinned with the German town of Hörstel. The name Waltham derives from weald or wald forest and ham homestead or enclosure, indeed, the former urban district was named Waltham Holy Cross, rather than Waltham Abbey. There are traces of prehistoric and Roman settlement in the town, ermine Street lies only 5 km west and the causeway across the River Lea from Waltham Cross in Hertfordshire may be a Roman construction. A local legend claims that Boudicas rebellion against the Romans ended in the neighbourhood and it is this cross that gave Waltham the earliest suffix to its name. After Tovis death around 1045, Waltham reverted to the King, Harold rebuilt Tovis church in stone around 1060, in gratitude it is said for his cure from a paralysis, through praying before the miraculous cross. Walthams people used the abbey as their church, and paid their tithes, worked the glebe as well any of their lords land. Legend has it that after his death at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, today, the spot is marked by a stone slab in the churchyard. In 1184, this was enlarged so that Waltham became an abbey with an abbot and twenty-four canons, to the abbeys west and south, the town grew as a linear development around a crossing road, although it had a single north-south High Street as late as 1848. The former, which existed from at least 1375, occupied the Lady Chapel in the part of the church. The Charnel Guild, which occurs as the Sepulchre in 1366, the towns dependence on the Abbey is signalled by its decline after the Abbey was dissolved and partially demolished in 1540, the last working abbey or monastery to be dissolved. Waltham Abbey vicarage is a 17th-century timber framed and plastered building and it was given by Edward Denny, 1st Earl of Norwich to create the first curacy, but was much altered in the 18th century and later, and was more recently architecturally Grade II*listed. In the early 19th century the church held three Sunday services, including one in the evening for the factory workers. In 1862, Holy Communion was celebrated monthly and attended by about 100, in the 17th century there were four churchwardens, one each for the town, Holyfield, Upshire, and Sewardstone
Waltham Abbey (town)
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The Abbey Church from Highbridge Street
Waltham Abbey (town)
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Waltham Abbey Church
Waltham Abbey (town)
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The grave of King Harold
Waltham Abbey (town)
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The Welsh Harp Inn
14.
Royal Small Arms Factory
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The Royal Small Arms Factory was a UK government-owned rifle factory in the London Borough of Enfield in an area generally known as the Lea Valley. The factory produced British military rifles, muskets and swords from 1816 and it closed in 1988, but some of its work was transferred to other sites. The factory was located at Enfield Lock on an island bordered by the River Lea. It was built on the instructions of the Board of Ordnance near the end of the Napoleonic War, the land was acquired in 1812 and the factory completed by 1816. Neighbouring farmland was acquired to become an area to test ordnance from the Royal Gunpowder Mill. The RSAF was originally all situated on the east side of the Lea, in the county of Essex in Waltham Abbey parish, the course of the river was diverted during the life of the factory, and part of the site then fell in Enfield parish. Local boundary changes initiated by SI 1993/1141 after it closed transferred the site entirely from Epping Forest to the London Borough of Enfield, the original ambitious plans by Captain John By included three mills. Later, the engineer John Rennie recommended the construction of a navigable leat, the leat was made, although only one mill with two waterwheels was completed. In 1816 the barrel branch was transferred from Lewisham, and by 1818 the lock and finishing branches had been moved to the site, a sword-making department was set up in 1823. The factory fought off the threat of closure in 1831, and remained quite modest in size until the Crimean War of 1853/1856, by 1856 a machine shop was built on American mass-production lines, using American machinery powered by steam engines. The shop was based on a design by John Anderson and built by the Royal Engineers, the workforce increased to 1000, and by 1860 an average of 1,744 rifles were produced per week. In 1866 another major expansion took place, when the watermill gave way to steampower, the total number of steam engines grew to sixteen, and by 1887 there were 2,400 employees. Production of the new rifle designed by James Paris Lee began in 1889. The famous Lee–Enfield rifle was designed in 1895, the factory expanded again in World War I, and in World War II. Both of these have long been closed, decline set in after World War II, and in 1963 half the site was closed. The Royal Small Arms Factory was privatised in 1984 along with a number of Royal Ordnance Factories to become part of Royal Ordnance Plc and they closed the site in 1988. The factory was set up because of disappointment with the poor quality, at this time in Britain, they were built as individual gun components mainly in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham by a number of independent manufacturers and then hand-assembled to produce rifles. These component makers eventually combined to become the Birmingham Small Arms Company, the Enfield factory was intended to improve the quality and to drive down costs
Royal Small Arms Factory
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RSAF machine shop overlooking basin, November 2007
Royal Small Arms Factory
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US Marine firing the L1A1 rifle
15.
Enfield Town
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Enfield Town, also known as Enfield, is the historic centre of the London Borough of Enfield. It is 10.1 miles north-northeast of central London, the area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. The town was originally in the county of Middlesex, but became part of Greater London on 1 April 1965 when the London Government Act 1963 was commenced, Enfield Town had a population of 115,762 in 2011. Enfield used to be a collection of communities spread around the royal hunting grounds of Enfield Chase. At the time of the Domesday Book the area was spelt Enefelde, by 1572 most of the basic street layout had been completed. The village green became the historic marketplace between the church and where the fountain now stands. A market is operated in this area, which is owned by the parish charity. Its name most likely came from Anglo-Saxon Ēanafeld or similar, meaning open land belonging to a man called Ēana or open land for lambs, the parish church, on the north side of the marketplace, is dedicated to St Andrew. There is some masonry surviving from the century, but the nave, north aisle, choir and tower are late fourteenth century, built of random rubble. The clerestory dates from the sixteenth century, and the south aisle was rebuilt in brick in 1824. Adjacent to the church is the old building of the Tudor period, Enfield Grammar School. A sixteenth century house, known since the eighteenth century as Enfield Palace, is remembered in the name of the Palace Gardens Shopping Centre. It was used as a school from around 1670 until the late nineteenth century. The Market was still prosperous in the eighteenth century. However the trading resumed in the 1870s, in 1904 a new wooden structure was built to replace the stone cross, by now decayed. The market is still in existence, administered by the Old Enfield Charitable trust, the charter of 1303 also gave the right to hold two annual fairs, one on St Andrews Day and the other in September. The New River, built to water to London from Hertfordshire, runs immediately behind the town centre through the Town Park. The Enfield Loop of the New River also passes through the fields of Enfield Grammar School
Enfield Town
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Enfield Town Centre
Enfield Town
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The White House, Silver Street, Enfield
Enfield Town
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St Andrew's Parish Church, Enfield Town
16.
Bombing
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A bomb is an explosive weapon that uses the exothermic reaction of an explosive material to provide an extremely sudden and violent release of energy. Bombs have been in use since the 11th century in Song Dynasty China, the term bomb is not usually applied to explosive devices used for civilian purposes such as construction or mining, although the people using the devices may sometimes refer to them as a bomb. The military use of the bomb, or more specifically aerial bomb action, typically refers to airdropped, unpowered explosive weapons most commonly used by air forces. Other military explosive weapons not classified as bombs include grenades, shells, depth charges, warheads when in missiles, in unconventional warfare, other names can refer to a range of offensive weaponry. For instance, in recent Middle Eastern conflicts, bombs called improvised explosive devices have been employed by insurgent fighters to great effectiveness, the word comes from the Latin bombus, which in turn comes from the Greek βόμβος, an onomatopoetic term meaning booming, buzzing. Explosive bombs were used in China in 1221, by a Jin dynasty army against a Song Dynasty city, Bombs built using bamboo tubes appear in the 11th century. Bombs made of cast iron shells packed with explosive gunpowder date to 13th century China, the term was coined for this bomb during a Jin dynasty naval battle of 1231 against the Mongols. When hit, even iron armour was pierced through. The Ming Dynasty text Huolongjing describes the use of gunpowder bombs. During the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Mongols used the explosive thunder-crash bombs against the Japanese, archaeological evidence of the thunder-crash bombs has been discovered in an underwater shipwreck off the shore of Japan by the Kyushu Okinawa Society for Underwater Archaeology. X-rays by Japanese scientists of the excavated shells confirmed that they contained gunpowder, explosive shock waves can cause situations such as body displacement, dismemberment, internal bleeding and ruptured eardrums. Shock waves produced by explosive events have two components, the positive and negative wave. The positive wave shoves outward from the point of detonation, followed by the vacuum space sucking back towards the point of origin as the shock bubble collapses. The greatest defense against shock injuries is distance from the source of shock, as a point of reference, the overpressure at the Oklahoma City bombing was estimated in the range of 28 MPa. A thermal wave is created by the release of heat caused by an explosion. Military bomb tests have documented temperatures of up to 2,480 °C, while capable of inflicting severe to catastrophic burns and causing secondary fires, thermal wave effects are considered very limited in range compared to shock and fragmentation. This would be fatal to humans, as tests have proven. Fragmentation is produced by the acceleration of shattered pieces of bomb casing, the use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, and appears in the Ming Dynasty text Huolongjing
Bombing
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The
Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) bomb produced in the
United States is the second most powerful conventional bomb in the world.
