1.
TGV
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TGV is Frances intercity high-speed rail service, operated by SNCF, the national rail operator. It was developed in the 1970s by GEC-Alsthom and SNCF, originally designed as turbotrains to be powered by gas turbines, the prototypes evolved into electric trains with the 1973 oil crisis. A TGV test train set the record for the fastest wheeled train, in mid-2011, scheduled TGV trains operated at the highest speeds in conventional train service in the world, regularly reaching 320 km/h on the LGV Est, LGV Rhin-Rhône, and LGV Méditerranée. The commercial success of the first LGV, the LGV Sud-Est, led to an expansion of the network to the south, and new lines in the west, north, and east. Eager to emulate the TGVs success, neighbouring countries Italy, Spain, Several future lines are planned, including extensions within France and to surrounding countries. Cities such as Tours have become part of a TGV commuter belt around Paris, in 2007, SNCF generated profits of €1.1 billion driven largely by higher margins on the TGV network. The idea of the TGV was first proposed in the 1960s, at the time the French government favoured new technology, exploring the production of hovercraft and the Aérotrain air-cushion vehicle. Simultaneously, SNCF began researching high-speed trains on conventional tracks, in 1976, the government agreed to fund the first line. By the mid-1990s, the trains were so popular that SNCF president Louis Gallois declared TGV The train that saved French railways, TGV001 was not a wasted prototype, its gas turbine was only one of its many new technologies for high-speed rail travel. It also tested high-speed brakes, needed to dissipate the large amount of energy of a train at high speed, high-speed aerodynamics. It was articulated, i. e. two adjacent carriages shared a bogie, allowing free yet controlled motion with respect to one another and it reached 318 km/h, which remains the world speed record for a non-electric train. Its interior and exterior were styled by British-born designer Jack Cooper, whose work formed the basis of early TGV designs, changing the TGV to electric traction required a significant design overhaul. The first electric prototype, nicknamed Zébulon, was completed in 1974, testing such as innovative body mounting of motors, pantographs, suspension. Body mounting of motors allowed over 3 tonnes to be eliminated from the power cars, the prototype travelled almost 1,000,000 km during testing. In 1976 the French government funded the TGV project, and construction of the LGV Sud-Est, the line was given the designation LN1, Ligne Nouvelle 1. After two pre-production trainsets had been tested and substantially modified, the first production version was delivered on 25 April 1980, the LGV opened to the public between Paris and Lyon on 27 September 1981. Contrary to its earlier fast services, SNCF intended TGV service for all types of passengers and this commitment to a democratised TGV service was enhanced in the Mitterrand era with the promotional slogan Progress means nothing unless it is shared by all. The TGV was considerably faster than normal trains, cars, or aeroplanes, the trains became widely popular, the public welcoming fast and practical travel
2.
Reporting mark
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A reporting mark is an alphabetic code of one to four letters used to identify owners or lessees of rolling stock and other equipment used on certain railroad networks. In North America the mark, which consists of an code of one to four letters, is stenciled on each piece of equipment. The Association of American Railroads assigns marks to all carriers, under authority granted by the U. S, surface Transportation Board, Transport Canada, and Mexican Government. Under current practice, the first letter must match the initial letter of the railroad name, as it also acts as a Standard Carrier Alpha Code, the reporting mark cannot conflict with codes in use by other nonrail carriers. In another example, the mark for state-funded Amtrak services in California is CDTX because the state transportation agency owns the equipment used in these services. This is why the reporting mark for CSX Transportation, which is a railroad, is CSXT instead of CSX. This often resulted in five-letter reporting marks, an option not otherwise allowed by the AAR, the standard ISO6346 covers identifiers for intermodal containers. When the owner of a mark is taken over by another company. For example, when the Union Pacific Railroad acquired the Chicago and North Western Railway in the 1990s, some companies own several marks that are used to identify different classes of cars, such as boxcars or gondolas. If the acquiring company discontinues the name or mark of the acquired company, occasionally, long-disused marks are suddenly revived by the companies which now own them. For example, in recent years, the Union Pacific Railroad has begun to use the mark CMO on newly built covered hoppers, gondolas, CMO originally belonged to a predecessor of the CNW, which passed it on to them, from which the UP inherited it. Some of these still retain their temporary NYC marks. Because of its size, this list has been split into subpages based on the first letter of the reporting mark, railinc, a subsidiary of the AAR, maintains the active reporting marks for the North American rail industry. Railinc offers a free online look-up of reporting marks and other industry reference files through the Railincs Freight Rail 411 website, a railway vehicle must be registered in a national vehicle register using a 12-digit number derived from the old UIC system of vehicle numbering. The number contains the country in the third and fourth digit. The VKM must not contain special signs or digits, the VKM is preceded by the code for the country, where the vehicle is registered and a hyphen. Some examples, When a vehicle is sold it does not normally be transferred to another register, the Czech railways bought large numbers of coaches from ÖBB. The number remained the same but the VKM changed from A-ÖBB to A-ČD, the UIC introduced a uniform numbering system for their members based on a 12-digit number, largely known as UIC number
3.
Transilien
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The Transilien is the brand name of the suburban railway service of the SNCF-owned railway network operating within the Île-de-France région. Transilien is a derivative of Francilien, a commonly used to describe the inhabitants of the Île-de-France. Transilien trains depart from Paris main railway and RER stations and the business district of La Défense. Transilien services transported 615 million passengers in 2004, the first line to the suburbs of Paris was opened on the 26 August 1837. The route went from Paris-Saint-Lazare to Le Pecq, the railway link was thought of as key to the western suburbs. On 1 October 1972, the line was handed over to the RER, the transilien is divided into six key entities, which are divided according to SNCF guidelines and are in no way related to the departmental boundaries. The lines are divided into branches which, similarly to the RER, are given letters, although until 2005. The importance of these glitches in the network are visible at times when SNCF staff go on strike or when serious technical problems occur on the network. Thousands of travellers arrive late for work, or when there are serious problems, the extent of the lines means that concentric zoning is used. Trains bound for the zones are normally operated as express trains, meaning trains serve Paris termini then operate non-stop to the outer zones. The rolling stock used on the Transilien comes from a long evolution of the material in the suburbs, the design used for the rehabilitation and rejuvenation of the fleet was conducted by two outside agencies under contracts awarded in October 2000. RCP Design Global provided exterior design and interior signage, and Avant Première the interior, all vehicles received a new blue and gray Transilien livery with panels of color to highlight doors and internal characteristics. Everything was treated with a graffiti resistant coating to reduce the impact of vandalism, the trains are equipped with a new ergonomic design of seating with individual seats instead of the traditional banks. They are covered with vandal-resistant fabric in blue, yellow and red
4.
Ouigo
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Ouigo is a French low-cost train service based at Marne-la-Vallée offering services to the north, the north-west and the south-east of France. It is a subsidiary of the French national rail company SNCF, the service was announced in by the head of SNCF, Guillaume Pepy on 19 February 2013, and it launched services on 2 April that year. Unlike Europes relatively liberalized airline market, high speed railways in France are a monopoly owned and operated by the government. However ongoing talks about high speed railways liberalization, targeted for as early as December 2019 and they must be purchased at least 4 hours in advance of the journey. Four days before travel, they receive an e-mail of the ticket which they may print out at home. Since October 2013, customers can book tickets via the non-affiliated booking agent Captaine Train. Ouigo uses modified double-decker TGV Duplex trains, which are single 2nd class made up of either 2x2 or 3x1 abreast and this leads to the train carrying up 1200 passengers, which is 20% more passengers than regular TGV Duplex trains. Similar to some low cost airlines, whilst a piece of luggage is allowed free of charge. The trains carry fewer members of staff, which like the low-cost carriers are tasked as well to do basic maintenance of the train as well as serving passengers. The company sweats its assets by using the trains for up to 13 hours a day, like some low-cost air carriers, the only way customers can contact the company is via their website. There is no customer service number or e-mail address. Ouigo offers trains stopping at a number of stations, unlike standard TGV services, and in order to offer lower fares, the company uses non-major stations for main destinations such as Paris or Lyon. In order to significantly lower prices than on standard TGV trains, Ouigo trains lack a buffet car, have a greater number of more tightly packed seats. Adult fares can vary from as little as €10 to a maximum of €115 per journey depending on the time of the journey, supplementary fees are as follows, Children that are 11 or under, a flat fee of €5 is charged no matter the journey. Baggage is €5 if booked at the time of booking, €10 prior to travelling on-line, pets can be taken on board, however provided that they are under six kilos and they are in the carry case as part of the hand luggage they travel free. If not, they are charged a fee of €40 per animal, seats next to plug sockets can be reserved for a supplementary fee of €2 per person. So far reactions to the service have been mixed, in the few months between announcement to the commencing of journeys, Ouigo has sold 200,000 tickets and its website has been visited by over 2 million times. In the first few months, Ouigo sent passengers a short questionnaire after each trip, the survey also reported that about 90% of passengers would recommend Ouigo to a friend or family member
5.
