1.
New York Shipbuilding Corporation
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At its peak during World War II, NYSB was the largest and most productive shipyard in the world. It was founded in 1899 by Henry G. Morse, a noted in connection with bridge design and construction. The original plan was to build a shipyard on Staten Island, site selection specifically considered the needs of the planned application of bridge building practices of prefabrication and assembly line production of ships in covered ways. Construction of the plant began in July 1899 and was so rapid that the keel of the first ship was laid November 1900. That ship, contract number 1, was M. S. Dollar, later to be modified as an oil tanker and renamed J. M. Guffey. Two of the first contracts were for ships that were among the largest then being built in the United States, #5 for Mongolia. Morse died after securing contracts for 20 ships and he was followed as president by De Coursey May. R. Grace & Company and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, New York Ships unusual covered ways produced everything from aircraft carriers, battleships, and luxury liners to barges and car floats. During World War I, New York Ship expanded rapidly to fill orders from the U. S. Navy and the Emergency Fleet Corporation. A critical shortage of housing led to the construction of Yorkship Village. Yorkship Village is now the Fairview section of the City of Camden, after World War II, a much-diminished New York Ship subsisted on a trickle of contracts from the United States Maritime Administration and the U. S. Navy. The yard launched its last civilian vessel in 1960, and its last naval vessel, the companys final completed submarine was USS Guardfish, which had been ordered in the early 1960s, but construction was halted from 1963 to 1965 because of the loss of the USS Thresher. Guardfish was commissioned in December 1967, in 1968, lacking new naval orders, NYS went bankrupt. USS Pogy, then under construction, was towed to Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi, the yards site is now part of the Port of Camden, and handles breakbulk cargo. Ships built by New York Ship include, Oil tankers Gulflight launched 1914, center of a diplomatic incident when torpedoed in World War I
2.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
3.
Independence-class aircraft carrier
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The Independence-class aircraft carriers were a class of light carriers built for the United States Navy that served during World War II. Adapted from the design for Cleveland-class light cruisers, this class of ship resulted from the interest of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in naval air power. With war looming, the former Assistant Secretary of the Navy noted no new aircraft carriers were expected to be completed before 1944. He proposed to some of the many cruisers then under construction to carriers. Undeterred, President Roosevelt ordered another study, on 25 October 1941, the Navys Bureau of Ships reported that aircraft carriers converted from cruiser hulls would be of lesser capability, but available much sooner. After the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the need for more carriers became urgent, the Navy accelerated construction of the 34,000 ton Essex-class aircraft carriers, but these large ships could not be finished quickly. So in January 1942, the Navy also ordered that a Cleveland-class light cruiser then under construction be completed instead as an aircraft carrier. It became the USS Belleau Wood, the first ship of the Independence-class, plans developed for this conversion showed much more promise than expected. Two more light cruisers were reordered as carriers in February, three more in March, and a three in June 1942. The Independence-class design had a short and narrow flight deck and hangar. The hangar, flight deck, and island represented a significant increase in the topside weight. To compensate for this, blisters were added to the original cruiser hull, Ships of this class carried a small air group - only about 30 aircraft. This was originally set to consist of nine fighters, nine bombers, and nine torpedo bombers. These were limited-capability ships, whose principal virtue was near-term availability and their limited size made for seakeeping difficulties in the many typhoons of the Pacific, and their small flight decks led to a relatively high aircraft accident rate. However, being based on a cruiser, they were fast ships. The cruiser hull and engineering allowed them the necessary to operate with the main fleet carrier task groups. Their names followed the US Navys policy of naming aircraft carriers after historic navy ships or historic battles, eight of these carriers participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, which effectively ended Japans carrier air power. The light carriers provided 40 percent of the Fast Carrier Task Forces fighters and 36 percent of the torpedo bombers
4.
Light aircraft carrier
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A light aircraft carrier, or light fleet carrier, is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy. The precise definition of the type varies by country, light carriers typically have a complement of aircraft only one-half to two-thirds the size of a fleet carrier. In World War II, the United States Navy produced a number of light carriers by converting cruiser hulls. The Independence-class ships, however, had the virtue of being available at a time when available carrier decks had been reduced to Enterprise and Saratoga in the Pacific, in addition, unlike escort carriers, they had enough speed to take part in fleet actions with the larger carriers. Late in the war, a follow on design to the Independence-class, two vessels in this class—Saipan and Wright—were completed after the wars end. After very brief lives as carriers, the Saipans were converted to command, the British 1942 design light fleet carrier was a scaled-down version of their Illustrious-class fleet carrier. The design could be built in a yard with little or no experience of warship construction, although built to merchant standards, the design incorporated better watertight subdivision. Expected to have a lifetime of three years, the last of the design was taken out of service in 2001. The first eight were built as the Colossus but revisions upgrading the design to larger and heavier aircraft led to the remainder being the Majestic class. In the post-war period, the Royal Navy operated a force of ten Colossus class carriers including the two maintenance carriers, by 1939 HMS Hermes was being considered as equivalent to a light aircraft carrier, due to her small size and lack of armour. Currently five light carriers are in service. The newest light carriers are the Italian Cavour and the Spanish Juan Carlos I, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present. Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II
5.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
6.
Bofors 40 mm gun
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The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
7.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
8.