Bombing
–
A "wind-and-dust" bomb depicted in the
Ming Dynasty book
Huolongjing. The pot contains a tube of gunpowder, and was thrown at invaders.
Bombing
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An illustration depicting early bombs thrown at Manchu assault ladders during the siege of Ningyuan, from the book Thai Tsu Shih Lu Thu (Veritable Records of the Great Ancestor) written in 1635. The bombs are known as "thunder-crash bombs."
Bombing
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An illustration of a fragmentation bomb from the 14th century Ming Dynasty text Huolongjing. The black dots represent iron pellets.
17.
Imperial Chemical Industries
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Imperial Chemical Industries was a British chemical company and was, for much of its history, the largest manufacturer in Britain. It was formed by the merger of leading British chemical companies in 1926 and its headquarters were at Millbank in London, and it was a constituent of the FT30 and later the FTSE100 Indexes. ICI made paints and speciality products, including ingredients, speciality polymers, electronic materials, fragrances. It was acquired by AkzoNobel in 2008, who immediately sold parts of ICI to Henkel, the company was founded in December 1926 from the merger of four companies, Brunner Mond, Nobel Explosives, the United Alkali Company, and British Dyestuffs Corporation. It established its office at Millbank in London in 1928. Competing with DuPont and IG Farben, the new company produced chemicals, explosives, fertilisers, insecticides, dyestuffs, non-ferrous metals, in its first year turnover was £27 million. In 1940, ICI started British Nylon Spinners as a joint venture with Courtaulds, ICI also owned the Sunbeam motorcycle business, which had come with Nobel Industries, and continued to build motorcycles until 1937. During the Second World War, ICI was involved with the United Kingdoms nuclear weapons programme codenamed Tube Alloys, in the 1940s and 50s, the company established its pharmaceutical business and developed a number of key products, including Paludrine, halothane, Inderal, tamoxifen, and PEEK. ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957, ICI developed a fabric in the 1950s known as Crimplene, a thick polyester yarn used to make a fabric of the same name. The resulting cloth is heavy and wrinkle-resistant, and retains its shape well, the California-based fashion designer Edith Flagg was the first to import this fabric from Britain to the USA. During the first two years, ICI gave Flagg a large advertising budget to popularise the fabric across America, in 1960, Paul Chambers became the first chairman appointed from outside the company. Chambers employed the consultancy firm McKinsey to help with reorganising the company and his eight-year tenure saw export sales double, but his reputation was severely damaged by a failed takeover bid for Courtaulds in 1961–62. In 1962, ICI developed the controversial herbicide, paraquat, ICI was confronted with the nationalisation of its operations in Burma on 1 August 1962 as a consequence of the military coup. In 1964, ICI acquired British Nylon Spinners, the company it had set up in 1940 with Courtaulds. ICI surrendered its 37.5 per cent holding in Courtaulds and paid Courtaulds £2 million a year for five years, in return, Courtaulds transferred to ICI their 50 per cent holding in BNS. BNS was absorbed into ICIs existing polyester operation, ICI Fibres, the acquisition included BNS production plants in Pontypool, Gloucester and Doncaster, together with research and development in Pontypool. Peter Allen was appointed chairman between 1968 and 1971 and he presided over the purchase of Viyella. Jack Callard was appointed chairman from 1971 to 1975 and he almost doubled company profits between 1972 and 1974, and made ICI Britains largest exporter
Imperial Chemical Industries
–
A former ICI plant in
Huddersfield,
West Yorkshire, now owned by
Syngenta.
Imperial Chemical Industries
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Imperial Chemical Industries
18.
Royal Ordnance
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It owned some 16 factories, and employed about 19,000 staff. Royal Ordnance plc was bought by British Aerospace in April 1987, the name Royal Ordnance was retained for almost another twenty years, and the sites retained their former names, either as Royal Ordnance or later RO Defence sites. The Royal Ordnance name was dropped in 2004 and after having traded as Land Systems, the Royal Ordnance Factories can trace their history back to 1560 with the founding of the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey, Essex. This was linked to the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield Lock, all three were based near London— but not too close in case of explosion. The title of Royal Arsenal was introduced in 1805 to encompass the Royal Laboratories, Royal Gun Factory, and the Royal Carriage, which were originally separate and based in Greenwich. In 1927 these three Royal Factories were transferred, within the War Office, from the Ministry of Munitions to the Department of the Master-General of the Ordnance. As World War II loomed, a further 40 ROFs were built by the Ministry of Supply, from the late 1930s into the 1940s, the number of factory sites and personnel employed shrank considerably after the end of the Second World War. Other parts of the UKs defence research and design capability were later closed down, remained with the UK Ministry of Defence, later to become Dstl, or became part of the privatised QinetiQ. The small number of ROFs involved in weapons production, ROF Burghfield and ROF Cardiff, were removed from ROF management. They were transferred to the control of AWRE, which became the Atomic Weapons Establishment. Its headquarters was moved to ROF Chorley, Lancashire, with its office located in central London. The intention of the government at this stage was to privatise Royal Ordnance as soon as possible through a stock market flotation. In mid-1985 a target date of July 1986 was set, however, by June 1986 the government announced that flotation would not be possible and that it intended to sell the company privately. The following problems were identified as barriers to a flotation, The future of ROF Leeds, the future relationship between the MOD and the company. The financial position of the company.2 million, Vickers became Alvis Vickers and, in 2004, became part of BAE Systems, and the Leeds factory was closed. The relationship with the MOD was resolved by certain guarantees given to the company by the MOD regarding future procurement strategies, the financial position of the company was resolved by a Treasury cash injection and the proceeds of the ROF Leeds sale. Bids for Royal Ordnance Plc were invited in October 1986, resulting in six offers and these were eventually reduced to two, one from British Aerospace and one from Guest, Keen & Nettlefolds. The £188.5 million GBP BAe offer was accepted, at the time of the sale, RO Defence had 16 factories, and some 19,000 personnel were employed
Royal Ordnance
–
View of the cleared
ROF Chorley site. The explosive filling site was to the right of the railway; the area between the railway and the hedge was the site of ROF Chorley Halt; and to the right of the hedge is the former Headquarters building for ROF Chorley.
19.
J. Lyons and Co.
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J. Lyons & Co. was a market dominant British restaurant chain, food manufacturing, and hotel conglomerate founded in 1884. The company began as collaboration between the professional artist Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, in 1894 the company started a teashop in Piccadilly, London, and from 1909 developed this into a chain of teashops known as Lyons Corner Houses. From the 1930s Lyons began to develop a range of teas, biscuits. Lyons, who founded the UKs Territorial Force, now known as the Army Reserve, was appointed to run the company. J. Lyons & Co. was a pioneer in introducing computers to business, between 1951 and 1963, the company manufactured and sold a range of LEO computers. The company was a food manufacturer, with factories at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith. To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of tea shops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, the tea shops were slightly more up market than their ABC counterparts. They were notable for their design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Until the 1940s they had a certain chic, but by the 1950s and 60s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea. The tea shops always had a counter at the front. The Corner Houses, which first appeared in 1909 and remained until 1977, were noted for their art deco style, in addition, they possessed hairdressing salons, telephone booths, theatre booking agencies and at one period a twice-a-day food delivery service. On the other floors were several restaurants, each with a different theme, for a time the Corner Houses were open 24 hours a day, and at their peak each branch employed around 400 staff. They featured window displays designed by Kay Lipton and, in the post-war period, between 1896 and 1965 Lyons owned the Trocadero, which was similar in size and style to the Corner Houses. As well as the tea shops and Corner Houses, Lyons ran other large restaurants such as the Angel Cafe Restaurant in Islington and its chains have included Steak Houses, Wimpy Bars, Baskin-Robbins and Dunkin Donuts. The artist Kay Lipton designed all the windows for the Corner Houses under the jurisdiction of Mr. Norman Joseph the Director post-war. The Regent Palace Hotel, Glasshouse Street, London was operated by Strand Hotels Limited, Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel, Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, Whites Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that operated until the demise of the group in the mid-70s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London. In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool
J. Lyons and Co.
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A Lyons' Tea sign
J. Lyons and Co.
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Lyons' Cafe in Reading, Berkshire, 1945
J. Lyons and Co.
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Customers enjoying afternoon tea at Lyons' Corner House on Coventry Street, London, 1942
J. Lyons and Co.
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A Corner House window display
20.