Eurostar
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Eurostar is a high-speed railway service connecting London with Avignon, Brussels, Lille, Lyon, Marseille and Paris. All its trains traverse the Channel Tunnel between the United Kingdom and France, owned and operated separately by Eurotunnel, the London terminus is St Pancras International, with the other British calling points being Ebbsfleet International and Ashford International in Kent. Calling points in France are Calais-Fréthun and Lille-Europe, with trains to Paris terminating at Gare du Nord, Trains to Belgium terminate at Midi/Zuid station in Brussels. In addition, there are limited services from London to Disneyland Paris at Marne-la-Vallée – Chessy, services to southern France as of 1 May 2015 and seasonal services to the Alps in winter. The service is operated by 27 eighteen-coach Class 373/1 trains which run at up to 300 kilometres per hour on a network of high-speed lines. The LGV Nord line in France opened before Eurostar services began in 1994, the French and Belgian parts of the network are shared with Paris–Brussels Thalys services and also with TGV trains. Eurostar has become the dominant operator on the routes that it operates, other operators have expressed an interest in starting competing services following deregulation in 2010. On 1 September 2010, Eurostar was incorporated as a corporate entity called Eurostar International Limited. EIL is owned by SNCF, Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec, Hermes Infrastructure, in June 2014, the UK shareholding in Eurostar International Limited was transferred from London and Continental Railways / Department for Transport to HM Treasury. In October 2014, it was announced that the UK government planned to raise £300 million by selling that stake. In March 2015, the UK government announced that it would be selling its 40% share to an Anglo-Canadian consortium made up of Caisse de Depot et Placement du Quebec and this sale was completed in May 2015. The history of Eurostar can be traced to the 1986 choice of a tunnel to provide a cross-channel link between Britain and France. A previous attempt at constructing a tunnel between the two nations had begun in 1974, but was quickly aborted, in 1988 construction began on a new basis. Eurotunnel was created to manage and own the tunnel, which was finished in 1993, British Rail and SNCF contracted with Eurotunnel to use half the tunnels capacity for this purpose. In 1987 Britain, France and Belgium set up an International Project Group to specify a train to provide an international high-speed passenger service through the tunnel. An order for 30 trainsets, to be manufactured in France but with some British, on 20 June 1993, the first Eurostar test train travelled through the tunnel to the UK. Various technical difficulties in running the new trains on British tracks were quickly overcome, on 14 November 1994 Eurostar services began between Waterloo International station in London, Gare du Nord in Paris and Brussels-South railway station in Brussels. In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average speed of 171.5 km/h between London and Paris
6.
Thalys
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Thalys is an international high-speed train operator originally built around the LGV Nord high-speed line between Paris and Brussels. This track is shared with Eurostar trains that go from Paris or Brussels to London via Lille, Thalys serves Amsterdam and Cologne as well. Its system is managed by Thalys International and operated by THI Factory, before Thalys, there had been an express rail service between Paris and Brussels since 1924 on the train service lÉtoile du Nord. In the 1970s it connected the two cities in around 2 hours 30 minutes, the decision to build a high-speed railway between Paris, Brussels, Cologne and Amsterdam was made in 1987. On 4 June 1996 the first train left Paris using the LGV Nord until it reached Belgium, in 1997, the Belgian HSL1 line, allowing 300 km/h and running from the French border to the outskirts of Brussels, was completed for service. On 14 December 1997 the first Thalys train from Paris to Brussels ran on the HSL1, at the same time service commenced to Cologne and Aachen in Germany, and Bruges, Charleroi, Ghent, Mons, Namur and Ostend in Belgium. On 19 December 1998 the Thalys Neige service started to the ski resorts of Tarentaise Valley, on 28 November 1999, the company changed its name to Thalys International. In 2000, Thalys started a daily Service between Brussels and Geneva, Thalys Soleil started offering direct connections to the Provence, initially to Valence, and extended to Avignon and Marseille in 2002. Service between Brussels and Cologne was improved in December 2002 when trains began running on the new HSL2 in Belgium, in 2003, services started to Brussels International Airport and the Thalys Nuits d’Été service to Marne-la-Vallée. Deutsche Bahn purchased 10% of the company in 2007, HSL3 was completed in 2007, but Thalys trains had not yet been equipped with the ETCS signalling equipment necessary to use the new line. After installation and testing, Thalys began operating on HSL3 on 13 December 2009, for the same reasons, Thalys started operating on the HSL 4/HSL-Zuid high-speed line between Antwerp and Amsterdam 13 December 2009, two years after the lines construction. Since 29 August 2011, one journey to Cologne has been extended to Essen Hauptbahnhof. In June 2013, Deutsche Bahn stopped selling Thalys tickets, Thalys has served Düsseldorf Airport station since the winter 2013 schedule went into effect. On 12 April 2014, Thalys started a service between Lille Europe and Amsterdam Centraal. At the end of March 2015, Thalys dropped the Paris – Oostende, on 30 March 2015, Thalys became a train company, and operates since under its own train operator certificate. Starting from 13 December 2015, service in Germany is extended to Dortmund, beyond Brussels, the main cities Thalys trains reach are Antwerp, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Liège, Aachen and Cologne. Trains to these destinations run partly on dedicated high-speed tracks, the high-speed lines used by Thalys are HSL1 between Paris and Brussels, HSL 4/HSL-Zuid between Antwerp and Amsterdam, and the HSL2 and HSL3 between Brussels and Aachen. For its seasonal operations within France, other high-speed lines are used, journeys from Brussels to Paris are normally 1 hour,22 minutes, for a distance of approximately 300 kilometres
7.
TGV Lyria
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TGV Lyria is the brand name used for TGV railway lines connecting France and Switzerland. Initially, the corporation was a groupement dintérêt économique between SNCF and SBB CFF FFS whose goal was the creation of a TGV service between Gare de Lyon and Lausanne/Bern, today, the corporation is officially a limited company according to French law. SNCF owns 74% of the capital and SBB CFF FFS the remaining 26%, starting in mid-1961, the route between Paris and Lausanne was operated by the Trans Europ Express Cisalpin trains, which continued on to Milan. On January 22,1984, this service was replaced by a new TGV service with tri-current locomotives, in the spirit of the previous European expresses, the trains were christened with names, Champs-Elysées, Lemano, Lutetia and Cisalpin. On May 31,1987, the service was rebranded as EuroCity. By this time, a service to Bern was in place as well, the GIE was created for the first time on May 23,1993, to operate the segments between Paris and Lausanne/Bern. Service to Geneva was not covered at that time, during the winter of 1995–1996, a single roundtrip per day was extended from Lausanne to Brigue to stop at stations serving ski resorts in the Rhône Valley. As was the case with other trains with service, these trains were branded as TGV des Neiges. On September 28,1997, the service was reorganized and rebranded as Ligne de Cœur. On March 4,2002, the name Lyria was applied for the first time to the service, the name then slowly came to stand for all TGV services between France and Switzerland and was applied to Paris–Geneva trains around January 2005. Service to Geneva had existed as part of LGV Sud-Est since 1981, at the end of 2005, Lyria transported its 3 millionth passenger. Consequently, service from Paris departed from Gare de lEst instead of Gare de Lyon until 2011, the service now uses new stock, the TGV POS. In February 2011, service improvements were announced, with a fleet of 19 TGV POS trains offering increased frequencies, since December 12,2010, travel time on the Paris–Geneva line has improved with the reconstruction of the Haut-Bugey line, which connects Bourg-en-Bresse and Bellegarde-sur-Valserine. Until then, only the part of the line was open. Travel time between Paris and Geneva reduced by 30 minutes, to 3 hours and 5 minutes, and track capacity was also increased, in 2011, with the completion of the LGV Rhin-Rhône, travel time between Paris and Basel/Zurich has been reduced by 30 minutes. The departure station in Paris has returned to Gare de Lyon, since summer 2006,5 trains were renovated to offer a better quality of service. The maximum speed is attained on the LGV Sud-Est between Aisy-sous-Thil and Valenton, service to Geneva is operated using classic TGV Sud-Est equipment, that is, bi-current sets relieved by TGV Duplex. Trains, with the exception of those running to Geneva, used to carry the Ligne de cœur logo, the CFF logo was also added to their cars during April 2006
8.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
9.
