SPQR

SPQR (Latin: Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, "The Roman Senate and People", or more freely as "The Senate and People of Rome"; Classical Latin: [sɛˈnaː.tʊs pɔpʊˈlʊs.kᶣɛ roːˈmaː.nʊs]) refers to the government of the ancient Roman Republic. It appears on Roman currency, at the end of documents made public by inscription in stone or metal, and in dedications of monuments and public works.

The phrase commonly appears in the Roman political, legal, and historical literature, such as the speeches of Cicero and Ab Urbe Condita Libri ("Books from the Founding of the City") of Livy.

Translation[edit]

SPQR: Senātus Populusque Rōmānus. In Latin, Senātus is a nominative singular noun meaning "Senate". Populus que is compounded from the nominative noun Populus, "the People", and -que, an enclitic particle meaning "and" which connects the two nominative nouns; the last word, Rōmānus ("Roman") is an adjective modifying the whole of Senātus Populusque: the "Roman Senate and People", taken as a whole. Thus, the phrase is translated literally as "The Roman Senate and People", or more freely as "The Senate and People of Rome".^{[citation needed]}

Historical context[edit]

The title's date of establishment is unknown, but it first appears in inscriptions of the Late Republic, from c. 80 BC onwards. Previously, the official name of the Roman state, as evidenced on coins, was simply ROMA; the abbreviation last appears on coins of Constantine the Great (ruled 312–337 AD), the first Roman emperor to support Christianity.^{[citation needed]}

The two legal entities mentioned, Senātus and the Populus Rōmānus, are sovereign when combined. However, where populus is sovereign alone, Senātus is not. Under the Roman Kingdom, neither entity was sovereign; the phrase, therefore, can be dated to no earlier than the foundation of the Republic.^{[citation needed]}

This signature continued in use under the Roman Empire; the emperors were considered the de jure representatives of the people even though the senātūs consulta, or decrees of the Senate, were made at the de facto pleasure of the emperor.^{[citation needed]}

Populus Rōmānus in Roman literature is a phrase meaning the government of the People; when the Romans named governments of other countries, they used populus in the singular or plural, such as populī Prīscōrum Latīnōrum, "the governments of the Old Latins". Rōmānus is the established adjective used to distinguish the Romans, as in cīvis Rōmānus, "Roman citizen".^{[citation needed]}

The Roman people appear very often in law and history in such phrases as dignitās, maiestās, auctoritās, lībertās populī Rōmānī, the "dignity, majesty, authority, freedom of the Roman people", they were a populus līber, "a free people". There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honorēs, consulēs, voluntās of this same populus: "the army, rule, judgments, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people", they appear in early Latin as Popolus and Poplus, so the habit of thinking of themselves as free and sovereign was quite ingrained.^{[citation needed]}

The Romans believed that all authority came from the people, it could be said that similar language seen in more modern political and social revolutions directly comes from this usage. People in this sense meant the whole government; the latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriāta, "committee of the centuries", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes.^{[citation needed]}

One of the ways the emperor Commodus (180–192) paid for his donatives and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...).^{[citation needed]}

Beginning in 1184, the Commune of Rome struck coins in the name of the SENATVS P Q R. From 1414 until 1517, the Roman Senate struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQR.^[1]

During the regime of Benito Mussolini, SPQR was emblazoned on a number of public buildings and manhole covers in an attempt to promote his dictatorship as a "New Roman Empire".^{[citation needed]}

Modern use[edit]

Even in contemporary usage, SPQR is still used as the municipal symbol of the city of Rome.^{[citation needed]}

Civic references[edit]

A modern recreation of a Roman standard.

SPQH - Hamburg Rathaus

SPQx is sometimes used as an assertion of municipal pride and civic rights; the Italian town of Reggio Emilia, for instance, has SPQR in its coat of arms, standing for "Senatus Populusque Regiensis". There have been confirmed usages and reports of the deployment of the "SPQx" template in;