Imperial Tobacco
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Imperial Brands plc, formerly Imperial Tobacco Group plc is a British multinational tobacco company headquartered in Bristol, United Kingdom. Imperial Brands produces over 320 billion cigarettes per year, has 51 factories worldwide and its brands include Davidoff, West, Gauloises Blondes, Montecristo, Golden Virginia, Drum, and Rizla. Imperial Brands is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index and it had a market capitalisation around £24.3 billion as of 23 December 2011, the 19th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange. Imperial Tobacco Canada has no relationship to Imperial Tobacco Group plc, Imperial Tobacco Canada is the Canadian subsidiary of British American Tobacco. The Imperial Tobacco Company was created in 1901 through the amalgamation of 13 British tobacco and cigarette companies, W. D. & H. O. Wills of Bristol, John Player & Sons of Nottingham, and 11 other independent family businesses, first W. D. & H. O. Wills of Bristol merged with Stephen Mitchell & Son of Glasgow. In 1904, James & Finlay Bell Ltd merged with Stephen Mitchell & Son, the Companys first chairman was William Henry Wills of the Wills Company. In 1902, the Imperial Tobacco Company and the American Tobacco Company agreed to form a joint venture, the parent companies agreed not to trade in each others domestic territory and to assign trademarks, export businesses, and overseas subsidiaries to the joint venture. It built the Imperial Tobacco Company Building at Mullins, South Carolina, American Tobacco sold its share in 1911, but Imperial maintained an interest in British American Tobacco until 1980. In 1973, the Imperial Tobacco Company, having become increasingly diversified by acquisition of restaurant chains, food services and distribution businesses, in 1910, Imperial Tobacco formed the Imperial Tobacco Company of India. In 1985, the acquired the Peoples Drugstore chain and all subsidiaries from A. C. In 1986 the Company was acquired by the conglomerate Hanson Trust plc for £2. 5billion and this also led to a dispute over pension payments to employees, as seen in Imperial Group Pension Trust Ltd v Imperial Tobacco Ltd. In 1996, following a decision to concentrate on core activities, Hanson de-merged Imperial. In 2007, Imperial Tobacco entered the United States tobacco market with its $1. 9-billion acquisition of Commonwealth Brands Inc, in February 2008, Imperial acquired the worlds then fifth-largest tobacco company, Altadis, whose brands included Fortuna, Gauloises Blondes, and Gitanes. A number of closures were subsequently announced, including the long-running cigar factory in Bristol. However, this case was dismissed on 30 September 2010 by Lord Bracadale in the Court of Session in Edinburgh. In 2011, Altadis USA Inc. said it would add to its Fort Lauderdale, Florida, headquarters and move Commonwealth Brands Inc. employees from Bowling Green, the companys name changed to Commonwealth-Altadis Inc. In 2013, Imperial opened a new headquarters in Bristol.4 billion
Imperial Tobacco
–
A 2-ounce (57 g) tin for J&F Bell "Three Nuns" tobacco
Imperial Tobacco
–
Imperial Tobacco Group plc
Imperial Tobacco
–
The Reemtsma head office in Hamburg, Germany
Imperial Tobacco
–
A packet of Fortuna cigarettes
21.
Courtaulds Ltd
–
Courtaulds was a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of fabric, clothing, artificial fibres, and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the worlds leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds plc and Courtaulds Textiles Ltd. The Company was founded by George Courtauld and his cousin Peter Taylor in 1794 as a silk, crepe, in 1810, his American-born son Samuel Courtauld was managing his own silk mill in Braintree, Essex. In 1818, George Courtauld returned to America, leaving Samuel Courtauld and Taylor to expand the business – now known as Courtauld & Taylor – by building further mills in Halstead and Bocking. In 1825 Courtauld installed an engine at the Bocking mill. His mills, however, remained dependent on young female workers – in 1838. By this time, Courtauld was a wealthy man but was also suffering from deafness. His great-nephew Samuel Courtauld became chairman of the Courtauld company in 1921 but is remembered today as the founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London. William Julien Courtauld was also a benefactor of the arts, he gave artworks to the Essex County Council chamber at Chelmsford and the town hall at Braintree in the 1930s. Wishing to reduce their dependence on natural silk, in 1904, Courtaulds acquired the Cross and they set up the first factory to produce it in Coventry UK in 1905. The early yarns were first woven into fabrics at the Halstead Mill in Essex in March 1906, however, in a few years the process became highly successful and was responsible for transforming the silk weaver into the worlds leading man-made fibre production company. Courtaulds also entered the market of cellulosics in North America with the setting up of the American Viscose Corporation in 1909, the investment in the US was highly successful, but its sale at a knock-down price was enforced in 1941 as part of the negotiations which preceded Lend-Lease. In 1927–28 Courtaulds and Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken gained control of the Italian rayon manufacturer SNIA Viscosa from Riccardo Gualino, a German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced Gualino as head of the firm and cut output drastically. The foreign intervention was seen as humiliating by the fascists, in Europe Courtaulds expanded its cellulosics business both directly and in joint ventures, including British Cellophane. In 1945 Courtaulds remained one of the four groups which dominated the man-made fibre industry in Europe and this activity expanded until the 1960s, when these products were replaced by newer developments. Courtaulds acquired Fine Spinners and Doublers in 1963 and the Lancashire Cotton Corporation in 1964, Courtaulds was one of the earliest companies in the UK to establish an economics department. In the three decades following World War II that department made notable contributions to the understanding of investment appraisal, Courtaulds had closed many of its UK factories and moved production to new Asian sites, but its main customer Marks and Spencer wanted better prices. Further, its profit was coming from its fiber and chemicals businesses
Courtaulds Ltd
–
Courtalds Factory at Spondon in Derbyshire
Courtaulds Ltd
–
Courtaulds
Courtaulds Ltd
–
Architects
22.
Co-operative Wholesale Society
–
It is the largest consumer co-operative in the UK and owned by more than 4 million active members. No year end dividend was paid in 2015, the Co-operative Group has over 70,000 employees across the UK. It introduced The Co-operative brand in 2007, which is used by many consumers co-operatives in the UK and it replaced this for its own businesses with a revitalised version of its late 1960s Co-op logo in 2016. It has held the Fair Tax Mark since 2015, the Groups roots are traced back to the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, established in 1844. Although The Co-operative Group incorporates the original Rochdale Society, the core for much of its history were its wholesale operations. This began in 1863 when the North of England Co-operative Wholesale Industrial, by 1872, it was known as the Co-operative Wholesale Society and it was wholly owned by the co-operatives which traded with it. The CWS grew rapidly and supplied produce to co-operative stores across England and it was this continued and fierce competition with other non-co-operative wholesalers which led to the CWS becoming highly innovative. By 1890 the CWS had established significant branches in Leeds, Blackburn, Bristol, Nottingham and Huddersfield alongside a number of factories which produced biscuits, Boots, Soap and textiles. In an attempt to drive down the significant cost of transportation for produce the CWS even began its own shipping line which initially sailed from Goole docks to parts of continental Europe. One of the CWS steamships, the Pioneer, was the first commercial vessel to use the Manchester Ship Canal. This rapid expansion continued so that by the outbreak of World War One the CWS had major offices in the United States, Denmark, Australia and a tea plantation in India. There was a deal of consideration on the role of the CWS in the British co-operative movement around the turn of the twentieth century. In contrast to this, the CWS had its aim to be the centrepoint for the whole movement in the UK. To this end, they started to assist the local societies in more ways than simply as a wholesaler. The CWS Bank, the precursor to The Co-operative Bank, financed loans for societies to use for expansion through purchasing new buildings and it was hoped that these financial ties, as well as the CWS corporate dividend, would increase loyalty to the CWS. This report received criticism from the fiercely local co-operative societies. The Co-operative Independent Commission was tasked with investigating the decline in the co-op movement and this was not to say that the Co-op had not been modernising, notably through opening self-service stores and supermarkets. The CWS responded with operation facelift in 1968 which introduced the first national co-operative branding, though Operation Facelift led to some improvements, the movement remained largely unreformed with its grocery marketshare continuing a downward trend
Co-operative Wholesale Society
–
Hanover Building, Manchester, former head office
Co-operative Wholesale Society
–
CWS flour mill in
Silvertown, London, c. 1915
23.