Compagnie des chemins de fer du Nord
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The Chemins de Fer du Nord, often referred to simply as the Nord company, was a rail transport company created in September 1845, in Paris, France. It was owned by among others de Rothschild Frères of France, N M Rothschild & Sons of London, England, Hottinger, Laffitte, Baron James de Rothschild served as the companys first president from its inception until his death in 1868. Lille and Valenciennes had already connected to the Belgian railway network in 1842. The new line made it possible to travel by train from Paris to Brussels, by opening a line to from Paris to Hirson via Soissons and Laon from 1860 to 1871, it protected its eastern border against CF de lEst expansion. The concession for the line from Creil to Beauvais, owned by CF de lEst predecessor Chemins de fer des Ardennes, was exchanged for the Nords concession for Laon–Reims in 1855. In 1937 the CF du Nord was nationalised, as were the main railway companies. In 1926 started regular connection of the passenger train from London to Paris. For transport of passengers baggage four containers were used and these containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and “CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL” in France. In 1855 Baron Rothschild commissioned photographer Edouard Baldus to do a series of photographs of the landmarks on the railway line between Boulogne-sur-Mer and Paris. The photographs were used to create an album for Queen Victoria, the album can be seen today in the photographic collection in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle
10.
Chemins de fer du Midi
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The Rothschild branch of Paris responded by strengthening its grip on the sector with an alliance to the industrialist Talabot. The Pereires in turn founded their financial company Crédit Mobilier, in 1934 the company was merged with the Chemin de fer de Paris à Orléans to become part of the Chemins de fer de Paris à Orléans et du Midi. In 1856, the Midi completed its line from Bordeaux to Toulouse. In 1857, it continued on from Toulouse through Narbonne to Sète and this put it in competition with the Canal du Midi, and on 28 May 1858 the railway took over the lease of the canal
11.
Compagnie des chemins de fer de l'Est
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The Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst, often referred to simply as the Est company, was an early French railway company. The company was formed in 1853 by fusion from Compagnie de Paris à Strasbourg, operating the Paris-Strasbourg line, in 1854 company absorbed Compagnie de Strasbourg à Bale and in 1863 the railway network of Ardennes. In 1938 it became part of the majority state-owned Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français. « Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst », in R. Demeur, Les chemins de fer français en 1860, Statuts des compagnies, notices historiques-situations financières,1860, p. 92-115. Jean-Pierre Rigouard, Paris-Strasbourg, de la Compagnie de lest au TGV, Mémoire en images, marc Ellenberger, La Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst et la guerre de 1914-1918, Ellenberger, Bures-sur-Yvette,1975. Joël Forthoffer, « Le transport ferroviaire de denrées périssables en Alsace, lexemple de la bière », Revue de lhistoire des chemins de fer de lAHICF, no 41,2010, the author reports on the transport of perishable goods by rail in Alsace in the 20th century. It traces the evolution of the market of la Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst in 1852 to la Reichsbahn Elsass Lothringen
12.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
13.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
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Saint-Denis is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.4 km from the centre of Paris, Saint-Denis is a subprefecture of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis. Saint-Denis is home to the necropolis of the Basilica of Saint Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to Frances national football and rugby stadium, Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens, until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called Catolacus or Catulliacum, probably meaning estate of Catullius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill, shortly after 250 his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis. In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed Franciade in a gesture of rejection of religion, in 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis. During its history, Saint-Denis has been associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I, almost every French king was buried in the Basilica, however, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named Catolacus on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today, Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris and patron saint of France, was martyred in about 250 and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis tomb quickly became a place of worship, around 475, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery, during the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe came to visit its market, in 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, the new church was consecrated in 1144. Saint-Denis suffered heavily in the Hundred Years War, of its 10,000 citizens, during the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed, in 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis. King Louis XIV started several industries in Saint-Denis, weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV, whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city, he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey
14.
Guillaume Pepy
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Guillaume Pepy is a high-ranking French civil servant and is, since February 2008, president of SNCF, the French national rail authority. He is also Chairman of Eurostar and Deputy-Chairman of the Keolis Group, the President of the Republic appointed him to run the state-owned enterprise on 27 February 2008 for a term of five years. Guillaume Pepy joined SNCF for the first time in 1988 as Chief of Staff to the then Chairman, after a stint in various ministerial private offices, he came back as Head of Investment, Economy and Strategy. In 1997, he was put in charge of Mainline Services and in 1998 and he instituted a new low fares policy designed to boost train occupancy rates using yield management flexible pricing techniques. He was also the force behind the creation of Voyages-sncf. com, of which he was Chairman from 1998 to 2006. In 2003, Louis Gallois appointed him Group Chief Operating Officer, anne-Marie Idrac, Chairman in the last 20 months of the term begun by Louis Gallois, confirmed him in this position. He was also the prime mover in the launch of the Railteam European high-speed rail operator alliance, guillaume Pepy attended the Ecole alsacienne high school in Paris. He is a graduate of the Institut détudes politiques de Paris, in 1995, he was appointed Deputy Chief Executive Officer of the Sofres group with special responsibility for business development. Closeted gay when he shared his life with Richard Descoings his companionship was publicly acknowledged at Descoings funerals
15.
Rail transport in France
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Rail transport in France is operated mostly by SNCF, the French national railway company. France has the second largest European railway network, with a total of 29,901 kilometres of railway, however, the railway system is a small portion of total travel, accounting for less than 10% of passenger travel. Since 1981, the SNCF has operated the TGV service, a rail network which has been consistently expanded in subsequent years. France is a member of the International Union of Railways, the UIC Country Code for France is 87. The history of transport in France dates from the first French railway in 1832. Since Legrand Star rail plan of 1842, French railway is highly polarized by Paris, traffic is concentrated on the main lines, 78% of activity is done on 30% of the network when the 46% smaller lines only drive 6% of the traffic. The 366 largest stations make 85% of passenger activity, and the smallest 56% of stations take only 1. 7% of traffic, freight transport has declined since the early 1980s. Today the network is predominantly passenger centric, since January 12007, the freight market has been open to conform to European Union agreements. New operators had already reached 15% of the market at the end of 2008, the Transport express régional is directed by the administrative Regions of France. They contract with the SNCF for lines exploitation, the SNCF directly manage this class of trains. The TGV is used on the most important destinations, while Intercités carriages are used for other lines. The French railway network, as administered by SNCF Réseau, as of June 2007, is a network of commercially usable lines of 29,213 kilometres,1,876 km of those are high speed lines,16,445 km dispose of two or more tracks. 5,905 km are supplied with 1,500 V DC,9,113 km with 25 kV AC at 50 Hz.122 km are electrified by third rail or other means. 1,500 V is used on the south, and HSR lines, trains drive on the left, except in Alsace and Moselle where tracks were first constructed while those regions were part of Germany. It is likely to be hit further as the French government is planning to remove the monopoly that rail currently has on long-distance journeys by letting coach operators compete. Travel to the UK through the Channel Tunnel has grown in recent years, eurostar is also introducing new Class 374 trains and refurbishing the current Class 373s. The International Transport Forum described the current status of the French railways in their paper Efficiency indicators of Railways in France, work started in September 1975 on the first high-speed rail line, between Paris and Lyon, and it was inaugurated in September 1981. New high-speed lines were opened in 1989, in 1993, etc, the high-speed network now covers 2,000 km, and will reach over 2,600 km in 2017 with the opening of the four lines currently being built
16.