Grumman F6F Hellcat
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The Grumman F6F Hellcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft of World War II. Designed to replace the earlier F4F Wildcat and to counter the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Hellcat competed with the faster Vought F4U Corsair for that role and prevailed, as the Corsair had significant issues with carrier landings. The Corsair instead was primarily deployed to great effect in land-based use by the U. S. Marine Corps, some military observers tagged the Hellcat as the Wildcats big brother. 12,275 were built in just over two years, Hellcats were credited with destroying a total of 5,223 enemy aircraft while in service with the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm. This was more than any other Allied naval aircraft, postwar, the Hellcat was phased out of front line service but remained in service as late as 1954 as a night fighter. Grumman had been working on a successor to the F4F Wildcat since 1938, the aircraft was originally designed to use the Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone two-row, 14-cylinder radial engine of 1,700 hp driving a three-bladed Curtiss Electric propeller. In addition, the forward fuselage sloped down slightly to the cowling, affording the Hellcats pilot good visibility. Grumman complied by redesigning and strengthening the F6F airframe to incorporate the 2,000 hp R-2800-10, with this combination Grumman estimated the XF6F-3s performance would increase by 25% over that of the XF6F-1. The Cyclone-powered XF6F-1 first flew on 26 June 1942, followed by the first Double Wasp-equipped aircraft, the XF6F-3, the first production F6F-3, powered by an R-2800-10, flew on 3 October 1942, with the type reaching operational readiness with VF-9 on USS Essex in February 1943. The F6F series were designed to damage and get the pilot safely back to base. A bullet-resistant windshield and a total of 212 lb of armor was fitted, along with armor around the oil tank. A250 gal self-sealing fuel tank was fitted in the fuselage, Standard armament on the F6F-3 consisted of six.50 in M2/AN Browning air-cooled machine guns with 400 rounds per gun. Six 5 in HVARs could be carried, three under each wing on zero-length launchers, Hellcat night fighters claimed their first victories in November 1943. A total of 4,402 F6F-3s were built through until April 1944, in addition, the rear fuselage and tail units were strengthened, and, apart from some early production aircraft, the majority of the F6F-5s built were painted in an overall gloss sea blue finish. After the first few F6F-5s were built, the windows behind the main canopy were deleted. The F6F-5N night fighter variant was fitted with an AN/APS-6 radar in a fairing on the outer-starboard wing, a small number of standard F6F-5s were also fitted with camera equipment for reconnaissance duties as the F6F-5P. The F6F-5 was the most common F6F variant, with 7,870 being built, other prototypes in the F6F series included the XF6F-4 which first flew on 3 October 1942 as the prototype for the projected F6F-4. This version never entered production and 02981 was converted to an F6F-3 production aircraft, the turbochargers proved to be unreliable on both engines, while performance improvements were marginal
9.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
10.
Curtiss SB2C Helldiver
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The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver was a carrier-based dive bomber aircraft produced for the United States Navy during World War II. It replaced the Douglas SBD Dauntless in US Navy service, the SB2C was much faster than the SBD it replaced. Crew nicknames for the aircraft included the Big-Tailed Beast, Two-Cee, neither pilots nor aircraft carrier captains seemed to like it. Delays marred its production—by the time the A-25 Shrike variant for the USAAF was deployed in late 1943, poor handling of the aircraft was another factor that hampered its service introductions, both the British Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force cancelled substantial orders. The Truman Committee investigated Helldiver production and turned in a scathing report, problems with the Helldiver were eventually ironed out, and in spite of its early problems, the aircraft was flown through the last two years of the Pacific War with a fine combat record. The Helldiver was developed to replace the Douglas SBD Dauntless and it was a much larger aircraft, able to operate from the latest aircraft carriers and carry a considerable array of armament. It featured a bomb bay that reduced drag when carrying heavy ordnance. Saddled with demanding requirements set forth by both the U. S, Marines and United States Army Air Forces, the manufacturer incorporated features of a multi-role aircraft into the design. In 1939, a student brought a model of the new Curtiss XSB2C-1 to the MIT wind tunnel, professor Emeritus of Aeronautical Engineering Otto C. Koppen was quoted as saying, if they build more than one of these and he was referring to controllability issues with the small vertical tail. The first prototype made its flight on 18 December 1940. It crashed on 8 February 1941 when its engine failed on approach, the fuselage was lengthened and a larger tail was fitted, while an autopilot was fitted to help the poor stability. The revised prototype flew again on 20 October 1941, but was destroyed when its wing failed during diving tests on 21 December 1941, large-scale production had already been ordered on 29 November 1940, but a large number of modifications were specified for the production model. The SB2C-2 was built with fuel tanks, improving its range considerably. The program suffered so many delays that the Grumman TBF Avenger entered service before the Helldiver, a total of 7,140 SB2Cs were produced in World War II. The first version of the SB2C-1 was kept stateside for training, the first deployment model was the SB2C-1C. The SB2C-1 could deploy slats mechanically linked with landing gear actuators, the early prognosis of the Beast was unfavourable, it was strongly disliked by aircrews due to its size, weight, and reduced range compared to the SBD it replaced. In the Battle of the Philippine Sea,45 Helldivers were lost because they ran out of returning to their carriers
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United States Navy