Lever Brothers
–
Lever Brothers was a British manufacturing company founded in 1885 by brothers William Hesketh Lever and James Darcy Lever. They invested in and successfully promoted a new soap-making process invented by chemist William Hough Watson, in 1930, Lever Brothers merged with Margarine Unie to form Unilever. Starting with a grocery business begun by his father, William Lever. The brothers teamed up with a Bolton chemist, William Hough Watson, Watson invented the process which resulted in a new soap, using glycerin and vegetable oils such as palm oil, rather than tallow. The resulting soap was a good, free-lathering soap, at first named Honey Soap then later named Sunlight Soap, production reached 450 tons per week by 1888. Larger premises were built on marshes at Bromborough Pool on the Wirral Peninsula at what became Port Sunlight, though the company was named Lever Brothers, William Levers brother and co-director James never took a major part in running the business. He fell ill in 1895, probably as a result of diabetes, Lever Brothers was one of several British companies that took an interest in the welfare of its employees. By 1900 Lifebuoy, Lux and Vim brands had been added and subsidiaries had set up in the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Germany. By 1911 the company had its own oil palm plantations in Belgian Congo, Lever Brothers Ltd also acquired other soap companies including A&F Pears, Gossages of Widnes, Watsons of Leeds, Crosfields of Warrington, Hazlehurst & Sons of Runcorn and Hudsons of Liverpool. The town Leverville was founded in the Bandundu district, named after William Lever, Lever Brothers rode the cresting late-Victorian consumer revolution to build a vast worldwide industrial empire. Four years after William Levers death in 1925, his enterprises were amalgamated as Unilever, by 1930, it employed 250,000 people and in terms of market value, was the largest company in Britain. The company grew and operated until 1930, when it merged with a Dutch margarine company, Margarine Unie, to form Unilever, as part of the agreement, Lever Brothers changed its name to Unilever plc, and forms the British half of the dual-listed company. Although the two companies have separate shareholders and stock exchange listings, they have a board of directors. The Lever Brothers name was kept for a time as an imprint, as well as the name of the US subsidiary, Lever Brothers Company, Lever Brothers was sold to a US capital firm Pensler Capital Corporation and renamed Korex in 2008. Korex Don Valley assumed operations of the Lever Brothers Toronto plant and it has since closed and gone bankrupt. The Toronto plant is now being redeveloped into an office and industrial district by First Gulf Corporation, among its presidents was Charles Luckman who in the 1950s championed the construction of the Lever House in New York City. Breeze detergent Lever & Kitchen Lever Brothers Factory originally located in Balmain, New South Wales, Australia Port Sunlight
Lever Brothers
–
Lever House,
New York City
24.
Bristol
–
Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
Bristol
–
Bristol
Bristol
Bristol
–
Black and white etching showing the towers of
St Stephen's Church,
St Augustine the Less Church and
Bristol Cathedral, published c.1850
Bristol
–
West front of Bristol Cathedral
25.
Weston-super-Mare
–
Weston-super-Mare /ˈwɛstən ˌsuːpər ˈmɛər/ is a town in Somerset, England, on the Bristol Channel 18 miles south west of Bristol between Worlebury Hill and Bleadon Hill. It includes the suburbs of Oldmixon, West Wick and Worle and its population at the 2011 census was 76,143. Since 1983, Weston has been twinned with Hildesheim, Germany, the growth continued until the second half of the 20th century, when tourism declined and some local industries closed. A regeneration programme is being undertaken with attractions including the Helicopter Museum, Weston-super-Mare Museum, Grand Pier, the Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral offer day sea trips from Knightstone Island to various destinations along the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary. Cultural venues include The Playhouse, the Winter Gardens and Blakehay Theatre, owing to the large tidal range in the Bristol Channel, the low tide mark in Weston Bay is about 1 mile from the seafront. Although the beach itself is sandy, low tide uncovers areas of mud, hence the colloquial name. These mudflats are very dangerous to walk in and are crossed by the mouth of the River Axe, just to the north of the town is Sand Point which marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel. It is also the site of the Middle Hope biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest, in the centre of the town is Ellenborough Park, another SSSI due to the range of plant species found there. Weston comes from the Anglo-Saxon for the west tun or settlement, prior to 1348 it was known as Weston-juxta-Mare. The name was changed by Ralph of Shrewsbury, who was the Bishop of Bath, Westons oldest structure is Worlebury Camp, on Worlebury Hill, dating from the Iron Age. Castle Batch was a castle once stood overlooking the town. The present site has a mound of 160 feet in diameter which is believed to be the remains of a motte. The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred, the medieval church of St John was demolished in 1824 and built anew on the same site, though a stump of the Medieval preaching cross survives by the exterior south wall. The former rectory is a 17th-century structure with later additions, though it remains adjacent to the church it has not been a parsonage house since the end of the 19th century. Today it is known as Glebe House and is divided into flats, the Old Thatched Cottage restaurant on the seafront carries the date 1774, it is the surviving portion of a summer cottage built by the Revd. The Pigott family of Brockley, who were the local Lords of the Manor, had a residence at Grove House. Weston owes its growth and prosperity to the Victorian era boom in seaside holidays, construction of the first hotel in the village started in 1808, it was called Reeves. Along with nearby Burnham-on-Sea, Weston benefited from proximity to Bristol, the first attempt at an artificial harbour was made in the late 1820s at the islet of Knightstone and a slipway built from Anchor Head towards Birnbeck Island
Weston-super-Mare
–
A view over Weston-super-Mare
Weston-super-Mare
–
Plan of Worlebury Camp
Weston-super-Mare
–
Birnbeck Pier.
Weston-super-Mare
–
The Mercury Office in Waterloo Street by Hans Price
26.
Haltwhistle
–
Haltwhistle is a small town and civil parish in Northumberland, England,10 miles east of Brampton, near Hadrians Wall. It had a population of 3,811 at the 2011 Census, stone-built houses are a feature of Haltwhistle. It is one of two settlements in Great Britain which claim to be the geographic centre of the island. The name Haltwhistle has nothing to do with a railway stop, early forms of the name are Hautwesel, Hautwysel, Hawtewysill, Hautwysell, Haltwesell. The second part -twistle relates to two streams or rivers and it derives from two Old English words twicce or twise, twice, division into two and wella, stream, brook. The second word is reduced in the word to ull. All but one of the examples in place names represent a high tongue of land between two streams where they join. The first part is derived from Old English hēafod, here hill-top, in general, head, headland, summit. If so, it describes the hill-top on which Holy Cross Church, rowland suggests Hal from hill An suggestion is French haut-, meaning high, since the settlement already existed long before the Norman Conquest. Haltwhistle was probably in existence in Roman times, as it is one of the closest approaches of the River South Tyne in its upland reaches to Hadrians Wall, the old Roman road or Stanegate passes just two miles to the north of the town. The development of the town was based on its position on the main Newcastle to Carlisle road, the gold coins were, one of Claudius Caesar, reverse Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, one of Nero and one of Vespasian. The find is known as the Thorngrafton Hoard and the empty arm-purse can still be seen in the museum at Chesters Fort, more recently, paint manufacture became a major commercial force in the town, but has now stopped major production. Current local employers include factories making plastic bottles and de-icing products, in the 21st century, the tourist industry dominates the economy with Hadrians Wall and walking and rambling counting among the principal interests of tourists. Haltwhistle lies within the now unitary Northumberland County Council and was up until April 2009 part of Tynedale district and it is believed that Haltwhistle may be one of the smallest towns to have made such a provision in Great Britain. An electoral ward with the name still exists. This ward stretches from Hexham south up the R, South Tyne and has a total population taken at the 2011 Census of 4,832. The town is in the constituency of Hexham. Haltwhistle was a town for the exchange of local goods
Haltwhistle
–
Main Street Haltwhistle looking east
Haltwhistle
–
Haltwhistle Burn between the town and Hadrian's wall
Haltwhistle
–
Haltwhistle railway station
27.