Monaco
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Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a sovereign city-state and microstate, located on the French Riviera in Western Europe. France borders the country on three sides while the other side borders the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of about 38,400 according to the last census of 2015. With 19,009 inhabitants per km², it is the second smallest, Monaco has a land border of 5.47 km, a coastline of 3.83 km, and a width that varies between 1,700 and 349 m. The highest point in the country is a pathway named Chemin des Révoires on the slopes of Mont Agel, in the Les Révoires Ward. Monacos most populous Quartier is Monte Carlo and the most populous Ward is Larvotto/Bas Moulins, through land reclamation, Monacos land mass has expanded by twenty percent, in 2005, it had an area of only 1.974 km2. Monaco is known as a playground for the rich and famous, in 2014, it was noted about 30% of the population was made up of millionaires, more than in Zürich or Geneva. Monaco is a principality governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power. The House of Grimaldi have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, the official language is French, but Monégasque, Italian, and English are widely spoken and understood. The states sovereignty was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite Monacos independence and separate foreign policy, its defense is the responsibility of France, however, Monaco does maintain two small military units. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the countrys first casino, Monte Carlo, since then, Monacos mild climate, scenery, and gambling facilities have contributed to the principalitys status as a tourist destination and recreation center for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major banking center and has sought to diversify its economy into services and small, high-value-added, the state has no income tax, low business taxes, and is well known for being a tax haven. It is also the host of the street circuit motor race Monaco Grand Prix. Monaco is not formally a part of the European Union, but it participates in certain EU policies, including customs, through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the euro as its sole currency. Monaco joined the Council of Europe in 2004 and it is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Monacos name comes from the nearby 6th-century BC Phocaean Greek colony, according to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos, because the only temple of this area was the House of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. It ended up in the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, an ousted branch of a Genoese family, the Grimaldi, contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control
17.
TGV Duplex
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The TGV Duplex is a French high-speed train of the TGV family, manufactured by Alstom, and operated by the French national railway company SNCF. It is unique among TGV trains in that it features bi-level carriages, the Duplex inaugurated the third generation of TGV trainsets. It was specially designed to increase capacity on high-speed lines with saturated traffic, with two seating levels and a seating capacity of 508 passengers, the Duplex increases the passenger capacity. While the TGV Duplex started as a component of the TGV fleet. The LGV Sud-Est from Paris to Lyon is the busiest high-speed line in France, after its opening in 1981 it rapidly reached capacity. Several options were available to increase capacity, the separation between trains was reduced to three minutes on some TGV lines, but the increasingly complex signalling systems, and high-performance brakes required, limited this option. Another option is to widen the train but is not practicable due to loading gauge restrictions. Running two trainsets coupled together in multiple-unit configuration provides extra capacity, but required very long station platforms, given length and width restrictions, the remaining option is to adopt a bi-level configuration, with seating on two levels, adding 45% more passenger capacity. TGV Duplex sets are run with a single deck Réseau set or another Duplex set. The Duplex feasibility study was completed in 1987, in 1988, a full-scale mockup was built to gauge customer reactions to the bi-level concept, traditionally associated with commuter and regional rail rather than with high-speed intercity trains. Discussions with GEC-Alsthom began soon after, and in July 1990 the company won the contract to build the TGV-2N, the contract was finalized in early 1991, at which point the official order was made. The first tests of a trainset in were November 1994. Soon after their first run, the first rake of eight trailers was tested at 290 km/h on the Sud-Est line, the trainset was powered by TGV Réseau power cars at the time, as the Duplex power cars were not ready. The first Duplex power car was mated to the trailers on 21 June 1995. Perhaps the most important innovation is the efficiency of the Duplex design, aluminium bodies - the strict requirement of a 17-tonne axle load limit made it imperative to cut down on weight, wherever possible. Extruded aluminum construction made possible a 20% reduction in structure weight, the nose, the first significant departure from Coopers original design, was styled by industrial designer Roger Tallon, as was the rest of the trainset. Crashworthiness - crush zones and rigid passenger compartments protect safety in the event of a collision, the power units frame is designed to take a 500 tonnes of force frontal load, and features structural fuses to absorb impact energy. Active pantograph - the Faiveley CX used on the Duplex has a pneumatically actuated active control system, two small gas cylinders in the wiper armature can tune the stiffness of the pantographs upper stage, to optimize contact at any speed
18.
V150 (train)
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The V150 was a specially configured TGV high-speed train notable for breaking the world land speed record for conventional railed trains on 3 April 2007. Operation V150, where 150 refers to a speed in metres per second, was a series of high-speed trials carried out on the LGV Est prior to its June 2007 opening. The trials were conducted jointly by SNCF, TGV builder Alstom, following a series of increasingly high-speed runs, the official speed record attempt took place on 3 April 2007. The top speed of 574.8 km/h was reached at kilometer point 191 near the village of Le Chemin, the 515.3 kilometres per hour, and the last time on 15 April 2007 with a speed of 542.9 kilometres per hour. The train had four powered axles than trainset 325 used in the 1990 speed record. Aerodynamic improvements, similar to the 1990 record train, were refined in a wind tunnel and these improvements included a front air dam, roof fairings over the pantograph openings, membranes to cover the space between the cars, and a flush-mounted windshield. Over 600 sensors were fitted on various parts of both the engines and the cars, the train set ran with larger wheels with a diameter of 1092 mm instead of 920 mm, to limit the rotational speed of the powertrain. The record runs took place on a140-kilometre section of track 1 on the LGV Est, usually heading west, the track superelevation was increased to support higher speeds. Catenary voltage was increased to 31 kV from the standard 25 kV, the mechanical tension in the wire was increased to 40 kN from the standard 25 kN. The speed of the transverse wave induced in the wire by the trains pantograph was thus increased to 610 km/h. Several measurement stations were installed along the test tracks to monitor stresses in the track and ballast, noise, aerodynamic effects, between kilometer posts 223 and 167, where speeds exceeded 500 km/h, the track was under close surveillance. Between 15 January 2007 and 15 April 2007, the V150 train traveled at 500 kilometres per hour, for each high speed run, another TGV performed a sweep of the track before the V150 train was cleared to start. This sweep was performed at a sustained 380 km/h—the peak speed reached in the record of 1981 by TGV POS trainset 4404 in a standard eight-car configuration, the acceleration of the V150 train took place over a distance of 70 kilometres. During certain runs, including the record run, the V150 train was chased by an Aérospatiale Corvette airplane to provide data relay. Land speed record for railed vehicles TGV LGV construction INA - Here you can find many videos of TGV records Video of the record being broken - DailyMotion. com
19.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
20.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
21.
Korea Train Express
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Korea Train eXpress is South Koreas high-speed rail system, operated by Korail. Construction began on the line from Seoul to Busan in 1992. KTX services were launched on April 1,2004, a new line from Wonju to Gangneung is under construction to serve the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. Top speed for trains in service is currently 305 km/h. The initial rolling stock was based on Alstoms TGV Réseau, and was built in Korea. The domestically developed HSR-350x, which achieved 352.4 km/h in tests, resulted in a type of high-speed trains now operated by Korail. The Seoul-Busan axis is Koreas main traffic corridor, in 1982, it represented 65. 8% of South Koreas population, a number that grew to 73. 3% by 1995, along with 70% of freight traffic and 66% of passenger traffic. With both the Gyeongbu Expressway and Korails Gyeongbu Line congested as of the late 1970s, the government saw the pressing need for form of transportation. During the following years, several feasibility studies were prepared for a line with a Seoul–Busan travel time of 1 hour 30 minutes. As planning progressed, the Korea High Speed Rail Construction Authority was established in March 1992 as a body with its own budget responsible for the project. In the 1993 reappraisal of the project, the date was pushed back to May 2002. 82% of the cost increase was due to a 90% increase in costs in the construction sector, mostly labour costs but also material costs. To finance the project, the option of a franchise was rejected as too risky. Funding included direct government grants, government and foreign loans, domestic bond sales, KHSRCA started construction of the Seoul–Busan Gyeongbu High Speed Railway on June 30,1992, on the 57 km long section from Cheonan to Daejeon, which was intended for use as test track. Construction started before the choice of the main supplier, thus alignment design was set out to be compatible with all choices. Of the planned 411 km line,152.73 km would be laid on bridges, however, plans were changed repeatedly, in particular those for city sections, following disputes with local governments, while construction work suffered from early quality problems. Planned operating speed was reduced from 350 km/h to the 300 km/h maximum of high-speed trains on the market. In 1994, the alliance of GEC-Alsthom and its Korean subsidiary Eukorail were chosen as winner, the technology was almost identical to that found on the high-speed lines of Frances TGV system
22.