Alkmaar, Netherlands, SPQA on the facade of the Waag building, now cheese museum.
Amsterdam, Netherlands, SPQA at one of the major theatres and some of the bridges^[2]
Antwerp, Belgium, SPQA on the Antwerp City Hall^[3]
Basel, Switzerland, SPQB on the Webern-Brunnen in Steinenvorstadt^[4]
Benevento, Italy, SPQB on manhole covers^[5]
Bremen, Germany, SPQB in the Bremen City Hall^[6]
Bruges, Belgium, SPQB on its coat of arms^[7]
Brussels, Belgium, SPQB found repeatedly on the Palais de Justice,^[8] and over the main stage of La Monnaie
Capua, Italy, SPQC
Catania, Italy, SPQC can be found on manhole covers
Dublin, Ireland, SPQH on the City Hall, built in 1769
Florence, Italy, SPQF^[5]
Franeker, Netherlands, SPQF, At the a gate on the Westerbolwerk and Academiestraat 16.^[9]
Freising, Germany, SPQF, above the door of the town hall.
Ghent, Belgium, SPQG on the Opera, Theater and some other major buildings. In 1583, during the Dutch Revolt, Ghent struck coins with a shield inscribed SPQG.^[10]
The Hague, Netherlands, SPQL above the stage in Koninklijke Schouwburg
Hamburg, Germany, SPQH on a door in the Hamburg Rathaus^[11]
Hanover, Germany
Haarlem, the Netherlands, SPQH on the face of the town hall at the "Grote Markt"
Hasselt, Belgium, SPQH
Kortrijk, Belgium, SPQC, city hall
Lazio, Italy, SPQS, coat of arms and flag (the second "S" stands for "Sabinus", referring to the Sabines)
La Plata, Argentina, SPQR in a monument outside of the city's "casco urbano".
Leeuwarden, Netherlands, SPQL on the mayor's chain of office^[12]
Liverpool, England, SPQL on various gold doors in St George's Hall^[13]
City of London, England, SPQL^[14]^[15]
Lübeck, Germany, SPQL on the Holstentor^[16]
Lucerne, Switzerland
Milan, Italy, The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V struck coins at Milan with the inscription S P Q MEDIOL OPTIMO PRINCIPI.^[17]
Modica, Italy, SPQM is on the coat of arms
Molfetta, Italy, SPQM is on the coat of arms^[18]
Naples, Italy, Coins struck during Masaniello’s 1647 revolt showed a shield inscribed SPQN.^[19]
Nuremberg, Germany, SPQN ("Norimbergensis") on the Fleisch Bridge (one of the major bridges over river Pegnitz in the inner city)
Oudenburg, Belgium, SPQO (Senatus Populusque Odenburgensis) on its water pump next to the market square.^[20]
Olomouc, Czech Republic, SPQO on its coat of arms^[5]
Palermo, Italy, SPQP^[21]
Penne, Abruzzo, Italy, SPQP^[21]
Rotterdam, the Netherlands, SPQR on a wallpainting in the Rotterdam City Hall [nl]
Siena, Italy, SPQS^[22]
Solothurn, Switzerland, SPQS on the Cathedral of St Ursus and Victor
Terracina, Italy, SPQT^[23]
Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, SPQT^[24]
Valencia, Spain, SPQV in several places and buildings, including the Silk Exchange^[25] and the University of Valencia^[26] Historic Building.
Verviers, Belgium, SPQV on the Grand Theatre^[27]
Vienna, Austria^[5]

Use by white supremacists[edit]

Some members of white supremacist groups have been using the acronym SPQR on flags, on their person (such as tattoos) and other forms of identification;^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] the movement's enthusiasm for other symbols of republican Rome, such as the axe and bundled rods known as fasces, is documented, as well as their interest in some aspects of republican and imperial Rome.^[32] That use was discussed on Stormfront's bulletin boards and was noticed at white supremacist demonstrations.^[29] White supremacists tend to associate "SPQR" with the militaristic ethos of the Roman legions. There is in fact no evidence that the initialism appeared regularly on Roman military insignia and equipment, but it was heavily used by Mussolini's fascist regime.^[30]

Popular culture[edit]

In the early twentieth century, the letters "SPQR" could sometimes be seen displayed on London market traders' stalls, meaning "Small Profits, Quick Returns".^[33]

MPQN, standing for Metallica Populusque Nimus, appears on the cover of the Metallica live DVD Français Pour une Nuit, which was recorded in the Arena of Nîmes, a remodelled Roman amphiteatre.^[34]

The Italians have long used a different and humorous expansion of this acronym, "Sono Pazzi Questi Romani" (literally: "They're crazy, these Romans").^[35] In the Asterix and Obelix comics, Obelix often uses the French translation of this phrase, "Ils sont fous ces Romains", and in the Italian editions, the original phrase is used.^[36]

S.P.Q.R. Records was an American popular music record label, a subsidiary of Legrand Records, which flourished in the 1960s and included Gary U.S. Bonds among its artists. The label was founded by Frank Guida, who is believed to have adopted the name in allusion to his Italian origins.^[37]

The football team A.S. Roma wore special edition shirts with SPQR on the chest for their match against city rivals S.S. Lazio on 29 April 2017.^[38]

S.P.Q.R. is the fourth song on the critically acclaimed experimental rock album Deceit by This Heat. The song talks about atomic destruction and human morals using symbols of Rome.^[39]

In The Heroes of Olympus written by Rick Riordan, the Roman Camp Jupiter tattoos SPQR on legionnaires' arms.

Gallery[edit]

The inscription in the Arch of Titus
Manhole cover in Rome with SPQR inscription
SPQR in the coat of arms of Reggio Emilia
Detail from the mosaic floor in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan
"Superiority of the warrior class. State 2." Etching by Wenceslaus Hollar, (University of Toronto)
Arch of Septimius Severus top inscription
Dedicatory plaque to Federico Fellini on Via Veneto
Mural in the Burgerzaal of Rotterdam City Hall [nl]