Linlithgow
–
Linlithgow is a royal burgh in West Lothian, Scotland. It is West Lothians county town, reflected in the alternative name of Linlithgowshire. An ancient town, it lies south of its two most prominent landmarks, Linlithgow Palace and Linlithgow Loch, and north of the Union Canal, linlithgows patron saint is Saint Michael and its motto is St. Michael is kinde to straingers. A statue of the saint holding the coat of arms stands on the High Street. Linlithgow is located in the north-east of West Lothian, close to the border with Stirlingshire and it lies 20 miles west of Edinburgh along the main railway route to Glasgow. The nearby village of Blackness once served as the burghs port, Linlithgow is overlooked by its local hill, Cockleroi. The name Linlithgow comes from the Old British lynn llaith cau meaning lake in the damp hollow, originally Linlithgow referred to the loch itself, the town being known as just Lithgow. Folk etymology associated this name with the Gaelic liath gu meaning grey dog, the present Palace was started in 1424 by James I of Scotland. It was burnt in 1746, and, whilst unroofed, it is largely complete in terms of its apartments. Linlithgow was also the site of the Battle of Linlithgow Bridge at the edge of the town. The roadway to Linlithgow over the River Avon is described by scholars as a lifted road, besides the Palace, a second attraction, standing adjacent, is 15th century St. Michaels Church. Its western tower originally had a stone crown spire, of the type seen also on St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, or Newcastle Cathedral. In 1964 a replacement and controversial spire in aluminium in a style by Scots architect Sir Basil Spence. Many historic buildings line the High Street, on the south side ground levels rise and several historic wynds and closes as found in Edinburgh still exist. The most prominent space is on axis with the road to the Palace and this contains the Cross Well of 1807 which proclaims itself to be a replica of its 1628 predecessor. To its north stands the Town House of 1668 by the master mason John Smith and this replaced a previous hall demolished by Oliver Cromwells army in 1650. Much of its interior was removed in a modernisation project of 1962. The burghs coat of arms features a black bitch chained to an oak tree on an island, and townsfolk are known as black bitches
Linlithgow
–
Linlithgow from
Linlithgow Palace
Linlithgow
–
Linlithgow Palace from the public park surrounding it, known as The Peel
Linlithgow
–
The south side of the High Street was spared the demolition inflicted upon the north side in the 1960s.
Linlithgow
–
Linlithgow Canal Basin
28.
English Midlands
–
The Midlands is a cultural and geographic area roughly spanning central England that broadly corresponds to the early medieval Kingdom of Mercia. It borders South East England, South West England, North West England, Yorkshire and Humber, East of England and its largest city is Birmingham, and it was an important location for the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The greater part of the area is formed of two English statistical regions, the West Midlands and East Midlands, the Midlands does not correspond to any current administrative area, and there is therefore no strict definition. With more restricted boundaries than the area known as the Midlands. These are also constituencies of the European Parliament, the East Midlands region comprises the shire counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire and Nottinghamshire and the unitary county of Rutland. The two regions have a population of 10,135,000, and an area of 11,053 sq mi. The largest Midlands conurbation, which includes the cities of Birmingham, various part of the Midlands are somewhat poetically referred to as the Heart of England, especially in tourist literature. The various areas of the Midlands have their own character, giving rise to a high number of local history. Nottingham played a part in the English Civil War, which is commemorated in a number of place names. Areas such as Derbyshires Amber Valley and Erewash combine attractive countryside with industrial heritage and are home to historic canals, the Black Country, broadly the boroughs of Dudley, Sandwell, Wolverhampton and Walsall, played an important part in the Industrial Revolution. The Midlands is predominantly low-lying and flat in character, although isolated hills such as Turners Hill have extensive views. Upland areas lie in the west and north of the region with the Shropshire Hills to the west, close to the Welsh border, the Shropshire Hills reach heights of over 500 m, including the Long Mynd, Clee Hills and Stiperstones ridge. Wenlock Edge, running through the middle of the Shropshire Hills AONB, is a long, low ridge, the Peak District reaches heights of between 300 m and 600 m with Kinder Scout being the highest point at 636 m. Further south, the Welsh border reaches over 700 m high, at Black Mountain, other small areas of lower hills in the Midlands include Cannock Chase in Staffordshire, Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire, and the Lincolnshire Wolds in Lincolnshire. The Cotswolds – designated an AONB in 1966, – extend for over 90 miles through six counties, but centred on Gloucestershire. They reach a highest point of 330 m at Cleeve Hill, the Malverns are formed of some of the oldest rock in England and extend for some 13 km through two West Midlands counties as well as northern Gloucestershire in the southwest. The highest point of the hills is the Worcestershire Beacon at 425 m above sea level, the Midlands has a temperate maritime climate. With cold, cloudy, wet winters and comfortable, mostly dry, the temperature usually ranges from −0.4 °C during winter nights to 24.1 °C during summer days
English Midlands
–
The Midlands in England
29.
Birmingham
–
Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment
Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham
30.
Explosive
–
An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
Explosive
–
Tet Offensive 1968. 175mm cannons at USMC Camp Carroll firing on advancing enemy troops as seen from LZ Betty 15 miles southeast.
31.
Wales
–
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
Wales
–
Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
Wales
–
Flag
Wales
–
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Wales (disambiguation).
Wales
–
Coin of
Magnus Maximus
32.
Lobbying
–
Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of officials in their daily life, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals in the sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials. Lobbyists may be among a legislators constituencies, meaning a voter or bloc of voters within their district, or not, they may engage in lobbying as a business. Professional lobbyists are people whose business is trying to influence legislation, regulation, or other government decisions, actions, individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or as a small part of their normal job. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying that has become influential, the ethics and morality of lobbying are dual-edged. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, when the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. The failure of government officials to serve the public interest as a consequence of lobbying by special interests who provide benefits to the official is an example of agent misdirection. One story held that the term originated at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC, a lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying as part of laws to prevent political corruption, Lobby groups may concentrate their efforts on the legislatures, where laws are created, but may also use the judicial branch to advance their causes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, for example, filed suits in state and their efforts resulted in the Supreme Court declaring such laws unconstitutional. They may use a device known as amicus curiae, literally friend of the court. Briefs are written documents filed with a court, typically by parties to a lawsuit, amici curiae briefs are briefs filed by people or groups who are not parties to a suit. These briefs are entered into the records, and give additional background on the matter being decided upon. Advocacy groups use these briefs both to share their expertise and to promote their positions, over the past twenty years lobbying in Australia has grown from a small industry of a few hundred employees to a multibillion-dollar per year industry. Lobbying has become a fact of life and is now endemic in local, state. It is not just the local councillors and state and federal politicians being lobbied, in Australia, lobbyists are expected to organise a pass to obtain access to the federal parliament. The Parliamentary Pass must be signed by two parliamentarians and it is administered by the Department of Parliamentary Services and has the enforcement of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The Pass is valid for two years, however, the Parliamentary Pass is not absolutely necessary, as some lobbyists are simply signed in on the day of their visit as guests of Senators or Members
Lobbying
–
Box offered by the
tobacco lobbyists to
Kartika Liotard in September 2013
Lobbying
–
Wikimania 2009, results of the discussion about possible contents of European lobbying
Lobbying
–
K Street NW at 19th Street in
Washington D.C., part of downtown Washington's maze of high-powered "
K Street lobbyist " and
law firm office buildings.
33.
Ministry of Defence Police
–
The Ministry of Defence Police is a civilian police force which is part of the United Kingdoms Ministry of Defence. The MDP are not Military Police and should not be confused with the Royal Military Police or any other Service Police organisation, the MDP has an established strength of 2,700 police officers, based at numerous defence locations across the United Kingdom. The force, which consists of two divisions, is headquartered at MDP Wethersfield, Essex, Although superficially similar to other UK police forces, the MDP is significantly different in role, function and accountability. MDP officers are attested as constables under the Ministry of Defence Police Act 1987, all MDP officers are trained to use firearms and 90% of those on duty are armed at any given time. These overseas missions are carried out under the mandates of the United Nations, NATO, or the Foreign, the MDP is currently undergoing significant restructuring as part of the coalition governments post 2010 austerity measures, and the Strategic Defence and Security Review. Its budget was cut from £360 million to £180 million and it is to lose 20% of its manpower, the new, smaller force will concentrate on high end tasks such as nuclear weapons security and mobile armed policing of the defence estate. The Ministry of Defence Police was formed in 1971 by the merger of three civil constabularies, the Air Force Department Constabulary, the Army Department Constabulary, and the Admiralty Constabulary. These earlier constabularies were formed as a result of the Special Constables Act 1923 and their powers came from different legislative sources. During the period 2004 -2013 the MDP was part of the wider Ministry of Defence Police, as a result of cuts made to the UK defence budget, arising from the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010, the MDPGA was disbanded on 1 April 2013. The MDP returned to police force status. The MGS was cut heavily and became part of the new Defence Infrastructure Organisation, the MDP are not Military Police and should not be confused with the Royal Military Police or any other Service Police organisation. Although some critics in the press and pressure groups consider the MDP to be a Paramilitary force, this is a claim that is denied by the MDP, to provide specialist civil policing support to defence and other international policing commitments, in support of UK government policy. To maintain specialist policing capabilities that can be deployed at short notice as part of the response to requirements at defence establishments in the UK. The MDP is currently deployed at approximately 55 defence locations around the United Kingdom and these include—but are no longer limited to—military establishments, defence housing estates, military training areas, the royal dockyards, and the Atomic Weapons Establishment. Since January 2008, the MDP has also taken on the role of providing armed security at four gas terminals in the UK, part of the Critical National Infrastructure. In February 2015, the MDP deployed officers to GCHQ Cheltenham on a full-time basis, the MDP once had a presence at 120 Ministry of Defence sites such as the Royal Arsenal, munitions and storage depots, Royal Ordnance Factories, and Defence Research Establishments. Many Armed Forces locations that previously relied upon the MDP for armed security have transferred that role to the Military Provost Guard Service, some have retained an MDP presence for purely policing purposes, albeit in reduced numbers. The MDP is classified by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 as a police force
Ministry of Defence Police
–
Badge of the Ministry of Defence Police
Ministry of Defence Police
–
MDP officers conducting a firearms search of a warship 2007
Ministry of Defence Police
–
MDP officers armed with
MP7s patrol the Government Security Zone in
Whitehall,
London.