Keolis
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Keolis is the largest private sector French transport group. It runs passenger railways, tramways, bus networks, funiculars, trolley buses, based in Paris, Keolis is 70%-owned by the SNCF and 30%-owned by the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec. In 2013 Keolis turned over €5.1 billion and it is the largest provider of public-transportation services in France. Keolis holds a 51% shareholding in Keolis Downer, which has operated the Melbourne tram network since November 2009, Keolis Downer has operated the G, link light rail line on the Gold Coast since July 2014. In March 2015, Keolis Downer purchased bus operator Australian Transit Enterprises which operates the Hornibrook Bus Lines, Link SA, Path Transit, Keolis is involved in the operation of Quebec intercity bus company Orléans Express. From 2004 to 2012 it also operated Acadian Lines intercity buses in The Maritimes, the latter services have since been taken over by independent operator Maritime Bus. It is a partner in the GrandLinq consortium which will operate the Ion rapid transit system in Waterloo Region, in China, Keolis joins with Shanghai Shentong Metro Group, the owner of Shanghai Metro, in creating Shanghai Keolis Public Transport. An agreement had been signed between Keolis and Hubei Province Government, and Keolis will be responsible for Greater Wuhan areas suburban railway operation, Keolis has extensive operations in France. It provides transit services in cities including Bordeaux, Brest, Dijon, Lille, Lyon, Orléans. In January 2016, the 260 vehicle Transports Daniel Myers business was purchased, based in the Essonne/Val-de-Marne basin, its main operations are in Montlhéry, Etampes and Avrainville. Under the brand name eurobahn Keolis is operating multiple regional train services in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and they also operated, and will do so again in a few years, in Lower Saxony. Eurobahn uses Stadler FLIRT electric multiple units and Bombardier Talent diesel cars to serve these lines, the trains will be running in an neutral VRR design. In the United Kingdom, Keolis owns 35% of Govia that currently operates the Govia Thameslink Railway, Southern, Southeastern, Keolis also had a 45% shareholding in First TransPennine Express from February 2004 until March 2016. Upon being re-tendered, FirstGroup took full control, in 2012, Keolis lodged a joint bid with SNCF for the aborted InterCity West Coast franchise and in 2014, in partnership with Eurostar, lodged a bid for the InterCity East Coast franchise. Keolis is part of a consortium that commenced operating the Nottingham Express Transit tram operation in December 2011, Keolis also commenced operating the Docklands Light Rail concession in December 2014. Keolis in partnership with Amey will commence operating the Manchester Metrolink concession in July 2017, on October 16,2009, the Virginia Railway Express Operations Board approved an $85 million contract with Keolis Rail Services America to operate and maintain VRE trains for five years. Keolis began operating VRE on July 12,2010 after a two-week delay, both Amtrak and Keolis had staffed the VRE lines with about 80 employees. The operator of the line, Amtrak, also challenged the propriety of hiring a foreign company
23.
InterCity West Coast
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It was formed during the privatisation of British Rail and transferred to the private sector on 9 March 1997 when Virgin Trains, the current and only franchise-holder to date, commenced operations. In December 2012, Virgin Trains was awarded a management contract to run the franchise until November 2014, in March 2013, Virgin was awarded a further extension until 31 March 2017, and in 2016 this was again extended to April 2019. The Government plans to replace this franchise on 1 April 2019 with a new one to be called West Coast Partnership, the new franchise will include High Speed 2 operations once services begin on that line. As of March 2017, these are the services offered, The initial franchise was contested by Sea Containers, Stagecoach, each submitted two bids, one based on an all tilting train fleet, and another based on a combination of conventional and tilting trains. On 19 February 1997, the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising awarded a 15-year franchise to Virgin Rail Group, in order for tilting trains to be operated, Railtrack was committed to upgrade the West Coast Main Line to allow 140 mph operation by 2005. In the wake of the collapse of Railtrack and the inability of successor Network Rail to deliver on the upgrade, due to costs having blown out from £2.5 billion to £10 billion there were cutbacks to the upgrade and the top speed reduced to 125 mph. During 2011/12 the Department for Transport conducted a competition, announced a winner, then cancelled the competition. The award of the franchise was stated to be based on the most economically advantageous tender in terms of the criteria as stated in the specifications. The franchise was the first to be offered under a new scheme rather than the previous Cap and Collar system, the new scheme is intended to provide greater incentives for cost reduction by operators. Because of the increased future risks carried by operators under the new scheme, in March 2011, the Department for Transport shortlisted Abellio, FirstGroup, Keolis/SNCF and Virgin Rail Group to bid for the franchise, which would run for up to 15 years. In May 2011, a Draft Invitation to Tender was issued to the shortlisted bidders, in October 2011, the Department for Transport announced that Virgin had been granted a franchise extension until 8 December 2012. In January 2012, the Department for Transport issued the Final Invitation to Tender to the shortlisted bidders, on 10 August 2012 a report commissioned by Virgin Rail Group, detailing problems with the franchising evaluation process, was handed to the Department for Transport. An e-petition was created to urge the government to reconsider its decision, the petition was set up independently, but backed by Virgin, and attracted large support, gaining 50,000 signatures within two days. The 100,000 signatures required for the petition to be considered for debate in Parliament was exceeded, the matter was debated in the House of Commons on 17 September 2012. Virgin had offered to run the line on a not for profit basis while this takes place, the Department for Transport responded stating that they were confident the selection process was robust. It was stated that civil servants had made significant mistakes in the way in which the risks for each bid had been calculated, three civil servants were also suspended. During September 2012 the newly appointed Secretary of State for Transport, on 2 October 2012, McLoughlin decided to cancel the franchise award. The Department of Transport had been due in the High Court on 3 October 2012 to respond to a Judicial Review sought by Virgin Rail Group
24.
Stagecoach Group
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Stagecoach Group plc is an international transport group operating buses, trains, trams and express coaches. The group was founded in 1980 by current chairman Brian Souter, his sister Ann Gloag, the group is headquartered in Perth, Scotland, and operates subsidiaries in the United Kingdom, United States and Canada. Stagecoach operates around 8,100 vehicles and covers over 90 major towns and cities in the United Kingdom, Stagecoach UK Bus employs 18,000 people. In North America, Stagecoach owns the Coach USA and Coach Canada brands, previous operations in Australia, Hong Kong, Kenya, Malawi, New Zealand, Portugal and Sweden have been sold. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, anns accountant brother Brian Souter joined the firm and expanded the business into bus hire. Robin Gloag subsequently sold his shareholding in the business and ceased any involvement in 1982 with the collapse of his marriage to Ann, for a while, they offered a very personal service with Brian Souter doing the driving and Ann Gloag making up sandwiches and snacks for the passengers. Its early success allowed Stagecoach to take advantage of the privatisation of the national bus groups, several firms were purchased from the National Bus Company, Scottish Bus Group, London Buses and various city councils. The company consolidated its operations during the 1990s by purchasing ex NBC and SBG bus companies that had purchased by management. Stagecoach left the long distance coach market in 1988 when it sold its operations to National Express. It was sold to a management buyout before being purchased by Stagecoach in August 1996, in April 2000 Stagecoach sold Porterbrook to Abbey National for £773 million. In 1997 Stagecoach won the franchise to operate the Sheffield Supertram system, from the South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive, when Stagecoach took over the system, it was struggling, both financially and in terms of attracting passengers, but it is now an extremely popular and successful operation. Stagecoach took another turn in 1998, when it purchased Scotlands Prestwick Airport for £41 million, by the summer of 1999, the company was rumoured to have been offered some £80 million for Prestwick. They sold the airport in January 2001 to concentrate on surface transport, on 21 November 2005 Stagecoach announced the sale of its New Zealand operations to Infratil. On 14 December 2005 Stagecoach purchased Barnsley based Traction Group for £26m, Traction operated 840 buses in South and West Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Angus. Traction was the largest remaining privately owned independent bus operator in the UK, in September 2005, following competition with its Megabus coach operation, Stagecoach launched a joint venture with Scottish Citylink coaches. After a competition enquiry, in October 2006 Stagecoach was instructed to sell some of the Scottish coach services, Stagecoach are also active in the rail industry, currently operating the South West Trains franchise and having a 49% stake in Virgin Rail Group. In 2007 the group won the right to take over the part of the old Central Trains franchise, in July 2007, Stagecoach commenced operating the Manchester Metrolink tram network. In January 2009, Stagecoach bought Preston Bus, a rival in the Lancashire area
25.