Ministry of Defence Police
–
An MDP officer (right)—accompanied by an
RMP NCO—patrol
Exeter city centre on OP Dissuade, the policing of alcohol-related disorder by off-duty service personnel.
34.
Small arms
–
In international arms control, small arms include revolvers and pistols, rifles and carbines, assault rifles, submachine guns and light machine guns. Together with light weapons, they comprise the Small Arms and Light Weapons protocol, in the U. S. military, small arms are man portable, individual, and crew-served weapon systems used mainly against personnel and lightly armored or unarmored equipment. However, in regard to management, the U. S. Army says small arms/light weapons are, Handguns, shoulder-fired weapons, light automatic weapons up to. Much of the work to address the illegal arms trade is raised in the United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms. In 2013, the Small Arms Survey said that of the 875 million small arms distributed globally,650 million — almost 75 percent — are in civilian hands, about 200 million are controlled by armed forces and about 26 million by law enforcement agencies. Gang members hold between 2 and 10 million small arms and armed, non-state actors hold about 1.4 million, together, the small-arms arsenals of non-state actors and gangs account for 0.4 to 1.3 percent of the global total. Arms trafficking Firearms Gun control Small arms trade SALW Dikshif, P. Proliferation of Small Arms and Minor Weapons, Strategic Analysis, Vol.17 May 1994. Gould, C. and Lamb, G. Hide & Seek, Taking Account of Small Arms in Southern Africa, Institute for Security Studies, federation of American Scientists Small Arms Monitoring page Small Arms Survey How Small Arms Work - Training Film on YouTube
Small arms
–
The three weapons on the left are small arms captured in
Fallujah,
Iraq, by the
U.S. Marine Corps in 2004.
35.
Perimeter
–
A perimeter is a path that surrounds a two-dimensional shape. The term may be used either for the path or its length—it can be thought of as the length of the outline of a shape, the perimeter of a circle or ellipse is called its circumference. Calculating the perimeter has several practical applications, a calculated perimeter is the length of fence required to surround a yard or garden. The perimeter of a wheel describes how far it will roll in one revolution, similarly, the amount of string wound around a spool is related to the spools perimeter. The perimeter is the distance around a shape, perimeters for more general shapes can be calculated, as any path, with ∫0 L d s, where L is the length of the path and d s is an infinitesimal line element. Both of these must be replaced with by algebraic forms in order to be practically calculated, the first mathematician known to have used this kind of reasoning is Archimedes, who approximated the perimeter of a circle by surrounding it with regular polygons. The perimeter of a polygon equals the sum of the lengths of its sides, in particular, the perimeter of a rectangle of width w and length ℓ equals 2 w +2 ℓ. An equilateral polygon is a polygon which has all sides of the same length, to calculate the perimeter of an equilateral polygon, one must multiply the common length of the sides by the number of sides. A regular polygon may be characterized by the number of its sides and by its circumradius, that is to say, the length of its sides can be calculated using trigonometry. If R is a regular polygons radius and n is the number of its sides, a splitter of a triangle is a cevian that divides the perimeter into two equal lengths, this common length being called the semiperimeter of the triangle. The three splitters of a triangle all intersect each other at the Nagel point of the triangle, a cleaver of a triangle is a segment from the midpoint of a side of a triangle to the opposite side such that the perimeter is divided into two equal lengths. The three cleavers of a triangle all intersect each other at the triangles Spieker center, the perimeter of a circle, often called the circumference, is proportional to its diameter and its radius. That is to say, there exists a constant number pi, π, such that if P is the perimeter and D its diameter then. In terms of the r of the circle, this formula becomes. To calculate a circles perimeter, knowledge of its radius or diameter, the problem is that π is not rational, nor is it algebraic. So, obtaining an approximation of π is important in the calculation. The computation of the digits of π is relevant to many fields, such as mathematical analysis, algorithmics, the perimeter and the area are two main measures of geometric figures. Confusing them is an error, as well as believing that the greater one of them is
Perimeter
–
The
Neuf-Brisach fortification perimeter is complicated. The shortest path around it is along its
convex hull.
Perimeter
–
Perimeter of a rectangle.
36.
ROF Bishopton
–
The Royal Ordnance Factory was a WW2 Ministry of Supply Explosive Factory. It is sited adjacent to the village of Bishopton in Renfrewshire, the factory was built to manufacture the propellant cordite for the British Army and the Royal Air Force. It also later produced cordite for the Royal Navy, the Ministry of Works were responsible for the site. It was the biggest munitions factory the MOD had, with up to 20,000 workers, the explosives factory opened between December 1940 and April 1941. It was one of three propellant factories built for the MOD, the others were ROF Wrexham and ROF Ranskill. Manufacturing survived on parts of the Bishopton site until 2002, the site is now owned by BAE Systems, who in conjunction with Redrow Homes, have submitted locally controversial proposals to use the site for building new housing. This development is now underway and is known as Dargavel Village, the site was built on farm land acquired by compulsory purchase order. Over 2,000 acres of land from up to seven farms was used to accommodate the factory, the southern end of the site included land occupied by the former National Filling Factory. Much of the site lies around 10 metres elevation and this was one of the deciding factors for its location, as UK explosives factories were built near to sea level to take account of their favourable microclimates. Some of the sites high-grounds were used for the nitroglycerin hills, another reason this site was chosen was because of the areas high unemployment rate in the 1920s and 1930s. This meant there was a supply of female labour available to work in the factory. Nearby railway links also played a part in locating the factory at Bishopton, the site consisted of three, almost self-contained explosive-manufacturing factories, with a common administration group and workshop support service. Building work on the first factory started in April 1937, the started in April 1939. There was a delay in opening the first factory due to the critical shortage of a guaranteed water supply. The site has three separate water mains, fire fighting, process water and drinking water, a guaranteed supply of about ten million gallons per day was required. Every building on the site was numbered, one part of the number code indicated if the building was assigned to Factory 0,1,2 or 3, the non-explosive sectors of the site were housed in Factory 0. Factory 0 contained most of the services for the site. It also housed the administration block, a few of the sites many canteens, ambulance station, medical centre, mortuary, the three power-stations were also interlinked by high-pressure steam mains
ROF Bishopton
–
Entrance gates
ROF Bishopton
–
The Grade B listed Dargavel House
ROF Bishopton
–
One of the many posters encouraging woman to work in the factories during the war
ROF Bishopton
–
(Left) Transfer sidings leading to factory (Right) Narrow gauge railway lines
37.
ROF Chorley
–
ROF Chorley was a UK government-owned, munitions filling, Royal Ordnance Factory. It was built adjacent to the village of Euxton, but was known as ROF Chorley, Chorley factory closed in 2005-07 and the majority of the site is now home to the new Buckshaw Village on the outskirts of Chorley, although many remnants remain. The factory had a depot built deep into the Pennine hills, over Chorley, in the village of Heapey. As a result, the Ministry of Supply built a number of Royal Ordnance Factories, in all some 20 Government-owned World War II Filling Factories were built, but none was so large or employed as many people as these two. The purpose of the traverse was to deflect any explosion skyward rather than outward to any adjacent buildings or structures, the site was built with extensive underground magazines, comprehensive lightning protection and individual buildings linked by paths, roads and railways. The 928-acre site, which was built between Euxton and the town of Leyland, had a 9 mile perimeter fence which until privatisation was guarded by was to become the Ministry of Defence Police Force, after privatisation they were replaced by private security guards. The London, Midland and Scottish Railway, from Manchester Victoria to Preston, via Bolton and Euxton junction, with stations at Chorley and Leyland, the smaller area was the Administration site which lay between the railway and Euxton Lane. The factorys main Administration office was located here and it also contained test laboratories, a Medical Centre, the MOD Police and the main Canteen building. This large canteen was equipped with a stage and was used for Entertainments National Service Association concerts, the larger area of the site lay to the north of the railway line and was the main Explosive, or ammunition filling, site. ROF Chorley had its own railway station, ROF Halt. The railway line, particularly the station, was separated from the ROF by brick boundary walls some 20 foot high along each side, access to the site from the railway station was also by means of an over bridge. The railway station and platforms were demolished in 2002 as the former ROF site was flattened for conversion into housing. The new Buckshaw Parkway railway station, which opened on 3 October 2011, is built on the site as the old station. The image shown right was taken in January 2001 and it clearly show 2 through platform faces with bays on either side of the main platforms. The main internal road, the Central Road, linking the two sites, crossed over the line by means of a steep road bridge, with foot paths on either side. There was also separate entrances to the site, one was known as the Leyland Gate. After privatisation the road over the line was little used and separate entrances, i. e. the Leyland gate. The new factory employed over 1,000 production workers by the outbreak of the Second World War, by June 1940, the numbers employed there had risen to nearly 15,000
ROF Chorley
–
Site of the ROF railway station, 2005. The old administration buildings are on the right and the site of the factory is on the left
ROF Chorley
–
Post War concrete post and beam, factory-built Airey semi-detached House.
38.
Raw material
–
As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are highly important with regards to producing other products. This phenomenon, known as Dutch disease or the resource curse, an example of this is the geological scandal of the Democratic Republic of Congo as it is rich in raw materials, the Second Congo War focused on controlling these raw materials. Raw materials are used by non-humans, such as birds using found objects. Karl Marx, Capital, Vol.1, Part III, Chap
Raw material
–
Anthracite coal stockpile at the shipping area of a mid-slope
coal processing plant. The road leading up beyond the stockpile leads down from a
Mountain top strip mine which sources the materials.
Raw material
–
Latex being collected from a
tapped rubber tree
39.
Power stations
–
A power station, also referred to as a power plant or powerhouse and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Most power stations contain one or more generators, a machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power. The relative motion between a field and a conductor creates an electrical current. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely, most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity. Others use nuclear power, but there is an use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar, wind, wave. There is some debate within utility and engineering circles over whether a solar array, or wind farm, should be referred to as a power station, in 1868 a hydro electric power station was designed and built by Lord Armstrong at Cragside, England. It used water from lakes on his estate to power Siemens dynamos, the electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ran an elevator as well as labor-saving devices and farm buildings. In the early 1870s Belgian inventor Zénobe Gramme invented a powerful enough to produce power on a commercial scale for industry. In the autumn of 1882, a central station providing public power was built in Godalming and it was proposed after the town failed to reach an agreement on the rate charged by the gas company, so the town council decided to use electricity. It used hydroelectric power that was used to street and household lighting, the system was not a commercial success and the town reverted to gas. In 1882 a the worlds first coal-fired public power station, the Edison Electric Light Station, was built in London, a Babcock & Wilcox boiler powered a 125-horsepower steam engine that drove a 27-ton generator. This supplied electricity to premises in the area that could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct without digging up the road, the customers included the City Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer was the Telegraph Office of the General Post Office, Johnson arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and Newgate. In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Edison to provide lighting in the lower Manhattan Island area. The station ran until destroyed by fire in 1890, the station used reciprocating steam engines to turn direct-current generators. Because of the DC distribution, the area was small. The War of Currents eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, DC systems with a service radius of a mile or so were necessarily smaller, less efficient of fuel consumption, and more labor-intensive to operate than much larger central AC generating stations. AC systems used a range of frequencies depending on the type of load, lighting load using higher frequencies
Power stations
–
The
Athlone Power Station in
Cape Town,
South Africa.
Power stations
–
Hydroelectric power station at
Gabčíkovo Dam,
Slovakia.
Power stations
–
Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in power station.
Power stations
–
St. Clair Power Plant, a large coal-fired generating station in
Michigan,
United States.
40.
Steam
–
Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
Steam
–
Liquid phase eruption of
Castle Geyser in
Yellowstone Park
Steam
–
Fireless steam locomotive Despite the resemblance to a boiler, note the lack of a chimney and also how the cylinders are at the cab end, not the chimney end.
41.
Turbines
–
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating power when combined with a generator or producing thrust. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels, gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine. A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy, the resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades, as in the case of a steam or gas turbine. Before reaching the turbine, the pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively, Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newtons second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines, Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where the flow is low and the inlet pressure is high. Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluids pressure or mass, the pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the stage or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow. The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines, reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid head is low. In practice, modern designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible
Turbines
–
A
steam turbine with the case opened.
Turbines
–
Turbine inlet guide vanes of a turbojet
42.
Plumbers
–
A plumber is a tradesperson who specializes in installing and maintaining systems used for potable water, sewage and drainage in plumbing systems. The term dates from ancient times and is related to the Latin word for lead, the word plumber dates from the Roman Empire. The Latin for lead is plumbum, Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes and some were also covered with lead, lead was also used for piping and for making baths. Thus a person with expertise in working with lead was first known as a Plumbarius which was shortened to plumber. Years of training and/or experience are needed to become a skilled plumber, testing pipes for leaks using air and water pressure gauges Awareness of legal regulations and safety issues Ensuring safety standards and building regulations are met. Each state and locality may have its own licensing and taxing schemes for plumbers, there is no federal law establishing licenses for plumbers. The result is what is known as the Interprovincial Standards Red Seal Program, Plumbers in the United Kingdom are required to pass Level 2 and Level 3 vocational requirements of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Licensed plumbers are also expected to maintain minimum relevant training requirements to maintain their plumbing licence, the term White House Plumbers was a popular name given to the covert White House Special Investigations Unit established on July 24,1971 during the presidency of Richard Nixon. Their job was to plug leaks in the U. S. Government relating to the Vietnam War. The Republican McCain-Palin campaign later applied Joe the Plumber as a metaphor for middle-class Americans, william J. Spencer Leonard Susskind Richard Trethewey Alphonse Verville Orlando Zapata Super Mario – video game character from the game franchise of same name
Plumbers
–
Residential plumber at work.
43.
House
–
Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
House
–
A
Szekely house in
Szekely Land,
Transylvania,
Romania
House
–
15th-century Hanging Houses in
Cuenca,
Spain.
House
–
A
ranch-style house in
Salinas, California, US
House
–
House on the lands, where a
German farmstead was once active.
44.
Hostels
–
Hostels provide budget-oriented, sociable accommodation where guests can rent a bed, usually a bunk bed, in a dormitory and share a bathroom, lounge and sometimes a kitchen. Rooms can be mixed or single-sex, and private rooms may also be available, in a few countries, such as the UK, Ireland, India and Australia, the word hostel sometimes also refers to establishments providing longer-term accommodation. In India, Pakistan and South Africa, hostel also refers to boarding schools or student dormitories in resident colleges and universities, in other parts of the world, the word hostel mainly refers to properties offering shared accommodation to travellers or backpackers. Backpackers Hostels began in Australia and New Zealand and differ from Hostels by being open during the day time, in 1912, in Altena Castle in Germany, Richard Schirrmann created the first permanent Jugendherberge or Youth Hostel. These first youth hostels were an exponent of the vision of the German Youth Movement to let poor city youngsters breathe fresh air outdoors. The youths were supposed to manage the hostel themselves as much as possible, doing chores to keep the costs down and build character, because of this, many youth hostels closed during the middle part of the day. While most hostels still close during the day no longer require chores beyond washing up after self-catered meals. The words hotel, hostel, and hostal are etymologically related, coming into the English language from Old French hostel, itself from Late Latin hospitale, nowadays, however, they each refer to distinct types of accommodation. In particular, hostal is used in Spanish either with the sense as hostel. For those who prefer an environment, hostels do not usually have the same level of formality as hotels. For those who prefer to socialise with their guests, hostels usually have more common areas. The dormitory aspect of hostels also increases the social factor, Hostels normally close during the day to keep down cost. There is less privacy in a hostel than in a hotel, sharing sleeping accommodation in a dormitory is very different from staying in a private room in a hotel or bed and breakfast, and might not be comfortable for those requiring more privacy. Hostels encourage more interaction between guests due to the shared sleeping areas and communal areas such as lounges, kitchens. Care should be taken with personal belongings, as guests may share a living space. Noise can make sleeping difficult on occasions, whether from snoring, talking, sexual activity, someone either returning late or leaving early, to mitigate this, some wear earplugs and/or sleeping masks. Some hostels may include a hot meal in the price, the traditional hostel format involved dormitory style accommodation. Some newer hostels also include en-suite accommodation with single, double or quad occupancy rooms, in recent years, the numbers of independent and backpackers hostels have increased greatly to cater for the greater numbers of overland, multi-destination travellers
Hostels
–
A hostel dormitory room
Hostels
–
The world's first hostel was established in 1912 at
Altena Castle in Germany.