Virgin Group
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Virgin Group Ltd. is a British Multinational corporation venture capital Conglomerate founded by entrepreneurs Sir Richard Branson and Nik Powell. Virgin Groups date of incorporation is listed as 1989 by Companies House, the net worth of Virgin Group was estimated at £5-5.5 billion as of November 2014. The brand name Virgin arose when Richard Branson and Nik Powell formed a record shop and they considered themselves virgins in business. Branson has described the V in the logo as an expressive tick, Virgin Group announced the establishment of Virgin Cruises on December 4,2014 with financial backing from Bain Capital. The cruise line would be lead by CEO Tom McAlpin, would have two new ships built and be based in the Miami/Fort Lauderdale area. Virgin Group has its headquarters at The Battleship Building in the Paddington district of the City of Westminster, previously it was in The School House in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. The Virgin Group of companies have a structure that contains elements of a generic conglomerate. Examples of licensing are Virgin Records and Virgin Media, in mid-May 2013, the Virgin Group expressed its intention to seek out opportunities in Australias healthcare industry to consolidate on the Groups Australian fitness centers. It operated for 14 years, until November 2010
26.
West Coast Main Line
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The West Coast Main Line is one of the most important railway corridors in the United Kingdom, connecting the major cities of London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. It is one of the busiest mixed-traffic railway routes in Europe, carrying a mixture of intercity rail, regional rail, the core route of the WCML runs from London to Glasgow, with branches diverging to Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool, totalling a route mileage of 700 miles. Services from London to North Wales and Edinburgh also run via the WCML and it is one of the busiest freight routes in Europe, carrying 40% of all UK rail freight traffic. The line is the rail freight corridor linking the European mainland through London and South East England to the West Midlands. The line has been declared a strategic European route and designated a priority Trans-European Networks route, other traffic is limited to 110 mph. The route between Rugby and Birmingham, Wolverhampton and Stafford was the main line until the Trent Valley Line was built in 1847. A further branch at Carstairs links Edinburgh to the WCML, providing a connection between the WCML and the East Coast Main Line. This legacy means the WCML has limitations as a main line, with lower maximum speeds than the East Coast Main Line route. The WCML was not originally conceived as a trunk route. After the completion of the successful Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, and so this is how the early stages of the WCML evolved. The first stretch of what is now the WCML was the Grand Junction Railway connecting Liverpool and Manchester to Birmingham, via Crewe, Stafford, the following year the London and Birmingham Railway was completed, connecting to the capital via Coventry, Rugby and the Watford Gap. Three other sections, the North Union Railway, the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway, another important section, the North Staffordshire Railway, which opened its route in 1848 from Macclesfield to Stafford and Colwich via Stoke-on-Trent also remained independent. Poor relations between the LNWR and the NSR meant that trains did not run until 1867. The route to Scotland was marketed by the LNWR as The Premier Line, because the cross-border trains ran over the LNWR and Caledonian Railway, through trains consisted of jointly owned West Coast Joint Stock to simplify operations. The first direct London to Glasgow trains in the 1850s took 12.5 hours to complete the 400-mile journey, the final sections of what is now the WCML were put in place over the following decades by the LNWR. To expand capacity, the line between London and Rugby was widened to four tracks in the 1870s, as part of this work, a new line, the Northampton Loop was built, opening in 1881, connecting Northampton before rejoining the main line at Rugby. The route came under the control of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway on 1 January 1923 when railway companies were grouped, the LMS competed fiercely with the rival LNERs East Coast Main Line for London to Scotland traffic. As part of the 1955 modernisation plan, the line was modernised and electrified in stages between 1959 and 1974, the first stretch to be electrified was Crewe to Manchester, completed on 12 September 1960
27.
High Speed 2
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High Speed 2 is a planned high-speed railway in the United Kingdom linking London, Birmingham, the East Midlands, Leeds and Manchester. It would be the second high-speed rail line in Britain, after High Speed 1 which connects London to the Channel Tunnel. The line is to be built in a Y configuration, with London on the bottom of the Y, Birmingham at the centre, Leeds at the top right and Manchester at the top left. Work on the first phase is scheduled to begin in 2017, reaching Birmingham by 2026, Crewe on the leg of the Y by 2027. Carlisle, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, Newcastle, Preston, Sheffield, the HS2 project is being developed by High Speed Two Ltd, a company limited by guarantee established by the UK government and has a projected cost of £56 billion. Peak hour capacity leaving Euston will more than triple once HS2 is running, increasing from 11,300 to 34,900, the project is to be built in two phases. Phase 1 is from London to the West Midlands and phase 2 from the West Midlands to Leeds, Phase 2 is split into two sub-phases. Phase 2a is from the West Midlands to Crewe, Phase 2b will extend the project from Crewe to Manchester, and the West Midlands to Leeds. The government’s decision will go through the process for approval. Although Parliament has approved the first two phases of construction, precise details of the plan and route have not been formalised, and are still open to negotiation and change. For example, the spur to Heathrow airport was dropped from the scheme in 2015, as was the HS1 to HS2 link. The sections either side of the Pennines are open to amended design to accommodate HS3 using sections of HS2 track. In 2009 there were reportedly 5,600 km of high-speed line in operation in Europe, High-speed rail arrived in the United Kingdom with the opening in 2003 of the first part of High Speed 1 between London and the Channel Tunnel. Most of the network in Britain consists of lines constructed during the Victorian era. The government report suggested that the line could be extended to reach Scotland, for the HS2 report, a route was investigated to an accuracy of 50 centimetres. In December 2009 HS2 presented its report to the government, the study investigated the possibility of links to Heathrow Airport and connections with Crossrail, the Great Western Main Line, and the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, as displayed in the map shown. On 11 March 2010 the HS2 report and supporting studies were published, the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition, on taking office in May 2010, undertook a review of HS2 plans inherited from the previous government. In March 2010 Theresa Villiers had stated The idea that kind of Wormwood Scrubs International station is the best rail solution for Heathrow is just not credible
28.
International business
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International business comprises all commercial transactions that take place between two or more regions, countries and nations beyond their political boundaries. Usually, private companies undertake transactions for profit, governments undertake them for profit, the term international business refers to all those business activities which involve cross-border transactions of goods, services, and resources between two or more nations. A multinational enterprise is a company that has an approach to markets. As shown, multinational enterprises can make business in different types of market, each of these factors may require changes in how individual business units operate from 1 country to the next. International business can be defined as the study of multinational companies, one of the first scholars to engage in developing a theory of multinational companies was Stephen Hymer. Throughout his academic life he developed theories that sought to explain foreign direct investment, There were three phases in Hymers work. The first phase was his dissertation in 1960 called the International Operations of National Firms, in this thesis, Hymer departs from neoclassical theory and opens up a new area of international production. At first Hymer started analyzing neoclassical theory and the financial investment wherein the main reason for capital movement is difference in interest rates, then he started analyzing the characteristics of foreign investment by large companies for production and direct business purposes, calling this Foreign Direct Investment. By analyzing the two types of investments Hymer distinguished financial investment from direct investment, the main distinguishing feature was control. Where in portfolio investment is a passive approach, and the main purpose is financial gain. So the traditional theory of investment based on differential interest rates does not explain the motivations for FDI, According to Hymer there are two main determinants of FDI wherein an imperfect market structure is the key element. The first is the specific advantages which are developed at the specific companies home country and, profitably. This paper includes theory of internationalization and explains the direction of growth of the expansion of firms. Hymer is the father of the theory of MNE, and explains the motivations for companies doing business abroad. Among modern economic theories of multinationals and foreign investment are internalization theory. Hymer and Dunning are considered founding fathers of international business as a specialist field of study, the conduct of international operations depends on a companys objectives and the means with which they carry them out. The operations affect and are affected by the physical and societal factors, merchandise imports, The import goods are the ones brought into a country. Service exports and imports are not product purchasing, services exports and imports can be divided into three most important categories Tourism and transportation, service performance, asset use
29.