Hostels
–
This poster, dating from 1915, promotes supporting the Women's War Time Fund, which provided hostel housing to women workers during World War I
Hostels
–
Youth hostel in
Japan
45.
Canteen (place)
–
Cafeterias are different from coffeehouses, despite being the Spanish translation of the English term. Instead of table service, there are food-serving counters/stalls, either in a line or allowing arbitrary walking paths, customers take the food that they desire as they walk along, placing it on a tray. Alternatively, the patron is given a number and the item is brought to his table. For some food items and drinks, such as sodas, water, or the like, customers collect an empty container, pay at the check-out, free unlimited second servings are often allowed under this system. For legal purposes, this system is rarely, if at all, customers are either charged a flat rate for admission or pay at the check-out for each item. Some self-service cafeterias charge by the weight of items on a patrons plate, in universities and colleges, some students pay for three meals a day by making a single large payment for the entire semester. As cafeterias require few employees, they are found within a larger institution. For example, schools, colleges and their halls, department stores, hospitals, museums, military bases, prisons. At one time, upscale cafeteria-style restaurants dominated the culture of the Southern United States, and to a lesser extent the Midwest. There were numerous prominent chains of them, Bickfords, Morrisons Cafeteria, Piccadilly Cafeteria, S&W Cafeteria, Apple House, Lubys, K&W, Britling, Wyatts Cafeteria, currently two Midwestern chains still exist, Sloppy Jos Lunchroom and Mannys, which are both located in Illinois. There were also a number of chains, usually located in. These institutions, with the exception of K&W, went into a decline in the 1960s with the rise of fast food and were finished off in the 1980s by the rise of casual dining. A few chains — particularly Lubys and Piccadilly Cafeterias — continue to some of the gap left by the decline of the older chains. Some of the smaller Midwestern chains, such as MCL Cafeterias centered on Indianapolis, are very much in business. Perhaps the first self-service restaurant in the US was the Exchange Buffet in New York City, opened September 4,1885, Food was purchased at a counter, and patrons ate standing up. This represents the predecessor of two formats, the cafeteria, described below, and the automat, during the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, entrepreneur John Kruger built an American version of the smörgåsbords he had seen while traveling in Sweden. Emphasizing the simplicity and light fare, he called it the Cafeteria - Spanish for coffee shop, the exposition attracted over 27 million visitors in six months, and because of Krugers operation that America first heard the term and experienced the self-service dining format. Meanwhile, in mid-scale America, the chain of Childs Restaurants quickly grew from about 10 locations in New York City in 1890 to hundreds across the US and Canada by 1920
Canteen (place)
–
A corporate cafeteria in
Bangalore,
India, December 2003.
Canteen (place)
–
The dining hall in
Currier House of
Harvard College, August 2005.
Canteen (place)
–
Childs Restaurant, Philadelphia, PA, circa 1908
Canteen (place)
–
Divided trays from an East German canteen in the late 1960s.
46.
Laundry
–
Laundry is the washing of clothing and linens. Laundry processes are often done in a reserved for that purpose. An apartment building or student hall of residence may have a laundry facility such as a tvättstuga. A stand-alone business is referred to as a laundrette, the material that is being washed, or has been laundered, is also generally referred to as laundry. Laundry was first done in watercourses, letting the water carry away the materials which could cause stains, laundry is still done this way in some less industrialized areas and rural regions. Agitation helps remove the dirt, so the laundry is often rubbed, twisted, wooden bats or clubs could be used to help with beating the dirt out. These were often called washing beetles or bats and could be used by the waterside on a rock, on a block and they were once common across Europe and were also used by settlers in North America. Similar techniques have also identified in Japan. When no watercourses were available, laundry was done in vats or vessels. Sometimes large metal cauldrons were filled with water and heated over a fire. Wooden or stone scrubbing surfaces set up near a water supply or portable washboards, including corrugated metal ones. A posser could be used to agitate clothes in a tub, once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or clotheslines to air dry, before the advent of the washing machine, laundry was often done in a communal setting. In poor parts of the world today, laundry is still done beside a river or lake, villages across Europe that could afford it built a wash-house. Water was channelled from a stream or spring and fed into a building, such facilities were much more comfortable than washing in a watercourse because the launderers could work standing up instead of on their knees, and were protected from inclement weather. Also, they didnt have to go far, as the facilities were usually at hand in the village or at the edge of a town and these facilities were public and available to all families, and usually used by the entire village. Many of these village wash-houses are still standing, historic structures with no modern purpose. This job was reserved for women, who washed all their familys laundry, washerwomen took in the laundry of others, charging by the piece
Laundry
–
Laundry is hung to dry above an Italian street
Laundry
–
A
self-service laundry in Paris
Laundry
–
The launderer by
Jef Lambeaux
Laundry
–
Laundry in the river in contemporary
Abidjan
47.
Explosives
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An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
Explosives
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Tet Offensive 1968. 175mm cannons at USMC Camp Carroll firing on advancing enemy troops as seen from LZ Betty 15 miles southeast.
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Halstead, Kent
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Halstead is a village and civil parish in the Sevenoaks District of Kent, England. It is on the border of Kent with Greater London bordering the London Borough of Bromley and it is located south east of Orpington. The population of the parish as of the 2011 census is1,607. The name Halstead is derived from the Old English hald and stede, the parish church is dedicated to St Margaret. Halstead Community Primary School is located in the village, the parish is adjacent to Fort Halstead, a government defence research centre that is thought to have developed Britains first atomic bomb. The nearest rail link to Halstead is at Knockholt station, Halstead, a town in Essex Hasted, Edward - The History of Kent pp319–322. Kitchener, Geoffrey - Halstead in Kent - An Historical Guide, media related to Halstead, Kent at Wikimedia Commons St Margarets Church Community Website Halstead Parish Council
Halstead, Kent
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Ash
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Sevenoaks
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Sevenoaks is a town and civil parish with a population of 29,506 situated south-east of London in western Kent, England. The population of the parish had reduced to 20,409 at the 2011 Census and it is served by a commuter main line railway and is 21 miles from London Charing Cross. It is the town of the Sevenoaks district, followed by Swanley. A settlement was recorded in the 13th century, when a market was established, construction of Knole House in the 15th century helped develop the village. Sevenoaks became part of the communications network when one of the early turnpikes was opened in the 18th century. In the 21st century, it has a large commuting population, located to the south-east of the town is Knole Park, within which lies Knole House. Educational establishments in the include the independent Sevenoaks School and Knole Academy. The towns name is derived from the Old English word Seouenaca, there are few records earlier than the 13th century for the town, when it was given market status. The weekly cattle market was held in Hitchen Hatch Lane until 1999 and it was closed to make way for the 160 BT building in London Road. A food market is held in the centre of town every Saturday, in the Middle Ages two hospitals were provided by religious orders for the care of old or sick people, especially those going on pilgrimage. Sevenoaks School, at the end of High Street, is one of the oldest lay foundations in England. It was founded by William Sevenoke in 1432, Sevenoke, a foundling, had been brought up in the town. In later life he became a merchant and served as alderman, sheriff, founding the school and adjacent almshouses was his thanks to the town. In 1560 the school was granted letters patent by Queen Elizabeth I and it was for the education of boys and youths in grammar and learning. In 1456 Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, purchased the Knole estate, the eponymous oak trees in Knole Park have been replaced several times over the centuries. In 1902 seven oaks were planted on the side of The Vine cricket ground to commemorate the coronation of King Edward VII. During the Great Storm of 1987, six of those trees were blown down, the trees have been replaced and eight Oak trees of varying ages line The Vine. A serious railway accident occurred nearby on 24 August 1927, Southern Railway K class passenger tank engine No
Sevenoaks
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Knole House
Sevenoaks
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Sevenoaks bus station in June 2009
Sevenoaks
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Bligh's Shopping Development