Voyages SNCF
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Voyages-sncf. com is a subsidiary of the French SNCF selling passes and point-to-point tickets for rail travel around Europe. It has commercial links to major European rail operators including SNCF, Eurostar, Deutsche Bahn, and Thalys and it is the number one French electronic commerce website in volume. One quarter of French SNCF tickets are sold by this website, in 2013 the group expanded throughout Europe with 14 websites in 6 languages under the Voyages-sncf. com brand, incorporating the former Rail Europe Ltd. Rail Europe Continental and TGV Europe, the Voyages-sncf. com Group was founded as an Internet travel agency website in France in June 2000. Until 12 December 2013, Voyages-sncf. com in the UK was known as Rail Europe Ltd, in 1893, the Chemin de Fer du Nord became the first French private railway to be represented in the UK, establishing an office in Londons Victoria station. Almost 20 years later, the Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée opened an office at 179 Piccadilly, London. In 1937 France nationalised its rail network and the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français was created by the merger of the railway company with five other principal operators. SNCF created French Railways Ltd, incorporating the UK operations of its predecessors, in 1995 French Railways Ltd opened a larger public call centre in Leake Street in London, and two years later acquired British Rail International. SNCF subsequently merged French Railways Ltd and British Rail International to form Rail Europe Ltd, in February 2012, the Travel Centre moved to 193 Piccadilly, London W1. In December 2013 Rail Europe Ltd rebranded itself as part of the Voyages-sncf. com Group in the UK, in November 2015 the Voyages-sncf London Travel Centre closed, since then bookings can be made online, via a mobile app, or through the Voyages-sncf. com call centre. The North American, Australian and World websites however still use the Rail Europe brand, as well as selling and distributing tickets for SNCF and other European railways, until 2009 Rail Europe organised two chartered rail services in France. Operated by SNCF using standard French rolling stock, both services were aimed at the UK market and staffed by both French personnel and English-speaking Rail Europe representatives and this chartered service operated between December or January and April to transport passengers directly to the ski resorts of the French Alps. The train included a Bar/Disco coach, with lighting and DJ booth. This overnight service called at Chambéry, Albertville, Aime la Plagne and Landry, the return service departed from Bourg St Maurice on Saturday evenings, with passengers arriving by Eurostar in London or Ashford on Sunday morning. The Rail Europe Snowtrain was suspended in 2009 due to economic uncertainty, Motorail services carry cars and motorbikes using car transporters attached to the train. Operating from May to September, Rail Europes French Motorail service was aimed at travellers wishing to take their cars to the South of France and onwards with a minimum amount of driving. The train departed from Calais several times every week during the months, terminating at Nice. Unlike on the Motorail service, passengers may then travel on the same route with a Lunéa sleeping-car ticket or on a different train such as a daytime TGV
30.
Israel Railways
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Israel Railways corporation Ltd. dba Israel Railways is the state-owned principal railway company responsible for all inter-city, commuter, and freight rail transport in Israel. All its lines are standard gauge, the network is centered in Israels densely populated coastal plain, from which lines radiate out in many directions. The head office is located at the Tel Aviv Savidor Central Railway Station in Tel Aviv, until 1980, the head office was located at the Haifa Central Station. Tzvi Tzafriri, the manager of Israel Railways, decided to move the head office to Tel Aviv Savidor. In May 2009 Yediot Aharonot said that Israel Railways was planning to move the office to Lod. In response the company said this was necessary to centralize the offices around Israel, to use a more central location in the country. There are more than sixty-four stations on the Israel railways network, with almost all of the equipped with accessibility help for disabled, audio system, vending machines. Bicycles are permitted on board the train in designated coaches from Sunday to Thursday between 09, 00-15,00 and 19, 00-06,00, on Fridays bicycles are permitted at all hours while on Saturdays bicycles are not permitted at any time. Folding bicycles are allowed onto the train during all hours of operation, the bicycle is required to be folded prior to entering the premises of the station. Tricycles are illegal at all times, in Israel, smoking is prohibited in public enclosed places or commercial areas via several laws, particularly, since 1983, the Israel Clean Air Act. The law was amended in 2007 so that owners are held accountable for smoking in premises under their responsibility, the second means by which smoking is regulated in Israel is via the environmental hazard law, and via criminal law smoking may even be considered an assault. Although smoking in railway stations is allowed at designated zones of the station, the line will begin as an extension of the current railway to Ben Gurion Airport and Modiin, and will terminate in a new underground station beside the Jerusalem Central Bus Station. An additional proposal would connect Modiin to Jerusalem by connecting to the aforementioned line and this line will be fully electrified. In 2011 the reconstruction and expansion of the 60 kilometres long, formerly abandoned Jezreel Valley railway line connecting Haifa, there has been talk of further extending the line to Irbid, in Jordan, however no decision has yet been made on this matter. Another proposed extension under discussion would connect the reconstructed Jezreel Valley railway at Afula to Tiberias, on December 26,1963 two passenger trains on the then single-track main line linking Tel Aviv and Haifa collided head-on at Bet Yehoshua just south of Netanya. The northbound train had passed a red signal and its locomotive rode over, none of the coaches was derailed but a coupler broke in the northbound train detaching the rear three coaches. The continuous train brake should have then automatically stopped the detached coaches,55 people were injured but only three seriously enough to be detained in hospital. The two head-end crews survived but their locomotives, EMD G12s 105 and 118, were destroyed, HaBonim disaster, On June 11,1985 a train collided with a bus carrying school children, killing 19 children and 3 adults, near moshav HaBonim
31.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
32.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
33.
Channel Tunnel
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At its lowest point, it is 75 m deep below the sea bed, and 115 m below sea level. The speed limit for trains in the tunnel is 160 kilometres per hour, the tunnel carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, the Eurotunnel Shuttle for road vehicles—the largest such transport in the world—and international freight trains. The tunnel connects end-to-end with the LGV Nord and High Speed 1 high-speed railway lines, ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and press pressure over the compromising of national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. An early attempt at building a Channel Tunnel was made in the late 19th century, the eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994. At £5.5 billion, it was at the time the most expensive project ever proposed. The cost finally came in at £9 billion, well over its predicted budget, since its construction, the tunnel has faced several problems. Both fires and cold weather have temporarily disrupted its operation, illegal immigrants have attempted to use the tunnel to enter the UK, causing a minor diplomatic disagreement over the siting of the refugee camp at Sangatte, which was eventually closed in 2002. Migrants have also died attempting to cross through the tunnel, in 1839, Aimé Thomé de Gamond, a Frenchman, performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel, between Calais and Dover. In 1865, a deputation led by George Ward Hunt proposed the idea of a tunnel to the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the day, around 1866, William Low and Sir John Hawkshaw promoted ideas, but apart from preliminary geological studies none were implemented. An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a railway tunnel. On the English side a 2. 13-metre diameter Beaumont-English boring machine dug a 1, on the French side, a similar machine dug 1,669 m from Sangatte. The project was abandoned in May 1882, owing to British political and these early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project. The French did not take the idea seriously and nothing came of Lloyd Georges proposal, in 1929 there was another proposal but nothing came of this discussion and the idea was shelved. Proponents estimated construction to be about US$150 million, the engineers had addressed the concerns of both nations military leaders by designing two sumps—one near the coast of each country—that could be flooded at will to block the tunnel. This design feature did not override the concerns of both military leaders, and other concerns about hordes of undesirable tourists who would disrupt English habits of living. Military fears continued during World War II, the estimate caused rumours that Germany had already begun digging. In 1935, a British film from Gaumont Studios, The Tunnel and it referred briefly to its protagonist, a Mr. McAllan, as having completed a British Channel tunnel successfully in 1940, five years into the future of the films release. By 1955, defence arguments had become less relevant due to the dominance of air power, in 1958 the 1881 workings were cleared in preparation for a £100,000 geological survey by the Channel Tunnel Study Group
34.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
35.
Rolling stock
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The term rolling stock originally referred to any vehicles that move on a railway. It has since expanded to include the vehicles used by businesses on roadways. It usually includes both powered and unpowered vehicles, for locomotives, railroad cars, coaches, and wagons. Rolling stock is considered to be an asset, or close to it, since the value of the vehicle can be readily estimated. The term contrasts with fixed stock, which is a term for the track, signals, stations, other buildings, electric wires. In Great Britain, types of rolling stock were given code names and these codes were telegraphese, somewhat analogous to the SMS language of today. List of railway vehicles Great Western Railway telegraphic codes Great Western Railway wagons The dictionary definition of rolling stock at Wiktionary
36.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
37.
Amiens
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Amiens is a city and commune in northern France,120 km north of Paris and 100 km south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme department in Hauts-de-France, the city had a population of 136,105 according to the 2006 census. It has one of the biggest university hospitals in France with a capacity of 1,200 beds, Amiens Cathedral, the tallest of the large, classic, Gothic churches of the 13th century and the largest in France of its kind, is a World Heritage Site. The author Jules Verne lived in Amiens from 1871 until his death in 1905, during December, the town hosts the largest Christmas market in northern France. The first known settlement at this location was Samarobriva, the settlement of the Ambiani. The town was given the name Ambianum by the Romans, meaning settlement of the Ambiani people, the town has been much fought over, being attacked by barbarian tribes, and later by the Normans. In 1113 the city was recognized by King Louis VI of France, in 1597, Spanish soldiers held the city during the six-month Siege of Amiens, before Henry IV regained control. During the 18th and 19th century, the tradition of Amiens became famous for its velours. In 1789 the provinces of France were dismantled and the territory was organised into departments, much of Picardy became the newly created department of Somme, with Amiens as the departmental capital. During the industrial revolution the city walls were demolished, opening up space for large boulevards around the town centre, the Henriville neighbourhood in the south of the city was developed around this time. In 1848, the first railway arrived in Amiens, linking the city to Boulogne-sur-Mer, during the 1870 Battle of Amiens, when the Somme was invaded by Prussian forces, Amiens was occupied. The town was fought over during both the First and Second World Wars, suffering damage, and being occupied several times by both sides. The 1918 Battle of Amiens, was the phase of the Hundred Days Offensive. It was heavily bombed by the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, the city was rebuilt according to Pierre Dufaus plans, with a focus on widening the streets to ease traffic congestion. These newer structures were built of brick, concrete and white stone with slate roofs. The architect Auguste Perret designed the Gare dAmiens train station and nearby Tour Perret, Amiens, the regional prefecture of Picardy, is also the prefecture of the Somme, one of the three departments in the region. Located in the Paris Basin, across the country the city benefits from a geographical position. At the crossroads of major European routes of movement, the city is also at the heart of a major rail star
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Chemins de fer de l'Est
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The Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst, often referred to simply as the Est company, was an early French railway company. The company was formed in 1853 by fusion from Compagnie de Paris à Strasbourg, operating the Paris-Strasbourg line, in 1854 company absorbed Compagnie de Strasbourg à Bale and in 1863 the railway network of Ardennes. In 1938 it became part of the majority state-owned Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français. « Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst », in R. Demeur, Les chemins de fer français en 1860, Statuts des compagnies, notices historiques-situations financières,1860, p. 92-115. Jean-Pierre Rigouard, Paris-Strasbourg, de la Compagnie de lest au TGV, Mémoire en images, marc Ellenberger, La Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst et la guerre de 1914-1918, Ellenberger, Bures-sur-Yvette,1975. Joël Forthoffer, « Le transport ferroviaire de denrées périssables en Alsace, lexemple de la bière », Revue de lhistoire des chemins de fer de lAHICF, no 41,2010, the author reports on the transport of perishable goods by rail in Alsace in the 20th century. It traces the evolution of the market of la Compagnie des chemins de fer de lEst in 1852 to la Reichsbahn Elsass Lothringen
39.
Chemins de fer de l'Ouest
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The Compagnie des chemins de fer de lOuest, often referred to simply as LOuest or Ouest, was an early French railway company. The Compagnie de lOuest was created in 1855 by the merger of small railway companies active in the western outskirts of Paris, in Normandy. The line was 19 km long and the trip took 30 minutes, initially greeted with fear and lack of interest, the railway was a success that paved the way for other new railways, for instance to Rouen. In 1847, the line to Le Pecq was extended to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the section between Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Nanterre – Université is now part of the RER line A. The section between Paris Saint-Lazare and Nanterre is part of the lines to Rouen and Caen. While the line to Saint-Germain-en-Laye was being built, a line to Versailles, two lines were built, one from Gare Saint-Lazare to the terminus Versailles-Rive-Droite, the other from Gare Montparnasse to the terminus Versailles-Rive-Gauche. James Mayer de Rothschild in conjunction with the Chemin de Fer de Versailles-rive-Droite, the line to Versailles-Rive-Droite, opened on 4 August 1839 and still in use today as Transilien line L, is 19 km long, branching off the line to Saint-Germain at Asnières-sur-Seine. The line to Versailles-Rive-Gauche is also still in use today, the part between Montparnasse and Viroflay is used by trains from Paris to Chartres and Brittany as well as Transilien line N. The part between Viroflay and Versailles is used by RER C local trains, due to the lack of confidence in the second project, the first one was granted and the concession given to Charles Laffitte and Edouard Blount. Construction began in 1841 under the orders of engineer Joseph Locke, inauguration of the line was on 9 May 1843. It was an success, so much so that issues with the Chemin de Fer de Saint-Germain with platform allocation at Gare Saint-Lazare occurred. The network was expanded, To better use the Rive-Droite line. The line was declared of public utility in 1880 and the Chemins de fer de lOuest opened the line to lÉtang-la-Ville in 1884, a second line from Saint-Lazare to Mantes-la-Jolie was opened in 1892, following the right Seine bank. The new line started at Argenteuil, and passed Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, Triel, on a Sunday in May 1842 one of the worst accidents in French railway history happened near Meudon,164 victims, the 55 dead were burnt alive. After this incident the company no longer locked doors on passenger coaches, the only fatality was the wife of a newspaper vendor, filling in for her husband, who was killed by falling masonry from the wall. In 1881 there were 2064 railway related accidents,185 derailings,190 collisions,692 accidents on the line,512 passengers died in these accidents, 1/10 of those who died in accidents on stagecoaches. Lists of rail accidents LOuest built several stations within Paris, the two main terminals St Lazare and Montparnasse as well as Pont Cardinet at the beginning of the line to Auteuil, stations in large cities such as Le Havre, Lisieux, Deauville and Paris are unique. More modest halts were graced with type building, which are called type Ouest, according to the size of the town or village close to the proposed site for the station, a station of a certain size was built
40.
Chemins de fer du Nord
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The Chemins de Fer du Nord, often referred to simply as the Nord company, was a rail transport company created in September 1845, in Paris, France. It was owned by among others de Rothschild Frères of France, N M Rothschild & Sons of London, England, Hottinger, Laffitte, Baron James de Rothschild served as the companys first president from its inception until his death in 1868. Lille and Valenciennes had already connected to the Belgian railway network in 1842. The new line made it possible to travel by train from Paris to Brussels, by opening a line to from Paris to Hirson via Soissons and Laon from 1860 to 1871, it protected its eastern border against CF de lEst expansion. The concession for the line from Creil to Beauvais, owned by CF de lEst predecessor Chemins de fer des Ardennes, was exchanged for the Nords concession for Laon–Reims in 1855. In 1937 the CF du Nord was nationalised, as were the main railway companies. In 1926 started regular connection of the passenger train from London to Paris. For transport of passengers baggage four containers were used and these containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and “CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL” in France. In 1855 Baron Rothschild commissioned photographer Edouard Baldus to do a series of photographs of the landmarks on the railway line between Boulogne-sur-Mer and Paris. The photographs were used to create an album for Queen Victoria, the album can be seen today in the photographic collection in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle
41.
French resistance
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The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
42.
French Resistance
–
The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
